FERTILIZATION

Fertilization is the process of a single sperm uniting with an egg to form a new human life.
During sexual intercourse, about 300 million sperm enter the vagina, but many die in the acidic
environment. However, some survive due to the protective elements provided in the fluid
surrounding them. The sperm must pass through the cervix and opening into the uterus, which
is usually tightly closed, but during ovulation, it remains open for a few days.

The sperm swim through the cervical mucus, which is thinned to a more watery consistency for
easier passage. Inside the uterus, muscular uterine contractions assist the sperm on their
journey toward the egg. The journey is perilous, and thousands of sperm die because resident
cells from the woman's immune system mistake the sperm for foreign invaders.

Next, the sperm head for the empty Fallopian tube or the tube containing the unfertilized egg.
Inside the Fallopian Tube, tiny cilia push the egg toward the uterus, and the sperm must surge
against this motion to reach the egg. Chemicals in the reproductive tract cause the membranes
covering the heads of the sperm to change, making them hyperactive and swimming harder and
faster towards their destination.

When the sperm reaches the egg, only a few dozen of the original 300 million sperm remain.
The egg is covered with a layer of cells called the Corona radiata. The sperm must push
through this layer to reach the outer layer of the egg, the Zona Pellucida. When sperm reaches
the Zona Pellucida, they attach to specialized sperm receptors on the surface, which triggers
their acrosomes to release digestive enzymes, enabling the sperm to burrow into the layer.

Inside the Zona Pellucida is a narrow fluid-filled space just outside the egg cell membrane. The
first sperm to make contact will fertilize the egg. Within a few minutes, their outer membranes
fuse, and the egg pulls the sperm inside. This event causes changes in the egg membrane that
prevent other sperm from attaching to it.

Next, the egg releases chemicals that push other sperm away from the egg and create an
impenetrable fertilization membrane. As the reaction spreads outward, the Zona Pellucida
hardens, trapping any sperm unlucky enough to be caught inside. Meanwhile, inside the egg,
the tightly packed male genetic material spreads out, and a new membrane forms around the
genetic material, creating the male pronucleus. The female genetic material awakens by the
fusion of the sperm with the egg, finishing dividing, resulting in the female pronucleus, which
also contains 23 chromosomes.

As the male and female pronuclei form, spider web-like threads called Microtubules pull them
toward each other, and the two sets of Chromosomes join together. This completes the process
of fertilization, and at this moment, a unique genetic code arises, instantly determining gender,
hair color, eye color, and hundreds of other characteristics. This new single cell, the zygote, is
the beginning of a new human being.
The cilia and the Fallopian Tube gently sweep the zygote toward the uterus, where it will implant
in the richer uterine lining, growing and maturing for the next nine months until ready for birth.
Thus, fertilization is the epic story of a single sperm facing incredible odds to unite with an egg
and form a new human life, which is the story of all of us.

Bullet points:

● During sexual intercourse, about 300 million sperm enter the vagina.
● Millions of sperm die in the acidic environment or flow out of the vagina, but some
survive thanks to the protective fluid surrounding them.
● The sperm must pass through the cervix and opening into the uterus, which usually
remains tightly closed.
● The cervix opens for a few days while the woman ovulates, and the sperm swim through
the cervical mucus, which thins to a more watery consistency for easier passage.
● Once inside the cervix, the sperm continue swimming toward the uterus, but millions will
die trying to make it through the mucus.
● Muscular uterine contractions assist the sperm on their journey toward the egg, but
resident cells from the woman's immune system destroy thousands more.
● Half the sperm head for the empty Fallopian Tube, while the other half swim toward the
tube containing the unfertilized egg.
● Inside the Fallopian Tube, tiny cilia push the egg toward the uterus, and the sperm must
surge against this motion to reach the egg.
● Chemicals in the reproductive tract cause the membranes covering the heads of the
sperm to change, making them hyperactive and swimming harder and faster toward their
destination.
● When the sperm reach the egg, they attach to specialized receptors on the surface of
the Zona Pellucida, triggering their acrosomes to release digestive enzymes that enable
the sperm to burrow into the layer.
● The first sperm to make contact will fertilize the egg, and within a few minutes, their outer
membranes fuse, and the egg pulls the sperm inside.
● The egg releases chemicals that push other sperm away from the egg and create an
impenetrable fertilization membrane, trapping any sperm unlucky enough to be caught
inside.
● The male and female genetic material join together, creating a new unique genetic code
that determines gender, hair color, eye color, and hundreds of other characteristics.
● The zygote, a single cell, is the beginning of a new human being.
● The cilia and the Fallopian Tube gently sweep the zygote toward the uterus, where it will
implant in the richer uterine lining and grow and mature for the next nine months until
ready for birth.

Questions:

1. What is fertilization?
Fertilization is the process by which a sperm cell and an egg cell join together to form a
zygote, which then develops into an embryo.

2. How many sperm enter the vagina during sexual intercourse?

Typically, millions of sperm are ejaculated during sexual intercourse, but only a small
fraction of them, usually around 200-300, actually reach the fallopian tubes where the
egg is located.

3. What happens to many of the sperm that enter the vagina?

Many of the sperm that enter the vagina are killed by the acidic environment, vaginal
immune cells, or are simply unable to swim through the cervix.

4. How do some of the sperm survive in the vagina?

Some sperm can survive in the vagina by moving towards the cervix and utilizing cervical
mucus as a nourishing medium.

5. What is the cervix and what is its role in fertilization?

The cervix is the lower part of the uterus that forms a narrow passage between the uterus
and the vagina. Its role in fertilization is to allow the passage of sperm from the vagina
into the uterus and ultimately to the fallopian tubes where fertilization occurs.

6. How do the sperm pass through the cervix and enter the uterus?

The sperm pass through the cervix and into the uterus by swimming through the cervical
mucus and navigating through the openings in the cervix.

7. What is the role of uterine contractions in fertilization?

Uterine contractions can help propel the sperm towards the fallopian tubes where they can
fertilize the egg.

8. How do resident cells from the woman's immune system affect the sperm?

Resident cells from the woman's immune system can attack and kill the sperm, but certain
immune cells in the reproductive tract can also help protect and nourish the sperm.

9. What happens to half of the sperm that reach the uterus?

Half of the sperm that reach the uterus are likely to go in the wrong direction, while the other
half will move towards the fallopian tubes where they may encounter an egg.

10. What are the tiny cilia and what is their role in fertilization?
Cilia are tiny hair-like structures that line the fallopian tubes and help to move the egg and
sperm towards each other.

11. What happens to the membranes covering the heads of the sperm during fertilization?

During fertilization, the membranes covering the heads of the sperm break down, allowing
the sperm to release enzymes that help them penetrate the layers surrounding the egg.

12. What is the Corona radiata?

The Corona radiata is a layer of cells that surrounds the egg, and it must be penetrated by
the sperm in order for fertilization to occur.

13. What is the Zona Pellucida and how does the sperm attach to it?

The Zona Pellucida is a thick outer layer that surrounds the egg and must also be
penetrated by the sperm in order for fertilization to occur. The sperm attach to the Zona
Pellucida through proteins on their surface that bind to specific receptors on the Zona
Pellucida.

14. What happens when the first sperm makes contact with the egg?

When the first sperm makes contact with the egg, a series of biochemical changes occur
that prevent other sperm from penetrating the egg.

15. What chemicals are released by the egg after the first sperm attaches?

After the first sperm attaches, the egg releases chemicals that help to complete the process
of fertilization, including the fusion of the genetic material of the sperm and egg.

16. What happens to sperm outside the egg after fertilization?

After fertilization, sperm that did not penetrate the egg typically die and are eventually
absorbed by the woman's body.

17. What happens to the male and female genetic material during fertilization?

During fertilization, the male genetic material in the form of sperm combines with the female
genetic material in the form of the egg to form a unique combination of genetic material
in the resulting zygote.

18. What are Microtubules and what is their role in fertilization?

Microtubules are protein fibers that play a key role in cell division, including the division of
genetic material during fertilization.

19. What happens when the male and female pronuclei join together?
When the male and female pronuclei join together, the genetic material from the sperm and
egg combine to form a diploid zygote.

20. What is the zygote?

Fertilized egg cell that results from the union of a female gamete (egg, or ovum)
with a male gamete (sperm).

21. Where does the zygote go after fertilization?

The zygote travels down the fallopian tube towards the uterus, where it will implant into the
uterine lining and begin to develop into an embryo.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

In this video, we will be looking at sexual reproduction in plants.

Did you know that there are an estimated 390,900 plant species known to science? This
diversity of plant species is, in part, due to sexual reproduction. In plants, sexual
reproduction is carried out in the flowers. The flowers contain the sexual organs.

Let’s start with labelling the different parts of a flower.

The petals and sepals help to protect the flower bud and can be brightly coloured or
scented to attract pollinators.

The stem and receptacle are the parts that connect the flower to the rest of the plant.

The stamen is the male part of the flower. It consists of the anther where pollen is produced
and the filament which is the stalk that supports the anther. These structures are
responsible for the production and positioning of pollen, the male gamete.

The female part of the flower is called the carpel and this consists of three parts: the stigma
– a sticky landing for pollen, the style - where the pollen grain descends and the ovary
where female gametes or sex cells are located. Within the ovary, ovules produce
female gametes.

So how does pollination work?

Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the male anther of one flower to the female stigma
of another. Flowers can be pollinated in different ways: By wind and water, or by
pollinators such as insects, birds and other animals.
 Flowers pollinated by pollinators are structurally different to those pollinated by wind or
water.

Look at the differences in size, scent and colour of petals, and the positioning of the stamen
and style. Here are some of the key differences. Why do you think they are different?

Did you know that pollinators are very important to our food supply? They pollinate plants
that are responsible for bringing us one out of every three bites of food!

Once a plant has been pollinated, fertilisation can occur. Fertilisation results in the
production of seeds. A mature pollen grain containing two male sex cells has landed on
the ‘female’ stigma of the same species. The pollen grain grows a pollen tube, that
goes down the ‘female’ style to the ovary where it enters through an opening called the
micropyle. The male sex cells travel from the pollen grain down the pollen tube to the
female ovule. Here, one male sex cell fuses with the female egg, fertilising it. This
develops into a seed. The other male sex cell attaches to two cells in the embryo sac,
forming an endosperm. This provides the starchy food for the seed to grow. The ovary
enlarges and becomes a fruit, surrounding the internal seeds.

The fruits and seeds are dispersed in many ways, some even by us humans, where they
will again grow into a new plant under the correct conditions, completing the long cycle
of sexual reproduction in plants!

So there we have sexual reproduction in plants. Pollination has to happen before

fertilisation. The male pollen is produced in the anther, where it is then dispersed during
pollination. The female parts of the flower are the stigma, style and the ovary.

Questions:

● How many plant species are known to science?

An estimated 390,900 plant species are known to science.

● What is the reason for the diversity of plant species?

Sexual reproduction is one of the reasons for the diversity of plant species.

● Where is sexual reproduction carried out in plants?

Sexual reproduction is carried out in the flowers.

● What do flowers contain?

Flowers contain the sexual organs.

● What are the parts of a flower that protect the flower bud and attract pollinators?
The petals and sepals are the parts of a flower that protect the flower bud and can be brightly
coloured or scented to attract pollinators.

● What are the parts of a flower that connect it to the rest of the plant?

The stem and receptacle are the parts of a flower that connect it to the rest of the plant.

● What is the male part of the flower called?

The male part of the flower is called the stamen.

● What are the two structures that make up the stamen?

The two structures that make up the stamen are the anther and the filament.

● What is the female part of the flower called?

The female part of the flower is called the carpel.

● What are the three parts of the carpel?

The three parts of the carpel are the stigma, the style, and the ovary.

● What is the function of the stigma?

The stigma is a sticky landing for pollen.

● What is the function of the style?

The style is where the pollen grain descends.

● Where are female gametes or sex cells located in the flower?

Female gametes or sex cells are located in the ovary.

● What do ovules produce?

Ovules produce female gametes.

● What is pollination?

Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the male anther of one flower to the female stigma of
another.

● What are the different ways in which flowers can be pollinated?

Flowers can be pollinated by wind, water, or by pollinators such as insects, birds and other
animals.
 ● How are flowers pollinated by pollinators different from those pollinated by wind or
water?

Flowers pollinated by pollinators are structurally different, including differences in size, scent,
colour of petals, and positioning of the stamen and style.

● Why are flowers pollinated by pollinators different from those pollinated by wind or
water?

The differences are to attract pollinators and facilitate successful pollination.

● Why are pollinators important to our food supply?

Pollinators are important to our food supply because they pollinate plants that are responsible
for bringing us one out of every three bites of food.

● What happens after a plant has been pollinated?

After a plant has been pollinated, fertilization can occur which results in the production of seeds.

● How does fertilization occur in plants?

Fertilization occurs when a mature pollen grain containing two male sex cells lands on the
female stigma of the same species. The pollen grain grows a pollen tube that goes down the
female style to the ovary where it enters through an opening called the micropyle. The male sex
cells travel from the pollen grain down the pollen tube to the female ovule. Here, one male sex
cell fuses with the female egg, fertilizing it. This develops into a seed.

● What is the role of the other male sex cell in fertilization?

The other male sex cell attaches to two cells in the embryo sac, forming an endosperm, which
provides the starchy food for the seed to grow.

● What happens to the ovary after fertilization?

The ovary enlarges and becomes a fruit, surrounding the internal seeds.

● How are fruits and seeds dispersed?

Fruits and seeds are dispersed in many ways, including by animals or humans, where they can
grow into a new plant under the correct conditions.

● What are the male parts of a flower?

The male parts of a flower are the anther, which produces pollen, and the filament, which
supports the anther.
 ● What are the female parts of a flower?

The female parts of a flower are the stigma, where pollen lands, the style, which supports the
stigma and allows the pollen tube to grow, and the ovary, which contains the ovules that
produce female gametes.

● What are the different stages involved in sexual reproduction in plants?

Pollination: Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the male anther of one flower to the female
stigma of another flower. This transfer can occur by different means, such as wind, water, or by
pollinators such as insects, birds, and animals. Once the pollen has landed on the stigma of a
compatible flower, it will start to germinate.

Fertilization: Once the pollen has landed on the stigma, the male sex cells (contained within the
pollen grain) grow a tube that penetrates the stigma and style to reach the ovary. One of the
male sex cells will then fuse with the female egg cell, resulting in fertilization. The other male
sex cell fuses with two other cells in the ovary, producing an endosperm that provides the
starchy food for the developing seed.

Seed and Fruit Development: After fertilization, the ovule will develop into a seed, which
contains the embryo and the endosperm, and the ovary will develop into a fruit. The fruit serves
to protect and nourish the seeds, as well as to aid in seed dispersal.

Germination: When the environmental conditions are right, the mature seed will germinate, and
a new plant will grow. The seedling will emerge from the seed and start to develop leaves and
roots, and eventually become a mature plant, ready to reproduce and start the cycle all over
again.

In summary, sexual reproduction in plants involves pollination, fertilization, seed and fruit
development, and germination. Each stage is important for the production of viable seeds and
the continuation of plant life cycles.

● Which part of the flower produces male pollen?

The male pollen is produced in the anther of the flower.

● What are the female parts of the flower?

The female parts of the flower are the stigma, style, and ovary.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Budding: In certain multicellular animals like Coelenterates, tunicate the body gives out a small
outgrowth known as a bud, which is supported by the parent body and ultimately develops into a
new individual. It gets its food from the parent body, then fully matures and gets detached from
the parent body to lead an individual existence.

Spore formation: It is generally noticed in simple multicellular organisms like Rhizopus (bread
mold). When bread is kept under moist, cool conditions in a dark place, after two days, fungi
with thread-like structures called hyphae develop on the bread mold. The reproductive cells,
called sporangia, consist of spores that can develop into new Rhizopus individuals. The spores
are covered by a thick wall, which protects them in unfavorable conditions until they come into
moist conditions.

Fragmentation: Spirogyra is a multicellular organism in which both sexual and asexual

reproduction takes place. During asexual reproduction, on maturation, Spirogyra breaks down
into small pieces called fragments, and each fragment grows as a new individual.

Note: Asexual reproduction produces offspring from a single parent without the involvement of
sex cells or gametes or germ cells.

QUESTIONS:

● How does budding occur in multicellular animals like Coelenterates and tunicates, and
what is the process by which the bud develops into a new individual?

Budding is a form of asexual reproduction that occurs in certain multicellular animals such as
Coelenterates and tunicates. It involves the development of a small outgrowth or bud from the
parent body, which ultimately becomes a new individual. The bud receives its nutrients from the
parent body and eventually matures before detaching to lead an independent existence.

● What are sporangia and spores, and how do they contribute to the reproductive cycle of
simple multicellular organisms like Rhizopus?

Spore formation is a mode of asexual reproduction commonly observed in simple multicellular

organisms such as Rhizopus, a type of bread mold. The reproductive cells, known as sporangia,
produce spores that can develop into new Rhizopus individuals under favorable conditions. The
spores are enclosed in a thick protective wall, which ensures their survival in unfavorable
conditions until they come into contact with moisture.

● How does fragmentation occur in Spirogyra, and what are the characteristics of the
resulting offspring?

Fragmentation is a form of asexual reproduction that occurs in Spirogyra, a multicellular

organism in which both sexual and asexual reproduction can occur. During asexual
reproduction, the mature Spirogyra breaks down into fragments, each of which can grow into a
new individual under favorable conditions. This process results in genetically identical offspring.

● What are the advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction in comparison to

sexual reproduction?
Asexual reproduction has both advantages and disadvantages compared to sexual
reproduction. Asexual reproduction is faster and more efficient than sexual reproduction since it
does not require the development and fusion of gametes. However, it leads to offspring that are
genetically identical to the parent, which reduces genetic diversity and may limit adaptability to
changing environments.

● How does asexual reproduction contribute to the diversity of life, and what are some
examples of organisms that exclusively reproduce asexually?

Asexual reproduction contributes to the diversity of life by allowing organisms to reproduce

without the need for a mate. Examples of organisms that exclusively reproduce asexually
include some bacteria, plants, and animals such as hydra, sea anemones, and starfish. Asexual
reproduction can also allow for the rapid colonization of new habitats and the exploitation of
underutilized resources.

STARFISH DIVIDING:
The information provided is about the distribution patterns of several species of starfish around
the New Zealand coasts, with a particular interest in a starfish that has an interesting mode of
reproduction. This species can divide in half and grow the missing arms, which provides a rapid
way of reproducing, resulting in a quick increase in population numbers. Sexual reproduction is
a more haphazard form of reproduction, and there are not many starfish in the world that can
divide in half. There are approximately 17 species, and New Zealand has three of those
species.

The starfish that the speaker is particularly interested in is called Alistair caster polyplex, and it

is only found in Oh taco harbor, although it is reported to occur throughout New Zealand. This

starfish is not normally found under rocks and is typically found towards the bottom of the shore

when the tide is quite low. The common name of the starfish is the four and four starfish

because it generally has eight arms, four of which are original arms, and four arms are new. It is

generally gray in color, sometimes almost blue, and it can be mottled.

There are two other species of starfish in New Zealand that also divide in half and have a similar

mode of reproduction. The first one is Alistair caster and Cygnus, which is known as the three

and three starfish. It has three longer arms and three slightly shorter ones and is orange in

color. The second one is called Costco mysterious Marie Carter, and it is very widely distributed,

occurring almost everywhere in New Zealand on the east and west coasts, in the intertidal and
down to subtitle. It has a very variable arm number, with as few as seven or eight arms, and as

many as 13 arms.

● How does the mode of reproduction of Alistair caster polyplex differ from that of other
starfish?

Alistair caster polyplex can divide in half and grow missing arms, which is not a common
form of reproduction in starfish.

● How many species of starfish in the world are capable of dividing in half?

There are approximately 17 species of starfish in the world that can divide in half.

● What is the common name of Alistair caster polyplex and how many arms does it
typically have?

The common name of Alistair caster polyplex is the four and four starfish, and it typically
has eight arms, four of which are original and four new.

● Where is Alistair caster polyplex typically found and what is its color?

Alistair caster polyplex is typically found towards the bottom of the shore when the tide is
quite low, and it is not normally found under rocks. Its color is generally gray, sometimes
almost blue, and it can be mottled.

● Are there any other starfish species in New Zealand that can divide in half? If yes, what
are their names and characteristics?

Yes, there are two other species of starfish in New Zealand that can divide in half. They are
Alistair caster and Cygnus, known as the three and three starfish, and Costco mysterious
Marie Carter.

● How does Alistair caster polyplex's population increase rapidly?

Alistair caster polyplex's population can increase rapidly because of its mode of
reproduction, which allows it to quickly grow new arms and split into two individuals.

● What is the distribution pattern of Costco mysterious Marie Carter in New Zealand?

Costco mysterious Marie Carter is widely distributed throughout New Zealand on the east
and west coasts, in the intertidal and down to subtitle.

● Why is sexual reproduction considered a more haphazard form of reproduction in

starfish?
Sexual reproduction in starfish is considered a more haphazard form of reproduction
because it relies on the chance meeting of male and female gametes in the water column.

● How does the number of arms of Costco mysterious Marie Carter vary?

The number of arms of Costco mysterious Marie Carter is highly variable, with as few as
seven or eight arms and as many as 13 arms.

● What is the significance of the mode of reproduction of Alistair caster polyplex in terms of
its population growth?

The mode of reproduction of Alistair caster polyplex allows for a rapid increase in population
numbers, which could have significant ecological implications if not kept in check.