Power System-l Subject Code: 3140914

(List of Experiments)

1.Survey of generation scenario and power plants of Gujarat.

2. Survey of different type of power plants of India to
observe the power and energy supplied by them daily, their
rates of energy, daily schedule etc.
3. Plot VI and PV characteristics of solar cell/panel.
4. Simulation of three phase system with three phase
balanced load with neutral grounded
5. Simulation of three phase system with three phase load,
effect of unbalanced load on the voltages of phases with and
without neutral grounded.
6. Write a program to calculate string efficiency of string of
insulating discs for voltage levels up to 400 kV.
7. Write a program for calculating line inductance for
different conductor configurations and dimensions.
8. Write a program for calculating line capacitance for
different configurations and design of line.
9. Write a program for calculating sag of transmission line
under different loading conditions.
10. Prepare layout of substation for a given bus arrangement
and given voltage rating with all necessary equipments.
11. Write a program for calculating voltage drop in a radial
AC feeder.
 REPORT
Experiment 1

AIM : - Survey of generation scenario and

power plants of Gujarat.

4TH SEM ( 2023-24 )

Prepared by :
Shoaib Shamim 210570109002
Electrical Engineering Department

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 RENEWABLE ENERGY

Renewable energy is energy produced from sources like the sun and wind that are naturally
replenished and do not run out.
Renewable energy can be used for electricity generation, space and water heating and cooling, and
transportation.

Types of Renewable energy :-

• Solar Energy
• Wind Energy
• Hydro Energy
Advantage of Renewable energy :-
• A Fuel Supply That Never Runs Out
• Zero Carbon Emissions
• Cleaner Air and Water
• A Cheaper Form of Electricity

Disadvantage of Renewable energy :-

• A Cheaper Form of Electricity

• Electricity Production Can Be Unreliable
• Energy Storage Is a Challenge
• It’s Impacted by Environmental Conditions

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 SOLAR ENERGY

Solar energy is the radiation from the Sun capable of producing heat, causing chemical reactions, or
generating electricity. The total amount of solar energy received on Earth is vastly more than the
world's current and anticipated energy requirements. If suitably harnessed, solar energy has the
potential to satisfy all future energy needs.

How does solar work ?

Solar technologies convert sunlight into electrical energy either through photovoltaic (PV) panels or
through mirrors that concentrate solar radiation. This energy can be used to generate electricity or be
stored in batteries or thermal storage.

How much power does a solar panel produce in a day?

Solar power from a single panel in a solar panel system typically produces about 2 kWh per day.

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 WIND ENERGY

The process of capturing kinetic energy from wind and converting it into usable mechanical power
or electricity is knows as wind energy.

Wind energy is the second largest source of global renewable energy production, surpassed only by
hydroelectric power.

How much energy does a wind turbine produce?

Wind turbines start to produce energy once the wind speed reaches between 9.66 and 14.48 kilo
meters per hour. Because the wind is intermittent and wind speed does not accurately correlate to the
amount of energy produced, it can be difficult to measure the output of wind turbines.

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This illustration shows the typical components of a wind power generator.

The amount of energy a wind turbine can produce is usually accepted to be anywhere between 15 to
50 % of its rated capacity. For example, a 1 MW rated wind turbine may produce 15 kW or 50 kW
of electricity.

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 HYDRO ENERGY

At hydropower plants water flows through a pipe, or penstock, then pushes against and turns blades
in a turbine to spin a generator to produce electricity. Conventional hydroelectric facilities include:
Run-of-the-river systems, where the force of the river's current applies pressure on a turbine.

A hydroelectric power plant has the following parts:

• Dam or weir: it contains the river water, forming a reservoir behind it and thus creating a
water drop that is used to produce energy. Dams can be made of earth or concrete (the latter
is the most common one).

• Spillways: They release part of the impounded water without passing through the turbines;
water can then be used for irrigation purposes. They are located on the main wall of the dam
and can be at the top or at the bottom. Most of the water goes into a plunge pool at the toe of
the dam, to prevent scour damage by the falling water.

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 • Water intakes: they let in the impounded water towards the turbines through a penstock. Water
intakes have gates to control the amount of water that reaches the turbines and grids tofilter
out any debris such as trunks, branches, etc.

• Powerhouse: it houses the hydraulic and electrical equipment (turbines, generators,

transformers) and the service area with control and testing rooms. It has inlet and outlet gates
to ensure the equipment area can be dry in case of repairs or disassembling equipment.

• Turbines: they harness the energy of the water that goes through them to rotate around a shaft.
There are three main types of turbines: Pelton, Francis and Kaplan turbines (propeller type).

• Transformers: electrical devices to increase or decrease the voltage in an alternating current

circuit, while maintaining the electric power.

• Electrical power transmission lines: cables to transmit the electricity generated.

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 NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY

Non-renewable energy resources include coal, natural gas, oil, and nuclear energy. Once these
resources are used up, they cannot be replaced, which is a major problem for humanity as we are
currently dependent on them to supply most of our energy needs.

Types of Non-Renewable energy :-

• Thermal Energy
• Nuclear Energy
• Gas Energy
Advantage of Non-Renewable energy :-

• The non-renewable source of energy is affordable. For example, oil and diesel.
• It is easy to store.
• It is quickly accessible and is more compatible.

Disadvantages of Non-renewable energy :-

• Once the energy source is exhausted, non-renewable energy cannot be replaced.

• By-products of non-renewable energy cause damage to the environment. It also increases
greenhouse gases.
• Fossil fuel transportation, mining, and extraction can cause accidents and lead to oil spills,
nuclear meltdowns, pipeline leaks, and even explosions that have harmful effects on the
environment.

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 THERMAL ENERGY

Thermal power station is a type of power station in which heat energy is converted to electrical
energy. In a steam-generating cycle heat is used to boil water in a large pressure vessel to produce
high-pressure steam, which drives a steam turbine connected to an electrical generator. The low-
pressure exhaust from the turbine enters a steam condenser where it is cooled to produce hot
condensate which is recycled to the heating process to generate more high pressure steam. This is
known as a Rankine cycle.

The design of thermal power stations depends on the intended energy source: fossil fuel,
nuclear and geothermal power, solar energy, biofuels, and waste incineration are all used. Certain
thermal power stations are also designed to produce heat for industrial purposes; for district heating;
or desalination of water, in addition to generating electrical power.

Fuels such as natural gas or oil can also be burnt directly in gas turbines (internal combustion). These
plants can be of the open cycle or the more efficient combined cycle type.

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 NUCLEAR ENERGY

A nuclear power plant (NPP) is a thermal power station in which the heat source is a nuclear reactor.
As is typical of thermal power stations, heat is used to generate steam that drives a steam turbine
connected to a generator that produces electricity.

Nuclear plants are very often used for base load since their operations, maintenance, and fuel costs
are at the lower end of the spectrum of costs. However, building a nuclear power plant often spans
five to ten years, which can accrue to significant financial costs, depending on how the initial
investments are financed.

Nuclear power plants have a carbon footprint comparable to that of renewable energy such as solar
farms and wind farms, and much lower than fossil fuels such as natural gas and brown coal. Despite
some spectacular catastrophes, nuclear power plants are among the safest mode of electricity
generation, comparable to solar and wind power plants.

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 GAS ENERGY

Natural gas is a fossil fuel energy source. Natural gas contains many different compounds. The largest
component of natural gas is methane, a compound with one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms
(CH4).

*****************************

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 GUJARAT HAS INSTALLLED CAPACITY 19,414 MW OF RENEWABLE ENERGY.

Plant Name Capacity

WIND 9419.42 MW
SOLAR 7806.80 MW
LARGE HYDRO 1990 MW
BIO 109.26 MW
SMALL HYDRO 89.39 MW

Total Power Plant in Gujrat :-

Plant Name Total no. Capacity
Thermal 76 22329.820 MW
Hydro 19 1990 MW
Nuclear 1 440 MW

Renewable Energy Progress In Gujarat :-

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 Reference list
Data :- CEA.NIC.IN
Graph :- MDPI

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 A VISIT REPORT ON

HYDRO POWER PLANT

SARDAR SAROVAR DAM

4TH SEM ( 2023-24 )

Prepared by :
Shoaib Shamim 210570109002
Electrical Engineering Department

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are gladly thankful to Head of the Department Electrical

Engineering for organizing such an informative and fun learning visit.
Our faculties who gave us a great guidance regarding training and
instructed us the importance of training in electrical field. We spended
2 days and created very beautiful memories that will never be vanished.

GENERAL INFORMATION

Narmada Dam & sardar sarovar are one of the largest water resources
of India covering four major states - Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
Gujarat and Rajasthan. Dam's spillway discharging capacity is 30.7
lakhs cusecs. Narmada Main Canal' s length is 532 km and it is the
largest irrigation canal in the world with 1133 cumecs (40000 cusecs)
capacity at the head regulator. It is the largest dam and part of the
Narmada Valley Project, a large hydraulic engineering project
involving the construction of a series of large irrigation and
hydroelectric multi-purpose dams on the Narmada river.

PURPOSE OF VISIT

Our main purpose for this visit is to be familiar with industrial

environment and to get practical knowledge of Hydraulic structure of
dam and Hydro power plant in dam. Also in 4th semester subject power
system-1 requires knowledge about how components of dam and hydro
power plant are constructed, so it is very much convenient to see all the
practical and components in real time work environment.

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 MAP FROM MARWADI UNIVERSITY
TO SARDAR SAROVAR DAM

LEARNING POINT

On 5 April 2023 , at 10:00 am we reached at narmada dam. We started

the visit from statue of unity, and than we visited RBPH, Narmada Dam
and CHPH. The potential energy is converted into kinetic energy. The
water can be used to turn the blades of a turbine to generate electricity,
which is distributed to the power plant's customers.

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 STATUE OF UNITY

The visit started from Statue of Unity (leader Vallabhbhai Patel)

The Statue of Unity is the world's tallest statue, with a height of 182
metres (597 feet), located near Kevadia in the state of Gujarat, India. It
depicts Indian statesman and independence activist Vallabhbhai Patel
(1875–1950), who was the first deputy prime minister and home
minister of independent India and an adherent of Mahatma Gandhi.
Patel is highly respected for his leadership in uniting 562 princely states
of India to form the single Union of India. The statue is located in
Gujarat on the Narmada River in the Kevadiya colony, facing the
Sardar Sarovar Dam 100 kilo metres (62 mi) southeast of the city of
Vadodara.

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 DAM

Sardar Sarovar Dam is a concrete gravity dam across river Narmada,

1210 meters (3970 feet) in length and with a maximum height of 163
meters above the deepest foundation level, is constructed up to the crest
level of spillway i.e. 121.92 m. In terms of the volume of concrete
involved for gravity dams, this dam is ranked as the second largest in
the world with an aggregate volume of 6.82 million cu.m. 9 This dam
with its spillway discharging capacity of 87,000 cumecs (30.70 lac) is
the third in the world.

LOCATION

• State : Gujarat
• District : Narmada
• River : Narmada

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 RESERVOIR

• Full reservoir level: 138.68 m.

• Maximum water level: 140.21 m.
• Minimum draw down level: 110.64 m.
• Normal tail water level: 25.91 m.
• Submergence at F.R.L 138.68 m: 34867 ha

CONSTRUCTION BEGAN
• April 1987

OPENING DATE
• 17 Sep 2017

DAM
• 1,210 m long,
• 163 m high,

DRINKING WATER
• 9490 villages and 173 towns ( 30 million people )

HYDROPOWER
• 1,450WM installed capacity (1 billion kWh every year )

IRRIGATION
• 1.905 million ( 1.8 million Hector in Gujrat benefitting 1 million
farmers )

CANAL NETWORK
• Approximately 75,000 km length within Gujrat

DESIGNED LIVE STORAGE

• Capacity of Reservoir 5860 MCM ( 4.75 million acre feet )

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 HISTORY OF DAM

This project was envisioned by the first Home Minister of India, Sardar
Vallabhbhai Patel. Jawaharlal Nehru laid the foundation stone of this
project in 1961.A thorough survey was carried out by his government
to study the usage of the Narmada River which flows through states of
Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat to the Arabian Sea.

RBPH (The River Bed Power House )

The RBPH (River Bed Power House) is under ground Power house
which was constructed at 165 m downstream of the dam. RBPH has
installed capacity of 1200 MW with six number of Francis type
reversible turbine generators each of 200 MW installed capacity.

CHPH

The CHPH is a surface power station on right bank of the reservoir

having total installed capacity of 250 MW (5 x 50 MW). These units
can be operated with minimum reservoir water level of 110.18 meters.

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 GROUP PHOTOS

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 CONCULSION

From this visit, we get the information and knowledge about the
components of dam, hydro-power plant and its construction. Students
got very clear idea about the importance of different components of
dam.

LIST OF STUDENTS

Sr. No Semester Student Name

1 6th Goswami Bhavya
2 6th Yash Garsondiya
3 6th Rajesh Makwana
4 6th Nitin Kumar
5 6th Abhijeet Chouhan
6 6th Bhanvadiya Udit
7 4th Steven Jeaghwat
8 4th Emmanuel Luma
9 4th Odongo Norman
10 4th Heet Chandreshbhai Ghodasara
11 4th Dhaval V Radiya
12 4th Parth Mahendra Hindocha
13 4th Prince Dhirendra Kotecha
14 4th Sachin Kumar Ram
15 4th Shoaib Shamim
16 4th Ravi Kumar Sharma
18 4th Kundan Kumar
19 2nd Mbalenhle Ndlovu
20 2nd Dhyey Lalani
21 2nd James Ladu Nelson Gaye
22 2nd Chirillo Chileu Mawienâ Deng
23 2nd Abhishek Kumar
24 2nd Sonu Ansari
25 2nd Abdoul Yassine Akondo
26 2nd Deng Kuot Baak
27 2nd Homanat
28 2nd Mike Kyanga Mukonde
29 2nd Ngong Majur
30 2nd Barnaba Bol Deng Bak
31 2nd Balogun Dennis
32 2nd Robert Pitia
33 2DE1 Sagar Kamlesh Chauhan

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 34 2DE1 Smit Maheshbhai Radadiya
35 2DE1 Akshansh Dipak Vadhia
36 2DE1 Niraj Rajeshbhai Chavda
37 2DE1 Chirag Gopalbhai Parmar
38 2DE1 Mohmadkasim Usmangani Badi
39 2DE1 Rushi Hareshbhai Domadiya
40 2DE1 Madhav Navnitbhai Domadiya
41 2DE1 Siddharth Nirajbhai Bhadeshiya
42 2DE1 Sujal Dineshbhai Makvana
43 2DE1 Amit Karshanbhai Gojiya
44 2DE1 Ayushkumar Nileshbhai Bhatasana
45 2DE1 Alok Kumar

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 Experiment 3
Aim :- Plot VI and PV characteristics of solar cell/panel.

Appratus required :- Matlab Simulink

Theory :- A solar cell is an electrical device that converts the energy of light directly into
electricity by the photovoltaic effect, which is a physical and chemical phenomenon.
It is a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device whose electrical characteristics, such as
current, voltage, or resistance, vary when exposed to light. Solar cells are the building blocks
of photovoltaic modules, otherwise known as solar panels.

How does a Solar Cells work?

A solar cell is a sandwich of n-type silicon and p-type silicon. It generates electricity by using
sunlight to make electrons hop across the junction between the different flavors of silicon:

• When sunlight shines on the cell, photons (light particles) bombard the upper surface.
• The photons (yellow blobs) carry their energy down through the cell.
• The photons give up their energy to electrons (green blobs) in the lower, p-type layer.
• The electrons use this energy to jump across the barrier into the upper, n-type layer and
escape out into the circuit.
• Flowing around the circuit, the electrons make the lamp light up.

Advantages of Solar cell:

• It uses renewable energy
• No pollution so it is environment friendly
• It lasts for many years
• No maintenance cost

Disadvantages of Solar cell:

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 • Energy is not produced during rainy, cloudy days and during night times.
• Cost of installation is high.

Applications of Solar cell:

• It is used in calculators and in wrist watches
• Used in storage batteries
• Street lights
• Portable power supplies
• Satellites

The main points of the I-V and P-V curves characteristics:

are the short-circuit current or the maximum current at zero voltage, and the open-circuit
voltage or the maximum voltage at zero current.

Methodology:
The standard model of PV Cell is designed in this paper using MATLAB/Simulink software
using equivalent circuit of a Solar PV cell. The equivalent circuit contains a current source, a
Diode, a series resistor and a shunt resistor as shown in figure 1.2. The different I-V and P-V
curves are studied by varying the parameters of the solar cell which are e discussed in this paper
later on.

Equivalent Circuit diagram of Solar Cell

It is essential to understand the electronic behavior of a solar cell and beneficial to design a
model which is electrically equivalent, discrete electrical components based whose standard
behavior is well known. An ideal solar cell could be modeled by a current source in parallel
with a diode; in practical manner no solar cell is ideal, thats why shunt resistance and a series
resistance component are added to the model.
The characteristic equation of a solar cell is given by:

In this equation, I is the photoelectric, q is the charge of electron, I0 is the reverse saturation
current of the Diode, V is the voltage across the diode, T is the temperature at junction, N is
the ideality factor of the diode, K is the Boltzmann’s constant, and Rs and Rsh are the series
and shunt resistors of the PV cell, respectively.

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 SIMULATION MODEL

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 RESULTS WAVEFORM

1. WHEN PS CONSTANT 1000 :-

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 2. WHEN PS CONSTANT 800 :-

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 CONCLUSION :-

After plotting the I-V and P-V curves of solar cell by varying two main parameters, it was
found that the solar radiation directly affects the solar cell power and the open circuit voltage.
The radiation values were changed in the range of 1000W/m2 to 800 W/m2 and output current
and voltage behaviors were observed However, there is a noticeable effect on the photocurrent.
Secondly, increase in temperature decreases the open circuit voltage of cell. The temperature
is varied from 250C to 420C. The Maximum Power Point of solar cell array can also be traced
using these curves. It is concluded that these results are helpful to study the behavior of solar
cell and the model can be upgraded to solar module (36 or 72 Solar Cells) and then several
MPPT techniques can be applied to get the maximum efficiency out of solar module.

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 Experiment 4
AIM :- Simulation of three phase system with three phase balanced load with neutral
grounded.
Appratus required :- Matlab Simulink
Theory :- Balanced loads are electrical loads with 3 phases. These loads are designed in a way
that each phase has the same resistance or impedance, so if they have the same voltage across
each phase, the current will also be the same.

A balanced system satisfies the following criteria

• Current in each line is the same and
• Power factor is consistent, which means the phase angle of each current is consistent
with respect to their phase voltages

In single-phase, loads the neutral wire provides the return path for the current, and in balanced
3 phase loads, because they satisfy the above criteria, the currents enter and return through lines
creating 0A of out of balance current. So, there is no need for a neutral wire.

Three-phase electric power is a common type of alternating current (AC) used in electricity
generation, transmission, and distribution. It is a type of polyphase system employing three
wires (or four including an optional neutral return wire) and is the most common method used
by electrical grids worldwide to transfer power.
Three-phase electrical power was developed in the 1880s by multiple people. In three-phase
power, the voltage on each wire is 120 degrees phase shifted relative to each of the other wires.
Because it is an AC system, it allows the voltages to be easily stepped-up using transformers
to high voltage for transmission, and back down for distribution, giving high efficiency.
A three-wire three-phase circuit is usually more economical than an equivalent two- wire
single-phase circuit at the same line to ground voltage because it uses less conductor material
to transmit a given amount of electrical power. Three-phase power is mainly used directly to
power large induction motors, other electric motors, and other heavy loads. Small

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 loads often use only a two-wire single-phase circuit, which may be derived from a three-phase
system.

A three-phase system with a balanced load and a grounded neutral is a common power
distribution setup used in many industrial and commercial applications. In this system, three
separate phases are generated, each with a voltage that is 120 degrees out of phase with each
other. The load is evenly distributed across all three phases, with the same amount of power
being drawn from each phase.

The neutral conductor is also connected to ground, which provides a low-impedance path for
any fault current that may flow in the system. This helps to protect equipment and personnel
from the potentially hazardous effects of an electrical fault.

In a balanced three-phase system, the phase voltages and currents are equal in magnitude and
have a phase difference of 120 degrees. The total power delivered to the load is the sum of the
power delivered by each phase. The power factor of the system is typically high, which means
that the power being delivered is largely real power, with little reactive power.

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 Circuit :-

Result :-

Voltage

Current

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 Conclusion :-
A three-phase system with a balanced load and a grounded neutral is a widely used power
distribution setup in many industrial and commercial applications. The system consists of three
separate phases, each with a voltage that is 120 degrees out of phase with each other. The load
is evenly distributed across all three phases, and the neutral conductor is connected to ground
to provide a low-impedance path for any fault current that may flow in the system.
A three-phase system with a balanced load and a grounded neutral provides a safe, efficient,
and reliable way to distribute power in many different applications, making it a popular choice
for many industrial and commercial settings.

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 Experiment 5
AIM :- Simulation of three phase system with three phase load, effect of unbalanced load
on the voltages of phases with and without neutral grounded.

Appratus /Software :- Matlab Simulink

Theory :- In a three-phase system, the loads are typically balanced, meaning that they draw equal
amounts of power from each phase. However, in practical scenarios, unbalanced loads can occur, where
the power drawn from each phase is unequal. The effect of unbalanced loads on the voltages of phases
depends on whether the neutral point is grounded or not.

Let's discuss the impact in each case.

Neutral Grounded :- When the neutral point of the three-phase system is grounded, it provides a return
path for unbalanced currents. In this case, the effects of unbalanced loads on the voltages of phases are
as follows:

Voltage Imbalance: Due to unbalanced loads, the current flowing through each phase will differ. This
creates voltage drops across the impedance of the distribution lines. The voltage drop will be highest in
the phase with the highest current and lowest in the phase with the lowest current.

Neutral Current: In an unbalanced system, a neutral current will flow due to the unbalanced currents in
the phases. This current flows through the neutral conductor and can lead to additional voltage drops due
to the impedance of the neutral path. The voltage drop will be proportional to the neutral current
magnitude and the impedance of the neutral conductor.

Phase Voltages: The phase voltages will be lower than their nominal values due to the voltage drops
caused by unbalanced loads and neutral current. The voltage drop in the phase with the highest current
will be the greatest, resulting in the lowest voltage, while the phase with the lowest current will have the
least voltage drop.

When the neutral of the three-phase system is grounded, it provides a reference point for the voltages. In
an ideal balanced load scenario, each phase has equal impedance and draws equal current, resulting in
equal voltage magnitudes and 120-degree phase separation. However, when an unbalanced load is
introduced, the currents drawn by each phase will be different.
If one phase draws more current than the others, it creates a voltage drop across the line impedance. This
voltage drop causes the affected phase's voltage to decrease while the other two phases remain relatively
unaffected. The magnitude of the voltage drop depends on the impedance of the line and the unbalance
of the load.

The voltage difference between phases can cause undesirable effects, such as increased heating in
motors, decreased motor performance, and potential unbalanced heating in transformers. However, due
to the neutral being grounded, the voltage difference between any phase and the grounded neutral will
be relatively small.

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 Without Neutral Grounded :- In some systems, the neutral point may not be grounded. In this case,
the effects of unbalanced loads on the voltages of phases are as follows:

Voltage Imbalance: Similar to the grounded case, unbalanced loads lead to different currents in each
phase, resulting in voltage drops across the distribution lines. However, since there is no neutral
grounding, there is no return path for the unbalanced currents. Consequently, the voltage drops due to
unbalanced loads will be higher in the lines connected to the phases with higher current and lower in the
lines connected to the phases with lower current.

Floating Voltages: As there is no grounding of the neutral point, the system voltages become floating.
The voltages of the phases will fluctuate with respect to the system's common reference potential, which
could be affected by external factors such as nearby electrical fields or induced voltages.

Potential Overvoltages: Without neutral grounding, there is a risk of overvoltages in the system. The
voltage on the unloaded phase can rise significantly with respect to ground, leading to insulation
breakdown and potential equipment damage.

In some systems, the neutral of the three-phase system is left ungrounded. In this case, the unbalanced
load can have more pronounced effects on the phase voltages. The unbalanced currents create voltage
imbalances across the system.
Without a grounded neutral, the unbalanced currents may cause the voltages of the phases to shift
significantly. The voltage of the phase with a higher current draw will tend to decrease, while the voltage
of the phase with a lower current draw will tend to increase. The phase voltages will also experience a
shift in their phase angles.

These voltage imbalances can lead to various problems, including increased heating in equipment,
reduced equipment lifespan, and potential insulation breakdown. It can also cause voltage flicker,
affecting sensitive electronic devices.

It's important to note that unbalanced loads and the grounding configuration of the neutral point can have
various impacts on a three-phase system. The specific effects depend on factors such as the magnitude
of the unbalance, the impedance of the distribution lines, the system's earthing design, and other system
parameters. Detailed simulations can provide a more accurate analysis of specific scenarios, taking into
account the system's characteristics and configuration.

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 Circuit with neutral grounded :-

Waveform :-

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 Circuit without neutral grounded :-

Waveform :-

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 Conclusion :-

The effect of unbalanced loads on the voltages of phases in a three-phase system depends on
whether the neutral point is grounded or not. Here's a summary of the key points:

• Neutral Grounded:
o Unbalanced loads lead to voltage drops across the distribution lines.
o The phase with the highest current will experience the highest voltage drop,
resulting in the lowest voltage, while the phase with the lowest current will have
the least voltage drop.
o The flow of unbalanced currents in the phases causes a neutral current, which can
lead to additional voltage drops due to the impedance of the neutral conductor.
o The phase voltages will be lower than their nominal values due to the combined
effect of voltage drops caused by unbalanced loads and neutral current.

• Without Neutral Grounded:

o Unbalanced loads result in voltage drops across the distribution lines.
o Without neutral grounding, there is no return path for the unbalanced currents,
causing higher voltage drops in the lines connected to phases with higher current
and lower voltage drops in the lines connected to phases with lower current.
o The system voltages become floating, fluctuating with respect to the system's
common reference potential.
o There is a risk of potential overvoltages in the system, as the voltage on the
unloaded phase can rise significantly with respect to ground.

• It's important to note that these conclusions provide a general understanding of the
effects of unbalanced loads in a three-phase system. The specific impacts can vary
depending on factors such as the degree of load imbalance, system impedance, earthing
design, and other system parameters. Detailed analysis and simulations considering
specific system configurations would provide more accurate results for a given scenario.

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 Experiment 6
Aim :- Write a program to calculate string efficiency of string of insulating discs for
voltage levels up to 400kV

Programming :-

% Constants
V = 400; % Maximum voltage level in kV
n = 6; % Number of insulating discs in the string
% Prompt user for breakdown voltage of each disc
disp('Enter the breakdown voltage of each insulating disc in kV:');
breakdownVoltages = zeros(1, n);
for i = 1:n
prompt = sprintf('Disc %d: ', i);
breakdownVoltages(i) = input(prompt);
end
% Calculate the string efficiency
stringVoltage = min(V, sum(breakdownVoltages));
stringEfficiency = stringVoltage / (n * max(breakdownVoltages)) * 100;
% Display the result
fprintf('String Voltage: %.2f kV\n', stringVoltage);
fprintf('String Efficiency: %.2f %%\n', stringEfficiency);

Results : -

Number of insulating discs in the string ( n = 6 )

Disc 1 = 11kV
Disc 2 = 11kV
Disc 3 = 11kV
Disc 4 = 11kV
Disc 5 = 11kV
Disc 6 = 11kV
String voltage = 66kV
String Efficiency = 100%

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 Experiment 7
Aim :- Write a program for calculating line inductance for different conductor
configurations and dimensions.

Programming :-
% Constants
mu0 = 4*pi*10^-7; % Permeability of free space (H/m)
diameter = input('Enter the diameter in meter');
radius = diameter/2; % Radius of each conductor (m)
distance = input('Enter the distance in meter');
length = input('Enter the length in meter');

% Calculate inductance per unit length

L = (mu0/pi) * log(distance/radius);

% Calculate total inductance

total_inductance = L * length;

% Display the result

fprintf('The inductance of the circuit is %.4f H\n', total_inductance);

Results : -

Enter the diameter in meter = 0.01

Enter the distance in meter = 1.5
Enter the length in meter = 1000

The inductance of the circuit is 0.0023 H

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 Experiment 8
Aim :- Write a program for calculating line capacitance for different configurations
and design of line.

Programming :-
% Line Capacitance Calculation

% Parameters
length = input('Enter the length of the line (in meters): ');
radius = input('Enter the radius of the line (in meters): ');
permittivity = input('Enter the relative permittivity of the surrounding medium: ');

% Constants
epsilon_0 = 8.854e-12; % Permittivity of free space (F/m)

% Calculation
capacitance = (2 * pi * epsilon_0 * permittivity) / log(radius / (radius - length));

% Display the result

disp(['Line Capacitance: ' num2str(capacitance) ' F']);

Result :-

Enter the length of the line (in meters): 0.01

Enter the radius of the line (in meters): 0.5
Enter the relative permittivity of the surrounding medium: 0.2

Line Capacitance: 5.5073e-10 F

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 Experiment 9
Aim :- Write a program for calculating sag of transmission line under different
loading conditions.

Programming :-

% Transmission Line Sag Calculation

% Input parameters
length = 1000; % Length of the transmission line (in meters)
tension = 5000; % Tension in the transmission line (in Newtons)
weight_per_unit_length = 1.5; % Weight per unit length of the transmission line (in N/m)
span = 100; % Distance between two supports (in meters)
temperature = 25; % Ambient temperature (in degrees Celsius)
% Constants
g = 9.81; % Acceleration due to gravity (in m/s^2)
alpha = 0.000012; % Coefficient of linear expansion (in 1/°C)
% Calculate the sag
sag = (tension^2 * length) / (8 * weight_per_unit_length * g);
% Adjust sag for temperature variation
sag = sag * (1 + alpha * (temperature - 20));
% Calculate the sag-to-span ratio
sag_to_span_ratio = sag / span;
% Display the results
disp(['Sag of the transmission line: ' num2str(sag) ' meters']);
disp(['Sag-to-span ratio: ' num2str(sag_to_span_ratio)]);
% Plotting the sag curve
x = linspace(0, length, 100);
y = (tension^2 * x) ./ (8 * weight_per_unit_length * g);
y = y .* (1 + alpha * (temperature - 20));
figure;
plot(x, y);
xlabel('Distance (m)');
ylabel('Sag (m)');
title('Sag of Transmission Line');

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Result :-

Sag of the transmission line : 212381073.7343 meters

Sag-to-span ratio : 2123810.7373

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 Experiment 10
Aim :- Prepare layout of substation for a given bus arrangement and given voltage
rating with all necessary equipments.

Theory :- Most common bus configurations used for distribution, transmission, or switching
substations at voltages up to 345 kV
1. Single Busbar, Single Busbar with Bus coupler
2. Double Busbar, Double BusBar with Bypass
3. Double Main and Transfer Busbar Scheme
4. One & Half Circuit Breaker
5. Main & Transfer Bus
6. Ring and Mesh Busbar

(1) Single Bus System :- Single Bus System is simplest and cheapest one. In this scheme all
the feeders and transformer bay are connected to only one single bus as show.
Advantages of Single Bus System
• This is very simple in design.
• This is very cost effective scheme.
• This is very convenient to operate.

Disadvantages of Single Bus System

• One but major difficulty of these type of arrangement is that, maintenance of

equipment of any bay cannot be possible without interrupting the feeder or
transformer connected to that bay.
• The indoor 11 KV switch boards have quite often single bus bar arrangement.

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Single Bus System with Bus Sectionalizer

Some advantages are realized if a single bus bar is sectionalized with circuit breaker. If there
are more than one incoming and the incoming sources and outgoing feeders are evenly
distributed on the sections as shown in the figure, interruption of a system can be reduced to
a reasonable extent.

Advantages of Single Bus System with Bus Sectionalizer

• If any of the sources is out of the system, still all loads can be fed by switching on the
sectional circuit breaker or bus coupler breaker. If one section of the bus bar system
is under maintenance, a part load of the substation can be fed by energizing the other
section of the bus bar.

Disadvantages of Single Bus System with Bus Sectionalizer

• As in the case of a single bus system, maintenance of equipment of any bay cannot be
possible without interrupting the feeder or transformer connected to that bay.
• The use of isolator for bus sectionalizing does not fulfill the purpose. The isolators
have to be operated ‘off circuit’ and which is not possible without total interruption
of bus-bar. So investment for bus-coupler breaker is required.

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( 2) Double Bus System

• In double bus bar system two identical bus bars are used in such a way that any
outgoing or incoming feeder can be taken from any of the bus.
• Actually every feeder is connected to both of the buses in parallel through individual
isolator as shown in the figure.

By closing any of the isolators, one can put the feeder to the associated bus. Both of the buses
are energized, and total feeders are divided into two groups, one group is fed from one bus
and other from other buses. But any feeder at any time can be transferred from one bus to
other. There is one bus coupler breaker which should be kept close during bus transfer
operation. For transfer operation, one should first close the bus coupler circuit breaker then
close the isolator associated with the bus to where the feeder would be transferred and then
open the isolator associated with the bus from where the feeder is transferred. Lastly, after
this transfer operation, he or she should open the bus coupler breaker.

Advantages of Double Bus System

Double Bus Bar Arrangement increases the flexibility of system.

Disadvantages of Double Bus System

The arrangement does not permit breaker maintenance without interruption.

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(3) Double Breaker Bus System
In double breaker bus bar system two identical bus bars are used in such a way that any
outgoing or incoming feeder can be taken from any of the bus similar to double bus bar
system. The only difference is that here every feeder is connected to both of the buses in
parallel through individual breaker instead only isolator as shown in the figure. By closing
any of the breakers and its associated isolators one can put the feeder to respective bus. Both
of the buses are energized, and total feeders are divided into two groups, one group is fed
from one bus and other from other buses similar to the previous case. But any feeder at any
time can be transferred from one bus to other. There is no need for bus coupler as because the
operation is done by breakers instead of isolators. For transfer operation, one should first close
the isolators and then the breaker associated with the bus to where the feeder would be
transferred, and then he or she opens the breaker and then isolators associated with the bus
from where the feeder is transferred.

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( 4 ) One and A Half Breaker Bus System

This is an improvement on the double breaker scheme to effect saving in the number of circuit
breakers. For every two circuits, only one spare breaker is provided. The protection is
however complicated since it must associate the central breaker with the feeder whose own
breaker is taken out for maintenance. For the reasons given under double breaker scheme and
because of the prohibitory costs of equipment, even this scheme is not much popular. As
shown in the figure that it is a simple design, two feeders are fed from two different buses
through their associated breakers, and these two feeders are coupled by a third breaker which
is called tiebreaker. Normally all the three breakers are closed, and power is fed to both the
circuits from two buses which are operated in parallel. The tiebreaker acts as a coupler for the
two feeder circuits. During the failure of any feeder breaker, the power is fed through the
breaker of the second feeder and tiebreaker, therefore each feeder breaker has to be rated to
feed both the feeders, coupled by the tiebreaker.

Advantages of One and A Half Breaker Bus System

• During any fault on any one of the buses, that faulty bus will be cleared instantly
without interrupting any feeders in the system since all feeders will continue to feed
from other healthy bus.

Disadvantages of One and a Half Breaker Bus System

• This scheme is much expensive due to investment for third breaker.

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( 5 ) Main and Transfer Bus System

This is an alternative of a double bus system. The main conception of Main and Transfer Bus
System is, here every feeder line is directly connected through an isolator to a second bus
called transfer bus. The said isolator in between transfer bus and feeder line is generally called
bypass isolator. The main bus is as usual connected to each feeder through a bay consists of
the circuit breaker and associated isolators at both sides of the breaker. There is one bus
coupler bay which couples transfer bus and main bus through a circuit breaker and associated
isolators at both sides of the breaker. If necessary, the transfer bus can be energized by main
bus power by closing the transfer bus coupler isolators and then breaker. Then the power in
transfer bus can directly be fed to the feeder line by closing the bypass isolator. If the main
circuit breaker associated with the feeder is switched off or isolated from the system, the
feeder can still be fed in this way by transferring it to transfer bus.

Switching Operation for Transferring a Feeder to Transfer Bus from Main Bus without
Interruption of Power
• First close the isolators at both side of the bus coupler breaker.
• Then close the bypass isolator of the feeder which is to be transferred to transfer bus.
• Now energized the transfer bus by closing the bus coupler circuit breaker from remote.
• After bus coupler breaker is closed, now the power from the main bus flows to the
feeder line through its main
• breaker as well as bus coupler breaker via transfer bus.
• Now if the main breaker of the feeder is switched off, total power flow will
instantaneously shift to the bus coupler breaker, and hence this breaker will serve the
purpose of protection for the feeder.
• At last, the operating personnel open the isolators at both sides of the main circuit
breaker to make it isolated from rest of the live system.
So, it can be concluded that in Main and Transfer Bus System the maintenance of circuit
breaker is possible without any interruption of power. Because of this advantage, the scheme
is very popular for 33 KV and 13 KV system.
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Double Bus System with Bypass Isolators

This is a combination of the double bus system and main bus and transfer bus system. In
Double Bus System with Bypass Isolators either bus can act as main bus and second bus as
transfer bus. It permits breaker maintenance without interruption of power which is not
possible in a double bus system, but it provides all the advantages of the double bus system.
It, however, requires one additional isolator (bypass isolator) for each feeder circuit and
introduces slight complication in system layout. Still, this scheme is best for an optimum
economy of the system, and it is the best excellent choice for 220 KV system.

( 6 ) Ring Bus System

The schematic diagram of the system is given in the figure. It provides a double feed to each
feeder circuit, opening one breaker under maintenance or otherwise does not affect supply to
any feeder. But this system has two major disadvantages. One as it is a closed circuit system
it is next to impossible to extend in future and hence it is unsuitable for developing systems.
Secondly, during maintenance or any other reason, if any one of the circuit breaker in ring
loop is switched off, the reliability of system becomes very poor as because closed loop
becomes opened. Since at that moment for any tripping of any breaker in the open loop causes
interruption in all the feeders between the tripped breaker and open end of the loop.

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Conclusion:
In this experiment, we successfully prepared a layout of a substation for a given bus
arrangement and voltage rating with all the necessary equipment. We followed a systematic
procedure that involved gathering the required information, familiarizing ourselves with
technical drawings and specifications, determining the substation area layout, placing the bus
arrangement, adding the necessary equipment, and considering safety measures.
By carefully considering factors such as available space, safety regulations, and future
expansion possibilities, we created a layout that meets the given specifications and
requirements. The layout ensures proper spacing, clearances, and accessibility for
maintenance activities. Additionally, we incorporated safety measures such as grounding
systems, protective enclosures, and fire protection to ensure the safety of personnel and
equipment.

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 Experiment 11
Aim :- Write a program for calculating voltage drop in a radial AC feeder.

Programming :-

% Radial AC Feeder Voltage Drop Calculator

% Constants
Z_base = 100; % Base impedance in ohms
V_base = 480; % Base voltage in volts
S_base = 1000; % Base power in kilovolt-amperes
% Feeder data
Z_line = 0.2 + 0.4i; % Line impedance in ohms
L_line = 1000; % Line length in meters
I_load = 200; % Load current in amperes
% Calculate line impedance per unit (p.u.)
Z_line_pu = Z_line / Z_base;
% Calculate series impedance of the line
Z_series = Z_line_pu * L_line;
% Calculate voltage drop
V_drop = Z_series * I_load;
% Calculate voltage at the load
V_load = V_base - V_drop;
% Display results
disp(['Voltage drop: ', num2str(abs(V_drop)), ' V']);
disp(['Voltage at the load: ', num2str(abs(V_load)), ' V']);

Results : -

Voltage drop : 894.4272 V

Voltage at the load : 803.99 V

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