The main factors which influence marketing research in different countries are;

1. Cultural differences. Culture refers to widely shared norms or patterns of

behavior of a large group of people. It is the values, attitudes, beliefs,
artifacts, and other meaningful symbols represented in the pattern of life
adopted by people that help them interpret, evaluate and communicate as
members of society. A company that works on the international market is
in need of cross-cultural awareness. Cross-cultural
differences (language, non-verbal communication, different norms, and
values) may cause cross-cultural blunders. There are examples of cultural
blunders in the marketing mix.

 Product. When a soft drink was launched in Arab countries, it has a

label with six-pointed stars. The sales were very low as the stars were
associated with Israel.

 Price. An American firm was willing to set a reasonable price for the
product they intended to sell to the Japanese. A detailed
presentation was made to the Japanese businessmen, but it was
followed by a deep silence. The Americans thought that the Japanese
were going to reject the price and offered a lower price. The
Japanese kept silent again. After that, the Americans lowered the
price again saying that it was the lowest they could sell at. After a
brief silence, the offer was accepted. Later the Japanese confessed
that the first offered price was quite acceptable, but they had a
tradition to think over the offer silently. An American company
suffered great losses in this case.

 Place. A company wanted to enter the Spanish market with two-liter

drink bottles and failed. Soon they found out that Spaniards prefer
small door fridges and they could not put large bottles into them.

 Promotion. Pepsico came to Taiwan with the ad ‘Come Alive with

Pepsi’. They could not imagine that is it translated ‘Pepsi will bring
your relatives back from the dead’ into Chinese.
2. Racial Differences. This refers to the differences in the physical features of
people in different countries. For example, types of hair cut and cosmetic
products differ greatly in various countries.

3. Climatic Differences. These are the meteorological conditions such as

temperature range or degree of rain. For example, Bosch-Siemens adapted
their washing machines to the markets they sell. In Scandinavia, where
there are very few sunny days, they sell washing machines with a minimum
spin cycle of 1,000 rpm and a maximum of 1,600 rpm, whereas in Italy and
Spain a spin cycle of 500 rpm is enough.

4. Economic Differences. Economic development of various countries is

different and when a company introduces a new product it adapts it to that
new market. There are factors that show the level of economic
development.

5. Buying power and revenue of the market. In developed countries with

higher income of revenue, people prefer complicated products with
advanced functions, while in poor countries simple products are preferable.

6. The infrastructure of the market. Such elements of the infrastructure of

the country as transport, communication system, and others influence the
product. When Suzuki entering the Indian market the suspension was
reinforced as the state of roads in India is very poor.

7. Religious Differences. Religion affects the product greatly and makes

companies adapt their product to religious norms. If a company exports
grocery products to Islamic countries it must have a special certificate
indicating that the animal was slaughtered according to ‘Halal’ methods.

8. Historical Differences. Historical differences affect consumer behavior. For

instance, Scotch whiskey is considered fashionable in Italy and not very
trendy in Scotland.

9. Language Differences. The correct translation and language adaptation is

very important. For example, when Proctor & Gamble entered the Polish
 markets it translated properly its labels but failed. Later they found out that
imperfect language must have been used in order to show that the
company fits in.

Besides the differences mentioned above, there may be differences in the way
that products or services are used, differences in the criteria for assessing
products or services across various markets, and differences in market research
facilities and capabilities.

International Marketing Research Categories

International marketing research is the systematic design, collection, recording,

analysis, interpretation, and reporting of information pertinent to a particular
marketing decision facing a company operating internationally. International
marketing managers need to constantly monitor the different forces affecting
their international operations.

There are three general categories of research based on the type of information
required.

1. Exploratory research deals with discovering the general nature of the

problem and the variables that relate to it. Exploratory research is
characterized by a high degree of flexibility, and it tends to rely on
secondary data, convenience or judgment samples, small-scale surveys or
simple experiments, case analyses, and subjective evaluation of the results.

2. Descriptive research is focused on the accurate description of the variables

in the problem model. Consumer profile studies, market-potential studies,
product-usage studies, attitude surveys, sales analyses, media research,
and price surveys are examples of descriptive research. Any source of
information can be used in a descriptive study, although most studies of
this nature rely heavily on secondary data sources and survey research.

3. Causal research attempts to specify the nature of the functional

relationship between two or more variables in the problem model. For
 example, studies on the effectiveness of advertising generally attempt to
discover the extent to which advertising causes sales or attitude change.

There are three types of evidence to make inferences about causation: (1)
concomitant variation, (2) sequence of occurrence, and (3) absence of other
potential causal factors.

Concomitant variation, or invariant association, is a common basis for ascribing

cause. For example, advertising expenditures vary across a number of geographic
areas and measure sales in each area. To the extent that high sales occur in areas
with large advertising expenditures and low sales occur in areas with limited
advertising expenditures, it is inferred that advertising is a cause of sales. It must
be stressed that this has been only inferred, it is not proved that increased
advertising causes increased sales.

The sequence of occurrence can also provide evidence of causation. For one
event to cause another, it must always precede it. An event that occurs after
another event cannot be said to cause the first event. The importance of
sequence can be demonstrated in the last example of advertising causing sales. It
is supposed that further investigation showed that the advertising allocation to
the geographic regions had been based on the last period’s sales such that the
level of advertising was directly related to past sales. Suddenly, the nature of our
causal relationship is reversed. Now, because of the sequence of events, it can be
inferred that changes in sales levels cause changes in advertising levels.

A final type of evidence that is used to infer causality is the absence of other
potential causal factors. That is, if one could logically or through our research
design eliminate all possible causative factors except the one he/she is interested
in, he/she would have established that the variable he/she is concerned with was
the causative factor. Unfortunately, it is never possible to control completely or to
eliminate all possible causes for any particular event. Always there is a possibility
that some factor of which one is not aware has influenced the results. However, if
all reasonable alternatives are eliminated except one, one can have a high degree
of confidence in the remaining variable.
Steps of International Marketing Research Process

The international marketing research process, as well as the domestic one, is a

series of separate steps. However, the international marketing research process
has some peculiarities such as the national differences between countries arising
out of political, legal, economic, social, and cultural differences and, the
comparability of research results due to these differences.

Step 1. Research Problem Definition

Problem definition is the most critical part of the research process. Research
problem definition involves specifying the information needed by management.
Unless the problem is properly defined, the information produced by the research
process is unlikely to have any value.

Step 2. Information Value Estimation

Information has value only to the extent that it improves decisions. The value of
information increases as;

1. the cost of wrong decision increases,

2. our level of knowledge as to the correct decision decreases, and

3. the accuracy of the information the research will provide increases.

The principle involved in deciding whether to do more research is that research

should be conducted only when the value of the information to be obtained is
expected to be greater than the cost of obtaining it.

Step 3. Selection of the Data Collection Approach

There are three basic data collection approaches in international marketing

research: (1) secondary data, (2) survey data, and (3) experimental data.
Secondary data were collected for other purposes than helping to solve the
current problem. Primary data are collected expressly to help solve the problem
at hand. Survey and experimental data are therefore secondary data if they were
collected earlier for another study; they are primary data if they were collected
for the present one. Secondary data are virtually always collected first because of
their time and cost advantages.

Step 4. Measurement Technique Selection

Four basic measurement techniques are used in marketing research:

(1) questionnaires, (2) attitude scales, (3) observation, and (4) depth interviews
and projects techniques. As with selecting the data collection method, the
selection of a measurement technique is influenced primarily by the nature of the
information required and secondarily by the value of the information.

Step 5. Sample Selection

Most marketing studies involve a sample or subgroup of the total population

relevant to the problem, rather than a census of the entire group. The population
is generally specified as a part of the problem definition process.

Step 6. Selection of Methods of Analyses

Data are useful only after analysis. Data analysis involves converting a series of
recorded observations into descriptive statements and/or inferences about
relationships. The types of analyses, which can be conducted, depending on the
nature of the sampling process, measurement instrument, and the data collection
method.

Step 7. Evaluation of the Ethics of the Research

It is essential that marketing researchers restrict their research activities to

practices that are ethically sound. Ethically sound research considers the interests
of the general public, the respondents, the client, and the research profession as
well as those of the researcher.

Step 8. Estimation of Time and Financial Requirements

Time refers to the time needed to complete the project. The financial
requirement is the monetary representation of personnel time, computer time,
and materials requirements. The time and finance requirements are not
independent.
Step 9. Preparation of Research Proposal

The research design process provides the researcher with a blueprint, or guide,
for conducting and controlling the research project. This blueprint is written in the
form of a research proposal. A written research proposal should precede any
research project. The research proposal helps ensure that the decision-maker and
the researcher are still in agreement on the basic management problem, the
information required, and the research approach.

The Nature of International Secondary Data

Secondary data for international marketing decisions are subject to some

disadvantages. Unfortunately, many of the disadvantages are multiplied when the
data involve more countries. An additional problem is that most secondary data
are available only in the host country’s language. Thus, multi-country searches
require utilizing specializing firms or maintaining a multilingual staff.

Data availability, recency, accessibility, and accuracy vary widely from country to
country. Until recently, there were few commercial databases in Japan because of
the difficulty of using Japanese characters on computers. Now the problem is
resolved. The Japanese government prepares many potentially useful reports, but
even Japanese firms seldom use them because they are poorly organized and
indexed. Secondary data in many non-democracies often reflect political interests
more closely than reality. In general, the amount of secondary data available in a
country varies directly with its level of economic development.

Even when accurate data are accessible, it may not be possible to make
multinational comparisons. Data from several countries may not be comparable
because the data were collected at different times, use different units of
measurement, cover slightly different topics, or define the classes (such as age
groups) differently. This has become a major problem in the European
Community as firms begin to analyze the market as a whole rather than as a
collection of individual countries. To resolve part of the problem, ESOMAR has
proposed a standardized set of questions to gather demographic data in both
government and private surveys. Similar work is underway in Brazil, India, and the
Middle East.

Internal Sources of International Secondary Data

The internal sources of data for international decisions can be classified into four
broad categories – accounting records, salesforce reports, miscellaneous records,
and internal experts. However, utilizing international internal data can be difficult.
Different accounting systems, decentralized (often on a country basis)
management and information systems, sales forces organized by country or
region, and so forth, all increase the difficulty of acquiring and using internal data
in a timely manner. To deal with these problems global firms implement
international information systems and require some standardization across
countries in terms of internal recordkeeping and reporting.

External Sources of International Secondary Data

For example, when a company starts an external search for international

secondary data it consults general guides to this type of data, such as the
International Marketing Handbook of the US Department of Commerce’s
International Trade Administration, The World of Information (Africa Guide), or it
contacts Euromonitor, the leading provider of world business information and
market analysis. An alternative to conducting such a search “in-house” is to use a
specialist firm such as PricewaterhouseCoopers and McKinsey.

a) Databases

Both ABI (Abstract Business Information)/Inform, which contains 150-word

abstracts of articles published in about 1,300 business publications worldwide,
and Predicasts, which provides 11 online databases, have significant international
content in their bibliographic databases. Predicasts coverage is particularly good
and it is growing rapidly. In fact, half its information is on companies and
industries from outside the U.S. Its major bibliographic database, PROMPT,
contains material from all over the world. Both Infomat International Business
and Worldcasts are focused on companies, products, industries, economies, and
so forth outside the U.S. Predicasts also have separate F&S Indexes for Europe
and for the rest of the world excluding Europe and the U.S. A major advantage of
these abstracts is that they are all in English. Copies of the entire article are gen-
erally available in the original language.

b) Foreign Government Sources

All developed countries provide census-type data on their populations. However,

the frequency of data collection and the type and amount of data collected vary
widely from country to country. Germany went 17 years between its last two
censuses, and Holland has not conducted a census in 20 years. The U.S. collects
income data in its census and marketers make extensive use of it. Most other
nations, including Japan, Britain, France, Spain, and Italy, do not. (Australia,
Mexico, Sweden, and Finland do.) While the Scandinavian countries, Japan, South
Korea, Taiwan, and Thailand publish English-language versions of their main
census reports, most countries report them only in their home language.

c) International Political Organizations

Three major international political organizations provide significant amounts of

data relevant to international marketing activities. The United Nations and its
related organization, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization, provide hundreds of publications dealing with the population,
economic, and social conditions of over 200 countries.

The World Bank lends funds, provides advice, and serves as a catalyst to stimulate
investments in developing nations. To carry out its missions, it collects substantial
amounts of useful data which can be purchased inexpensively.

The Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) consists of

24 economically developed countries with the mission of promoting the
members’ economic and social welfare by coordinating national policies. As part
of this mission, it publishes reports on a broad range of socio-economic topics
involving its members and the developing nations.

Issues in International Primary Data Collection

Primary data are the data collected to help solve a problem or take advantage of
an opportunity on which a decision is pending.

The main advantage of primary data lies in the fact that it is collected for solving
the exact problem and that is why it is characterized by high usefulness and
novelty. The disadvantage is that the costs of collecting primary data are much
higher in foreign developing markets as there is a lack of an appropriate
marketing research infrastructure.

The international primary data is collected with the help of qualitative and
quantitative research approaches. Qualitative research is particularly used as a
first step in studying international marketing phenomena (focus groups,
observation). However, the main constraint is that responses can be affected by
culture as individuals may act differently if they know they are being observed.

Quantitative researches are more structured. They involve both descriptive

research approaches, such as survey research, and causal research approaches,
such as experiments. More respondents take part in quantitative research,
although it highlights fewer problems than qualitative research.

International marketing research in a cross-cultural environment requires the

measurement of behaviors and attitudes. A major issue in primary data collection
is the existence of the so-called EMIC vs. ETIC dilemma. The EMIC school states
that attitudinal and behavioral phenomena are unique to a culture. The ETIC
school is primarily concerned with identifying and assessing universal attitudinal
and behavioral concepts and developing pan-cultural or culture-free measures.

Survey Methods of International Marketing Research

The techniques of data collection used in international marketing research have

both advantages and disadvantages.

1. Personal interviews are considered to be the most popular method of data

collection in international marketing research. However, there are several
constraints to the usage of this technique. In Middle East countries,
personal interviews are treated with great suspicion. Moreover, the
 personnel for the survey should be male and they may conduct interviews
with housewives only when their husbands are at home. In Latin American
countries, where the tax protest movement is being developed, the
interviews are thought to be tax inspectors.

2. Mall intercept surveys may be used in the United States, Canada, and
European countries. As far as the developing countries are concerned they
are not common.

3. Telephone interviews have several advantages over other survey methods

of international marketing research. The time and costs of international
telephone calls are reducing, the surveys may be conducted from one
place, the results of telephone interviews are considered reliable and it is
easier to perform the client and interviewer control. But telephone surveys
also have some limitations because of poor telecommunication systems in
several countries. For example, in India telephone penetration is only 1
percent and telephone surveys reduce the survey coverage greatly. But
even in such developed countries as Great Britain telephone penetration
comprises only 80 percent. That is why a lot of marketers are very skeptical
about telephone surveys and nowadays there is a great reduction in their
application.

4. Mailing surveys are widely used in industrialized countries, where there is a

high level of literacy, good mailing services, and availability of mailing lists.
However, the use of this method in developing countries has some
constraints. In some countries people consider the mailing surveys to be an
invasion into their private life and the effectiveness of these surveys is
reduced. In such countries as Brazil, where only 30 percent of mail is
delivered, mailing surveys can not be used as well.

5. Electronic surveys become more popular in the United States and Europe
and they are used for products that require technological literacy such as
computers and computer software. E-mail surveys begin to replace mail
and telephone surveys. The limiting factors for electronic surveys are as
follow: there are still many countries with low internet access, the internet
 versions available in various countries may not be compatible and there
may be a big number of non-responses because of technical issues. At the
same time, the speed of getting responses and the low costs of surveys
makes this method suitable for international marketing research.

Conclusion

International marketing research is the systematic design, collection, recording,

analysis, interpretation, and reporting of information relating to a particular
marketing decision facing a company operating internationally. The international
marketing research process has some peculiarities such as the national
differences between countries arising out of political, legal, economic, social, and
cultural differences and, the comparability of research results due to these
differences.

A company performing international marketing research may experience several

problems. Firstly, there is a complexity of research design due to operation in a
multi-country, multicultural, and multi-linguistic environment. Secondly, the
availability of secondary data varies widely from country to country. In some
markets, especially emerging and unstable, the data is neither available nor
reliable. Thirdly, the costs of collecting primary data are much higher in foreign
developing markets as there is a lack of an appropriate marketing research
infrastructure. Fourthly, problems associating with coordinating research and
data collection in different countries may arise. And finally, there are the
difficulties of establishing the comparability and equivalence of data and research
conducted in different contexts.

Sources of Data

The sources of data can be classified into two types: statistical and non-statistical.
Statistical sources refer to data that is gathered for some official purposes,
incorporate censuses, and officially administered surveys. Non-statistical sources
refer to the collection of data for other administrative purposes or for the private
sector.
What are the different sources of data?

The following are the two sources of data:

1. Internal sources

 When data is collected from reports and records of the organisation itself,
they are known as the internal sources.

 For example, a company publishes its annual report’ on profit and loss,
total sales, loans, wages, etc.

2. External sources

 When data is collected from sources outside the organisation, they are
known as the external sources. For example, if a tour and travel company
obtains information on Karnataka tourism from Karnataka Transport
Corporation, it would be known as an external source of data.

Types of Data

A) Primary data

 Primary data means first-hand information collected by an investigator.

 It is collected for the first time.

 It is original and more reliable.

 For example, the population census conducted by the government of India

after every ten years is primary data.

B) Secondary data

 Secondary data refers to second-hand information.

 It is not originally collected and rather obtained from already published or

unpublished sources.
  For example, the address of a person taken from the telephone directory or
the phone number of a company taken from Just Dial are secondary data.

Students can also refer to Meaning and Sources of Secondary Data

Methods of Collecting Primary Data

1. Direct personal investigation

2. Indirect oral investigation

3. Information through correspondents

4. Telephonic interview

5. Mailed questionnaire

6. The questionnaire filled by enumerators

Investigator ●     One who conducts investigation, i.e., statistical enquiry and seeks
information is known as an investigator.

●     It can be an individual person or an organisation.

Enumerator ●     An enumerator is a person who helps investigators in the collection of
data.

Informant ●     An informant is the respondent who supplies the information to the
investigators or enumerators.

Direct Personal Investigation

Q.1 Explain direct personal investigation method of collecting primary data. Discuss its
merits and demerits.

Answer:
(A) Direct personal ●     Under this method, the investigator obtains the first-hand
investigation information from the respondents themselves.

●     He personally visits the respondents to collect the

information (data).

(B) Following are the merits of direct personal investigation:

(1) Reliable and ●     The data collected is first-hand and original in nature. So, it is
Accurate more reliable and accurate.

(2) Flexibility ●     In this method, the questions can be modified according to
the level of the respondent or other situations.

(3) Additional ●     Some additional information may also be collected along
information with the required information.

●     This additional information can be used in future

investigations.

(C) Following are the demerits of direct personal investigation:

(1) Not suitable for a ●     It is not suitable when the area of coverage is considerably
wide area wide.

(2) Time-consuming ●     This method is time-consuming as the investigator personally

visits various places and meets different people to collect
information.

(3) Expensive ●     This method is expensive, particularly when the field of
investigation is large.
(4) Personal bias ●     The data collected in this method is subjected to personal
bias.

Indirect Oral Investigation

Q.1 Explain indirect oral investigation method of collecting primary data. Give its merit
and demerits.

Answer:

(A) Indirect oral Under this method, instead of directly approaching the informants,
investigation the investigators interview several other persons who are directly
or indirectly in touch with the informants.

(B) Following are the merits of indirect oral investigation:

(1) Wide coverage ●     A wide area can be brought under investigation through this
method.

(2) Economical ●     It is economical in terms of time, money, and manpower.

(C) Following are the demerits of indirect oral investigation:

(1) Indirect ●     Since the information is not collected directly from the party,
information there is a possibility that it will not be fully true.

(2) Lack of accuracy ●     As compared to direct personal investigation, the degree of
accuracy of the data is likely to be lower.
 (3) Lack of ●     Information collected from different persons for the same
uniformity party may not be homogeneous and comparable.

(4) Possibility of ●     Respondent/witness can modify the information according to

biased information his personal interest.

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 Meaning of Privatisation

Information through Correspondents

Q.1 Explain information through correspondents’ method of collecting primary data.

Give its merit and demerits.

Answer:

(A) Information through Under this method, local agents or correspondents are
correspondents appointed and trained to collect the information from the
respondents.

(B) Following are the merits of information through correspondents:

(1) Wide coverage ●     This method is useful where the field of investigation is
very wide and the information is to be collected from
different parts of the country.
 (2) Economical ●     This method is quite economical and time-saving.

(3) Suitable for special ●     This method is suitable for some special purpose
purposes investigations.

(4) Continuity ●     It is very useful for collecting information on a regular
basis.

(C) Following are the demerits of information through correspondents:

(1) Lack of uniformity ●     The information supplied by different correspondents

often lacks homogeneity; hence it is not comparable.

(2) Lack of reliability ●     Data obtained using this method may not be very reliable
because of the possibility of personal bias and prejudice of
the enumerator.

(3) Less accuracy ●     This method cannot be used where a high degree of
accuracy is required.

(4) Costly ●     A lot of time and money is spent to collect the
information through correspondence.

Telephonic interviews

Q.1 Explain the telephonic interviews method of collecting primary data. Give its merit
and demerits.

Answer:
(A) Telephonic Under this method, data is collected through interviews over the
interviews telephone.

(B) Following are the merits of telephonic interviews:

(1) Wide ●     This method is useful where the field of investigation is very wide
coverage and the information is to be collected from different parts of the
country.

(2) Economical ●     This method is quite economical and time-saving.

(3) Reliability ●     The collected data is reliable as it is obtained directly from the
party.

(C) Following are the demerits of telephonic interviews:

(1) Limited use ●     The disadvantage of this method is limited accessibility to
people. This method is not possible for people who do not own a
telephone or mobile.

(2) Visual ●     Telephone interviews also obstruct visual reactions of the
feedback is not respondents, which become helpful in obtaining information on
possible sensitive issues.

Mailed Questionnaire Method

Q.1 Discuss the mailed questionnaire method of collecting primary data. What are its
merits and demerits?

Answer:
(A) Mailed ●     Under this method, a questionnaire containing a number of
questionnaire method questions related to the investigation is prepared.

●     It is then sent to informants by post along with the

instructions to fill.

●     The informants, after filling up the questionnaire, send it

back to the investigator.

(B) Following are the merits of the mailed questionnaire method:

(1) Wide coverage ●     This method is useful where the field of investigation is
very wide and the information is to be collected from different
parts of the country.

(2) Economical ●     This method is quite economical as it requires less money
and labour.

(3) Originality ●     The data is very much original because informants are
directly involved in the collection of data.

(4) Free from bias ●     Every question is interpreted by the respondent in his own
way. Hence, it is free from the personal bias of the investigator.

(5) Maintains secrecy ●     This method is suitable for sensitive questions and
maintains the anonymity of respondents.

(C) Following are the demerits of the mailed questionnaire method:

(1) Limited scope ●     This method is applicable only where the respondents are
educated.
 (2) Less response ●     Most informants do not return the questionnaire.

●     The informants are least interested in the investigation;

hence, there is a lack of response from their side.

(3) Chance of ●     Informants may not understand the correct sense of some
misinterpretation questions, and may not answer them. Sometimes, informants
may provide vague and ambiguous answers.

(4) Time-consuming ●     The process is time-consuming, particularly when the

information is to be obtained by post.

Q.2 What is a questionnaire? State the prerequisites of a good questionnaire.

                                                                                       Or

What are the qualities of a good questionnaire?

Answer:

(A) Meaning of A questionnaire is a list or set of printed questions, which is filled

questionnaire by the informants. If it is filled by the enumerators, then it is
known as a schedule.

(B) A good questionnaire should have the following characteristics:

(1) Simple and short Questions should be short, simple, and straightforward.
questions
(2) Limited questions The number of questions should be limited and they should be in
in a proper order a logical order.

(3) Clear instructions To assist the informants, clear instructions should be given.

(4) Pre-testing To know the shortcomings of a questionnaire, it should be tried

on a small selected group.

(5) Avoid Questions containing mathematical calculations should be

mathematical completely avoided.
calculations

(6) Avoid personal or Personal questions affecting sentiments and controversial

controversial questions related to religion, politics, etc., should be avoided.
questions

(7) Secrecy assurance Respondents should be given assurance that their response will
not be shared with anyone.

(8) Cover letter To convey the purpose of how it will help the parties involved, a
precise cover letter should be enclosed.

Questionnaire Filled By Enumerators Method

Q.1 Explain the questionnaires filled by enumerators method of collecting primary data
along with its merits and demerits.

Answer:

(A) Questionnaires Under this method, an enumerator personally visits informants

filled by along with a questionnaire, asks questions, and notes down their
enumerators response in the questionnaire in his own language.

(B) Following are the merits of questionnaires filled by enumerators:

(1) Accurate and Since the investigator has direct contact with the respondents, it
reliable is possible to get accurate and reliable information.

(2) Better responses The presence of the enumerator may induce the respondents to
give information.

So, the chances of no response like in the case of mailed

questionnaire method are less.

(3) Useful in case of Unlike the mailed questionnaire method, this method can be
illiterate used even if the respondents are illiterate.
respondents

(C) Following are the demerits of questionnaires filled by enumerators:

(1) Costly method This method is very expensive as expenditure on training,

remuneration, and conveyance is to be borne by the investigator.

(2) Time consuming This method is very time consuming as the enumerator has to
visit the informants personally.

(3) Inefficiency and Inefficiency or inability on the part of the enumerators due to the
personal bias lack of proper training, coupled with personal bias, may adversely
affect the results of the enquiry.

Students can explore this important concept by clicking on this link provided
below:
Meaning of Statistical Enquiry, Meaning of Collection of Data and Sources of
Data

Collection Of Secondary Data

Q.1 What is secondary data? Discuss the various sources of secondary data.

Answer:

(A) Meaning of ●     Secondary data refers to the data that has already been
secondary data collected by some other person or agency and is used by us.

(B) Sources of secondary data can broadly be classified under two

categories:

1. Published sources

2. Unpublished sources

(1) Published Published sources mean data available in printed form. It includes
sources the following:

1. Magazines, journals, and periodicals published by various

government, semi-government, and private organisations;
Data related to birth, death, education, etc., by the
government at various levels; data regarding prices,
production, etc., published by Economic Times, Financial
Express, etc.

2. Reports of various committees or commissions like reports of

pay commission report, finance commission report, etc.

3. Reports of international agencies that are regularly published

by agencies like UNO, WHO, IMF., etc.
 (2) Unpublished ●     All the statistical material is not always published.
sources
●     This category includes the records maintained by various
government and private offices.

●     It includes the research done by scholar students or some

institutions.

●     Sources like reports prepared by private investigation companies

can also be used depending upon the need.

Q.2 What precautions shall we take while using secondary data?

Answer:

Following are the main precautions to be taken while using secondary data:

(1) Reliable agency ●     We must ensure that the agency that has published the
data should be reliable.

(2) Suitability for the ●     The investigator must ensure that the data is suitable for
purpose of enquiry the purpose of the present enquiry.

●     The suitability of the data is determined by investigating

the nature, objectives, time of collection etc., of the
secondary data.

(3) Adequacy and ●     It is necessary to use adequate data to avoid biases and
accuracy to avoid impact prejudices leading to incorrect conclusions.
of bias
(4) Method of collecting ●     The investigator should also ascertain as to what
data used method was used in collecting the data.

●     Sampling methods may be biased depending upon the

mode of selection of samples.

●     All these should be ascertained before making use of the

secondary data.

The actual data is then further divided mainly into two types known as:

1. Primary data

2. Secondary data

1.Primary data:
The data which is Raw, original, and extracted directly from the official sources is
known as primary data. This type of data is collected directly by performing
techniques such as questionnaires, interviews, and surveys. The data collected
must be according to the demand and requirements of the target audience on
which analysis is performed otherwise it would be a burden in the data
processing.

Few methods of collecting primary data:

1. Interview method:

The data collected during this process is through interviewing the target audience
by a person called interviewer and the person who answers the interview is
known as the interviewee. Some basic business or product related questions are
asked and noted down in the form of notes, audio, or video and this data is stored
for processing. These can be both structured and unstructured like personal
interviews or formal interviews through telephone, face to face, email, etc.

2. Survey method:

The survey method is the process of research where a list of relevant questions
are asked and answers are noted down in the form of text, audio, or video. The
survey method can be obtained in both online and offline mode like through
website forms and email. Then that survey answers are stored for analyzing data.
Examples are online surveys or surveys through social media polls.

3. Observation method:

The observation method is a method of data collection in which the researcher

keenly observes the behavior and practices of the target audience using some
data collecting tool and stores the observed data in the form of text, audio, video,
or any raw formats. In this method, the data is collected directly by posting a few
questions on the participants. For example, observing a group of customers and
their behavior towards the products. The data obtained will be sent for
processing.

4. Experimental method:
The experimental method is the process of collecting data through performing
experiments, research, and investigation. The most frequently used experiment
methods are CRD, RBD, LSD, FD.

 CRD- Completely Randomized design is a simple experimental design used

in data analytics which is based on randomization and replication. It is
mostly used for comparing the experiments.

 RBD- Randomized Block Design is an experimental design in which the

experiment is divided into small units called blocks. Random experiments
are performed on each of the blocks and results are drawn using a
technique known as analysis of variance (ANOVA). RBD was originated from
the agriculture sector.

 LSD – Latin Square Design is an experimental design that is similar to CRD

and RBD blocks but contains rows and columns. It is an arrangement of NxN
squares with an equal amount of rows and columns which contain letters
that occurs only once in a row. Hence the differences can be easily found
with fewer errors in the experiment. Sudoku puzzle is an example of a Latin
square design.

 FD- Factorial design is an experimental design where each experiment has

two factors each with possible values and on performing trail other
combinational factors are derived.

2. Secondary data:

Secondary data is the data which has already been collected and reused again for
some valid purpose. This type of data is previously recorded from primary data
and it has two types of sources named internal source and external source.

Internal source:

These types of data can easily be found within the organization such as market
record, a sales record, transactions, customer data, accounting resources, etc. The
cost and time consumption is less in obtaining internal sources.
External source:

The data which can’t be found at internal organizations and can be gained
through external third party resources is external source data. The cost and time
consumption is more because this contains a huge amount of data. Examples of
external sources are Government publications, news publications, Registrar
General of India, planning commission, international labor bureau, syndicate
services, and other non-governmental publications.

Other sources:

 Sensors data: With the advancement of IoT devices, the sensors of these

devices collect data which can be used for sensor data analytics to track the
performance and usage of products.

 Satellites data: Satellites collect a lot of images and data in terabytes on

daily basis through surveillance cameras which can be used to collect useful
information.

 Web traffic: Due to fast and cheap internet facilities many formats of data
which is uploaded by users on different platforms can be predicted and
collected with their permission for data analysis. The search engines also
provide their data through keywords and queries searched mostly.

Survey research means collecting information about a group of people by asking

them questions and analyzing the results. To conduct an effective survey, follow
these six steps:

1. Determine who will participate in the survey

2. Decide the type of survey (mail, online, or in-person)

3. Design the survey questions and layout

 4. Distribute the survey

5. Analyze the responses

6. Write up the results

Surveys are a flexible method of data collection that can be used in many

different types of research.

1.

What are surveys used for?

Surveys are used as a method of gathering data in many different fields. They are
a good choice when you want to find out about the characteristics, preferences,
opinions, or beliefs of a group of people.

Common uses of survey research include:

 Social research: investigating the experiences and characteristics of

different social groups

 Market research: finding out what customers think about products,

services, and companies

 Health research: collecting data from patients about symptoms and

treatments

 Politics: measuring public opinion about parties and policies

 Psychology: researching personality traits, preferences and behaviours

Surveys can be used in both cross-sectional studies, where you collect data just
once, and in longitudinal studies, where you survey the same sample several
times over an extended period.

Step 1: Define the population and sample

Before you start conducting survey research, you should already have a
clear research question that defines what you want to find out. Based on this
question, you need to determine exactly who you will target to participate in the
survey.

Populations

The target population is the specific group of people that you want to find out
about. This group can be very broad or relatively narrow. For example:

 The population of Brazil

 US college students

 Second-generation immigrants in the Netherlands

 Customers of a specific company aged 18-24

 British transgender women over the age of 50

Your survey should aim to produce results that can be generalized to the whole
population. That means you need to carefully define exactly who you want to
draw conclusions about.

Several common research biases can arise if your survey is not generalizable,

particularly sampling bias and selection bias. The presence of these biases have
serious repercussions for the validity of your results.

Samples

It’s rarely possible to survey the entire population of your research – it would be
very difficult to get a response from every person in Brazil or every college
student in the US. Instead, you will usually survey a sample from the population.

The sample size depends on how big the population is. You can use an online
sample calculator to work out how many responses you need.

There are many sampling methods that allow you to generalize to broad

populations. In general, though, the sample should aim to be representative of
the population as a whole. The larger and more representative your sample, the
more valid your conclusions. Again, beware of various types of sampling bias as
you design your sample, particularly self-selection bias, nonresponse
bias, undercoverage bias, and survivorship bias.

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Step 2: Decide on the type of survey

There are two main types of survey:

 A questionnaire, where a list of questions is distributed by mail, online or in

person, and respondents fill it out themselves.

 An interview, where the researcher asks a set of questions by phone or in

person and records the responses.

Which type you choose depends on the sample size and location, as well as the
focus of the research.

Questionnaires

 Mail

 Online

 In-person

Sending out a paper survey by mail is a common method of gathering

demographic information (for example, in a government census of the
population).

 You can easily access a large sample.

 You have some control over who is included in the sample (e.g. residents of
a specific region).
  The response rate is often low, and at risk for biases like self-selection bias.

Interviews

Oral interviews are a useful method for smaller sample sizes. They allow you to
gather more in-depth information on people’s opinions and preferences. You can
conduct interviews by phone or in person.

 You have personal contact with respondents, so you know exactly who will
be included in the sample in advance.

 You can clarify questions and ask for follow-up information when
necessary.

 The lack of anonymity may cause respondents to answer less honestly, and
there is more risk of researcher bias.

Like questionnaires, interviews can be used to collect quantitative data: the

researcher records each response as a category or rating and statistically analyzes
the results. But they are more commonly used to collect qualitative data: the
interviewees’ full responses are transcribed and analyzed individually to gain a
richer understanding of their opinions and feelings.

Step 3: Design the survey questions

Next, you need to decide which questions you will ask and how you will ask them.
It’s important to consider:

 The type of questions

 The content of the questions

 The phrasing of the questions

 The ordering and layout of the survey

Open-ended vs closed-ended questions

There are two main forms of survey questions: open-ended and closed-ended.
Many surveys use a combination of both.

Closed-ended questions give the respondent a predetermined set of answers to

choose from. A closed-ended question can include:

 A binary answer (e.g. yes/no or agree/disagree)

 A scale (e.g. a Likert scale with five points ranging from strongly

agree to strongly disagree)

 A list of options with a single answer possible (e.g. age categories)

 A list of options with multiple answers possible (e.g. leisure interests)

Closed-ended questions are best for quantitative research. They provide you with
numerical data that can be statistically analyzed to find patterns, trends,
and correlations.

Open-ended questions are best for qualitative research. This type of question has
no predetermined answers to choose from. Instead, the respondent answers in
their own words.

Open questions are most common in interviews, but you can also use them in
questionnaires. They are often useful as follow-up questions to ask for more
detailed explanations of responses to the closed questions.

The content of the survey questions

To ensure the validity and reliability of your results, you need to carefully consider
each question in the survey. All questions should be narrowly focused with
enough context for the respondent to answer accurately. Avoid questions that are
not directly relevant to the survey’s purpose.

When constructing closed-ended questions, ensure that the options cover all
possibilities. If you include a list of options that isn’t exhaustive, you can add an
“other” field.

Phrasing the survey questions

In terms of language, the survey questions should be as clear and precise as
possible. Tailor the questions to your target population, keeping in mind their
level of knowledge of the topic. Avoid jargon or industry-specific terminology.

Survey questions are at risk for biases like social desirability bias, the Hawthorne
effect, or demand characteristics. It’s critical to use language that respondents
will easily understand, and avoid words with vague or ambiguous meanings. Make
sure your questions are phrased neutrally, with no indication that you’d prefer a
particular answer or emotion.

Ordering the survey questions

The questions should be arranged in a logical order. Start with easy, non-sensitive,
closed-ended questions that will encourage the respondent to continue.

If the survey covers several different topics or themes, group together related
questions. You can divide a questionnaire into sections to help respondents
understand what is being asked in each part.

If a question refers back to or depends on the answer to a previous question, they

should be placed directly next to one another.

Step 4: Distribute the survey and collect responses

Before you start, create a clear plan for where, when, how, and with whom you
will conduct the survey. Determine in advance how many responses you require
and how you will gain access to the sample.

When you are satisfied that you have created a strong research design suitable
for answering your research questions, you can conduct the survey through your
method of choice – by mail, online, or in person.

Step 5: Analyze the survey results

There are many methods of analyzing the results of your survey. First you have to
process the data, usually with the help of a computer program to sort all the
responses. You should also clean the data by removing incomplete or incorrectly
completed responses.
If you asked open-ended questions, you will have to code the responses by
assigning labels to each response and organizing them into categories or themes.
You can also use more qualitative methods, such as thematic analysis, which is
especially suitable for analyzing interviews.

Statistical analysis is usually conducted using programs like SPSS or Stata. The
same set of survey data can be subject to many analyses.

Step 6: Write up the survey results

Finally, when you have collected and analyzed all the necessary data, you will
write it up as part of your thesis, dissertation, or research paper.

In the methodology section, you describe exactly how you conducted the survey.

You should explain the types of questions you used, the sampling method, when
and where the survey took place, and the response rate. You can include the full
questionnaire as an appendix and refer to it in the text if relevant.

Then introduce the analysis by describing how you prepared the data and the
statistical methods you used to analyze it. In the results section, you summarize
the key results from your analysis.

In the discussion and conclusion, you give your explanations and interpretations

of these results, answer your research question, and reflect on the implications
and limitations of the research.

Survey research methods

Survey research methods can be derived based on two critical factors: Survey
research tool and time involved to conduct research.

There are three main survey research methods, divided based on the medium of
conducting survey research:
  Online/ Email: Online survey research is one of the most popular survey
research methods today. The cost involved in online survey research is
extremely minimal, and the responses gathered are highly accurate.

 Phone: Survey research conducted over the telephone (CATI) can be useful

in collecting data from a more extensive section of the target population.
There are chances that the money invested in phone surveys will be higher
than other mediums, and the time required will be higher.

 Face-to-face: Researchers conduct face-to-face in-depth interviews in

situations where there is a complicated problem to solve. The response
rate for this method is the highest, but it can be costly.

Further, based on the time taken, survey research can be classified into two
methods:

 Longitudinal survey research: Longitudinal survey research involves

conducting survey research over a continuum of time and spread across
years and decades. The data collected using this survey research method
from one time period to another is qualitative or quantitative. Respondent
behavior, preferences, attitudes are continuously observed over time to
analyze reasons for a change in behavior or preferences. For example,
suppose a researcher intends to learn about the eating habits of teenagers.
In that case, he/she will follow a sample of teenagers over a considerable
period to ensure that the collected information is reliable. Often, cross-
sectional survey research follows a longitudinal study.

 Cross-sectional survey research: Researchers conduct a cross-sectional

survey to collect insights from a target audience at a particular time
interval. This survey research method is implemented in various sectors
such as retail, education, healthcare, SME businesses, etc. Cross-sectional
survey research can either be descriptive or analytical. It is quick and helps
researchers collected information in a brief period. Researchers rely on
cross-sectional survey research method in situations where descriptive
analysis of a subject is required.
Survey research also is bifurcated according to the sampling methods used to
form samples for research: Probability and Non-probability sampling. Every
individual of a population should be considered equally to be a part of the survey
research sample. Probability sampling is a sampling method in which the
researcher chooses the elements based on probability theory. The are various
probability research methods such as simple random sampling, systematic
sampling, cluster sampling, stratified random sampling, etc. Non-probability
sampling is a sampling method where the researcher uses his/her knowledge and
experience to form samples. The various non-probability sampling techniques are
convenience sampling, snowball sampling, consecutive sampling, judgemental
sampling, and quota sampling.

Process of implementing survey research methods:

 Decide survey questions: Brainstorm and put together valid survey

questions that are grammatically and logically appropriate. Understanding
the objective and expected outcomes of the survey helps a lot. There are
many surveys where details of responses are not as important as gaining
insights about what customers prefer from the provided options. In such
situations, a researcher can include multiple-choice questions or closed-
ended questions. Whereas, if researchers need to obtain details about
specific issues, they can consist of open-ended questions to the
questionnaire. Ideally, the surveys should include a smart balance of open-
ended and closed-ended questions. Use survey questions like Likert Scale,
Semantic Scale, Net Promoter Score question, etc. to avoid fence-sitting.

 Finalize a target audience: Send out relevant surveys as per the target

audience and filter out irrelevant questions as per the requirement. The
survey research will be instrumental in case the target population decides a
sample. This way, results can be according to the desired market and be
generalized to the entire population

 Send out surveys via decided mediums: Distribute the surveys to the target
audience and patiently wait for the feedback and comments- this is the
most crucial step of the survey research. The survey needs to be scheduled,
 keeping in mind the nature of the target audience and its regions. Surveys
can be conducted via email, embedded in a website, shared via social
media, etc. to gain maximum responses.

 Analyze survey results: Analyze the feedback in real-time and identify

patterns in the responses which might lead to a much-needed
breakthrough for your organization. GAP, TURF, Conjoint analysis, Cross
tabulation, and many such survey feedback analysis methods can be used
to spot and shed light on respondent behavior. Researchers can use the
results to implement corrective measures to improve customer/employee
satisfaction.

Reasons to conduct survey research

The most crucial and integral reason for conducting market research using
surveys is that you can collect answers regarding specific, essential questions. You
can ask these questions in multiple formats as per the target audience and the
intent of the survey. Before designing a study, every organization must figure out
the objective of carrying this out so that the study can be structured, planned,
and executed to perfection.

Questions that need to be on your mind while designing a survey are:

 What is the primary aim of conducting the survey?

 How do you plan to utilize the collected survey data?

 What type of decisions you plan to take based on the points mentioned
above.

There are three critical reasons why an organization must conduct survey
research.

 Understand respondent behavior to get solutions to your queries: If

you’ve carefully curated a survey, the respondents will provide insights
about what they like about your organization as well as suggestions for
improvement. To motivate them to respond, you must be very vocal about
 how secure their responses will be and how you will utilize the answers.
This will push them to be 100% honest about their feedback, opinions, and
comments. Online surveys or mobile surveys have proved their privacy, and
due to this, more and more respondents feel free to put forth their
feedback through these mediums.

 Present a medium for discussion: A survey can be the perfect platform for
respondents to provide criticism or applause for an organization. Important
topics like product quality or quality of customer service etc. can be put on
the table for discussion. A way you can do it is by including open-ended
questions where the respondents can write their thoughts. This will make it
easy for you to correlate your survey to what you intend to do with your
product or service.

 Strategy for never-ending improvements: An organization can establish

the target audience's attributes from the pilot phase of survey research.
Researchers can use the criticism and feedback received from this survey to
improve the product/services. Once the company successfully makes the
improvements, it can send out another survey to measure the change in
feedback keeping the pilot phase the benchmark. By doing this activity, the
organization can track what was effectively improved and what still needs
improvement.

Survey research scales

There are four main scales for measurement of variables:

 Nominal Scale: A nominal scale associates numbers with variables for mere
naming or labeling, and the numbers usually have no other relevance. It is
the most basic of the four levels of measurement.

 Ordinal Scale: The ordinal scale has an innate order within the variables
along with labels. It establishes the rank between the variables of a scale
but not the difference value between the variables.
  Interval Scale: The interval scale is a step ahead in comparison to the other
two scales. Along with establishing a rank and name of variables, the scale
also makes known the difference between the two variables. The only
drawback is that there is no fixed start point of the scale, i.e., the actual
zero value is absent.

 Ratio Scale: The ratio scale is the most advanced measurement scale, which
has variables that are labeled in order and have a calculated difference
between variables. In addition to what interval scale orders, this scale has a
fixed starting point, i.e., the actual zero value is present.

Benefits of survey research

In case survey research is used for all the right purposes and is implemented
properly, marketers can benefit by gaining useful, trustworthy data that they can
use to better the ROI of the organization.

Other benefits of survey research are:

 Minimum investment: Mobile surveys and online surveys have minimal

finance invested per respondent. Even with the gifts and other incentives
provided to the people who participate in the study, online surveys are
extremely economical compared to the paper-based surveys.

 Versatile sources for response collection: You can conduct surveys via

various mediums like online and mobile surveys. You can further classify
them into qualitative mediums like focus groups, interviews, and
quantitative mediums like customer-centric surveys. Due to the offline
survey response collection option, researchers can conduct surveys in
remote areas with limited internet connectivity. This can make data
collection and analysis more convenient and extensive.

 Reliable for respondents: Surveys are extremely secure as the respondent

details and responses are kept safeguarded. This anonymity makes
respondents answer the survey questions candidly and with absolute
honesty. An organization seeking to receive explicit responses for its survey
research must mention that it will be confidential.