Integration

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YOUR NOTES
A Level Maths CIE 
5. Integration
CONTENTS
5.1 Further Integration
5.1.1 Integrating Other Functions (Trig, ln & e etc)
5.1.2 Integrating with Trigonometric Identities
5.1.3 f'(x)/f(x)
5.1.4 Substitution (Reverse Chain Rule)
5.1.5 Harder Substitution
5.1.6 Integration by Parts
5.1.7 Integration using Partial Fractions
5.1.8 Integration Decision Making
5.2 Differential Equations
5.2.1 General Solutions
5.2.2 Particular Solutions
5.2.3 Separation of Variables
5.2.4 Modelling with Differential Equations
5.2.5 Solving & Interpreting Differential Equations
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5.1 Further Integration YOUR NOTES

5.1.1 Integrating Other Functions (Trig, ln & e etc)
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Integrating Other Functions (Trig, ln & e etc) YOUR NOTES
Isn’t integration just the reverse of differentiation? 

Yes, but remember “+c”, the constant of integration …
… unless finding a definite integral
Recognising common results helps to make integration easier
(See Differentiating Other Functions)
You are given all the standard integrals in the formula booklet
How do I integrate exponentials/ex?
The gradient of ekx is kekx

ie y = ekx, dy/dx = kekx
The reverse applies when integrating
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This is an example of reverse chain rule YOUR NOTES
Integrating 1/x
Remember 1/x = x-1

The method for integrating powers does not apply if the power is -1
Integrating sin and cos
Note the minus in the integral of sin x

The integral of tan x is ln|sec x| + c
1 1
Integrating 1 + x 2 and a2 + x 2
d 1
Recall that (tan−1x ) =
dx 1 + x2
1 1 1 −1 ⎛⎜ x ⎞⎟
Then ∫ 1 + x2
dx = tan−1x + c and ∫ a2 + x 2 dx = a
tan ⎜
⎝a
⎟+c
⎠
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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES
 Make sure you have a copy of the formula booklet during revision but don't try

to remember everything in the formula booklet.
However, do be familiar with the layout of the formula booklet – you’ll be able to
locate quickly whatever you are after, and you do not want to be searching
every line of every page!
For formulae you think you have remembered, use the booklet to double-
check.
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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

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5.1.2 Integrating with Trigonometric Identities YOUR NOTES
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Integrating with Trigonometric Identities YOUR NOTES
What are trigonometric identities? 

You should be familiar with the trigonometric identities
Make sure you can find them in the formula booklet
You may need to use the compound angle formulae or the double angle formulae
Note the difference between the ± and ∓ symbols!
sin(A ± B) ≡ sinA cosB ± cosA sinB
cos(A ± B) ≡ cosA cosB ∓ sinA sinB
tanA ± tanB ⎛⎜ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎞
tan(A ± B) ≡ ⎜A ± B ≠ ⎜⎜k + ⎟⎟ π ⎟⎟
1 ∓ tanA ⎝ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎠
sin2A ≡ 2sinA cosA
cos2A ≡ cos2A − sin2A ≡ 2cos2A − 1 ≡ 1 − 2sin2A
tan2A
tan2A ≡
1 − tan2A
How do I know which trig identities to use?

There is no set method
Practice as many questions as possible
Be familiar with trigonometric functions that can be integrated easily
Be familiar with common identities – especially squared terms
sin2 x, cos2 x, tan2 x, cosec2 x, sec2 x, tan2 x all appear in identitiesThis is a matter of
experience, familiarity and recognition
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How do I integrate tan2, cot2, sec2 and cosec2? YOUR NOTES
The integral of sec2x is tan x (+c) 

This is because the derivative of tan x is sec2x
The integral of cosec2x is -cot x (+c)
This is because the derivative of cot x is -cosec2x
The integral of tan2x can be found by using the identity to rewrite tan2x before integrating:
1 + tan2x = sec2x
The integral of cot2x can be found by using the identity to rewrite cot2x before integrating:
1 + cot2x = cosec2x
How do I integrate sin and cos?
For functions of the form sin kx, cos kx … see Integrating Other Functions
sin kx × cos kx can be integrated using the identity for sin 2A
sin 2A = 2sinAcosA
sinn kx cos kx or sin kx cosn kx can be integrated using reverse chain rule or substitution
Notice no identity is used here but it looks as though there should be!
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YOUR NOTES
sin2 kx and cos2 kx can be integrated by using the identity for cos 2A
For sin2 A, cos 2A = 1 - 2sin2 A
For cos2 A, cos 2A = 2cos2 A – 1
How do I integrate tan?

∫tan x dx = ln sec x  + c
This is not in the formula booklet
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sin x f '(x ) YOUR NOTES
It can be derived from writing tan x as

cos x
and recognising that ∫ f (x )
dx = ln  f (x ) 

Note that this is in the formula booklet
How do I integrate other trig functions?

The formulae booklet lists many standard trigonometric derivatives and integrals
Check both the “Differentiation” and “Integration” sections
For integration using the "Differentiation" formulae, remember that the integral of f'(x)
is f(x) !
Experience, familiarity and recognition are important – practice, practice, practice!
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Problem-solving techniques YOUR NOTES
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 Worked Example

 Exam Tip
Make sure you have a copy of the formulae booklet during revision.Questions are
likely to be split into (at least) two parts:
The first part may be to show or prove an identity
The second part may be the integration
If you cannot do the first part, use a given result to attempt the second part.
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5.1.3 f'(x)/f(x) YOUR NOTES

f'(x)/f(x)
Integrating fractions
The technique for integrating fractions depends on the type of fraction
For polynomial denominators see Integration using Partial Fractions
dy 1
If = then y = ln |x| + c – see Integrating Other Functions
dy x
The type of fraction dealt with here is a specific case of Reverse Chain Rule
f'(x )
How do I integrate f (x )
?
“The top is ‘almost’ the derivative of the bottom”

'almost' here meaning 'a multiple of' (see below)
The integral will involve ln |f(x)| - ie ln of the bottom
Due to reverse chain rule
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Why ‘almost’?
There may be coefficients to ‘adjust’ and ‘compensate’ for
 Exam Tip
If you're unsure if the fraction is of the form f’(x)/f(x), differentiate the
denominator.
Compare this to the numerator but you can ignore any coefficients.
If the coefficients do not match then ‘adjust’ and ‘compensate’ for them.
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 Worked Example

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5.1.4 Substitution (Reverse Chain Rule) YOUR NOTES

Substitution (Reverse Chain Rule)
What is integration by substitution?
Make sure you are familiar with Chain Rule and Reverse Chain Rule
In more awkward problems it is harder to spot the reverse chain rule
It is possible to use a substitution
These kinds of substitutions usually will not be given
The substitution is deemed ‘obvious’
How do I integrate when a substitution is not given?

Look to substitute the ‘second’ (rather than the ‘main’) function
STEP 1: Determine the substitution
What is the ‘main’ function? ‘second’ function?
STEP 2: Differentiate the substitution and rearrange
du/dx here can be treated like a fraction (eg × dx to get rid of fractions)
STEP 3: Replace all parts of the integral
all x terms should be replaced with equivalent u terms, including dx
if a definite integral change the limits from x to u too
STEP 4: Integrate and either …
…substitute x back in
or
… evaluate the definite integral using the u limits
STEP 5: Find c, the constant of integration, if needed
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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES
 A lot of the “work” in these problems happens in your head :


what is the ‘main’ function?
what should the substitution be?
are there any numbers to ‘adjust’ and ‘compensate’ for?
Be sure that what you write down is clear and easy to follow, and remember that
you can check your final answer by differentiating it.
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 Worked Example

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5.1.5 Harder Substitution YOUR NOTES

Harder Substitution
What is integration by substitution?
Make sure you are familiar with Reverse Chain Rule and Substitution (RCR)
In more difficult questions the substitution will be given to you
How do I integrate using a given substitution?

The process is very much the same as before but expect the algebra to be trickier
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STEP 1: Differentiate the substitution and rearrange YOUR NOTES
du 
here can be treated like a fraction (eg × dx to get rid of fractions)
dx
STEP 2: Replace all parts of the integral

all x terms should be replaced with equivalent u terms, including dx
if a definite integral change the limits from x to u too
STEP 3: Integrate and either
substitute x back in or
evaluate the definite integral using the u limits
STEP 4: Find c, the constant of integration, if needed
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 Worked Example

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5.1.6 Integration by Parts YOUR NOTES

Integration by Parts
What is Integration by Parts?
For integrating the product of two functions - reverse product rule

Crucially the product is made from u and dv/dx (rather than u and v)
Alternative notation may be used
How do I use Integration by Parts?
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The hardest part is choosing u and dv/dx as there is no method for doing so
u, ideally, becomes simpler when differentiated but this is not always possible
dv/dx should be a function that can be integrated fairly easily
Be wary of functions that ‘cycle’/’repeat’ when differentiated/integrated
ex → ex
sin x → cos x → -sin x → -cos x → sin x
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YOUR NOTES
STEP 1: Choose u and v’, find u’ and v

STEP 2: Apply Integration by Parts
Simplify anything straightforward
STEP 3: Do the ‘second’ integral
If an indefinite integral remember “+c”, the constant of integration
STEP 4: Simplify and/or apply limits
What happens if I cannot integrate v × du/dx?
It is possible integration by parts may need to be applied more than once
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ln x
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A classic ‘set piece’ in almost every A level maths textbook ever written!
In general, rewriting f(x) as 1×f(x) can be a powerful problem-solving technique
This could be a question in the exam
How do I find a definite integral using parts?
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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES
 Always think about what an elegant, slick, professional maths solution looks like

– solutions normally get more complicated at first but quickly get simpler.
If your work is continuing to get more complicated, stop and check for an error.
Try to develop a sense of ‘having gone too far down the wrong path’.
This general advice is useful to remember:
Is the second integral harder than the first?
Try swapping your choice of u and dv/dx
It is rare to have to apply integration by parts more than twice
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 Worked Example

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5.1.7 Integration using Partial Fractions YOUR NOTES

Integration using Partial Fractions
What are Partial Fractions?
This is the reverse process to adding (or subtracting) fractions
The common polynomial denominator is split into factors
Make sure you are familiar with the notes on Partial Fractions
How do I integrate using partial fractions?

Fractions with linear denominators can be integrated (See Integrating Other Functions)
A fraction with a polynomial denominator (degree 2+) can be integrated by …

… splitting using partial fractions
… integrating each partial fraction
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STEP 1: Factorise denominator, if needed

STEP 2: Express as partial fractions
STEP 3: ‘Adjust’ and ‘compensate’ each term so it can be integrated (See Reverse Chain
Rule)
STEP 4: Integrate each term (usually involves ln) and simplify
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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES
 When there are several parts, read the whole question:


An early part may be a “show that” involving partial fractions
A later part may be to integrate the original fraction
If you can’t do, or get stuck on, the partial fractions bit of the question you can
still use the “show that” result to help with the integration.
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 Worked Example

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5.1.8 Integration Decision Making YOUR NOTES

Decision Making
What is meant by integration and decision making?
The hardest part of integration is deciding which technique to use
There are lots of them!
How do I know which integration method to use?
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The main two requirements for success with integration are

Experience
Familiarity
Always check for Reverse Chain Rule …
… particularly after changing part of an integral …
… by using a trig identity for example
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Key to diagram above:

(1) Powers of x
(2) Substitution
(3) Obvious substitution
(4) Trig
(5) Algebraic Division
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f'(x ) YOUR NOTES
(6)
f (x ) 
(7) Partial fractions
(8) Integration by Parts
(9) Reverse Chain Rule
 Exam Tip
If in doubt, try something … You may gain marks for attempting a suitable
substitution.
You may gain marks from using a trig identity.
You may gain marks from attempting to simplify or rewrite a fraction.
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 Worked Example

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5.2 Differential Equations YOUR NOTES

5.2.1 General Solutions
General Solutions
What is a differential equation?
Any equation, involving a derivative term, is a differential equation

Equations involving only first derivative terms are called first order differential equations
Equations involving second derivative terms are called second order differential
equations
What is a general solution?
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Integration will be involved in solving the differential equation

ie working back to “y = f(x)”
A constant of integration, c is produced
This gives an infinite number of solutions to the differential equation, each of the form y =
g(x) + c (ie y = f(x) where f(x) = g(x) + c)
These are often called a family of solutions …
… and the solution y= g(x) + c is called the general solution
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 Worked Example

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5.2.2 Particular Solutions YOUR NOTES

Particular Solutions
What is a particular solution?
Ensure you are familiar with General Solutions first
With extra information, the constant of integration, c, can be found
This means the particular solution (from the family of solutions) can be found
What is a boundary condition/initial condition?

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A boundary condition is a piece of extra information that lets you find the particular YOUR NOTES
solution 
For example knowing y = 4 when x = 0 in the preceding example
In a model this could be a particle coming to rest after a certain time, ie v = 0 at time t
Differential equations are used in modelling, experiments and real-life situations

A boundary condition is often called an initial condition when it gives the situation at the
start of the model or experiment
This is often linked to time, so t = 0
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It is possible to have two boundary conditions

eg a particle initially at rest has velocity, v = 0 and acceleration, a = 0 at time, t = 0
for a second order differential equation you need two boundary conditions to find the
particular solution
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 Worked Example

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5.2.3 Separation of Variables YOUR NOTES

Separation of Variables
What does separation of variables mean?
Many differential equations used in modelling either …

… have two variables involved (ie x and y), or,
... involve a function of the dependent variable (ie y) only
This is particularly true where proportionality is involved
eg population change is dependent on both time and the size of the population
This type of question is covered in more detail in Modelling with Differential Equations
How do I know if I need to separate the variable in a question?
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There is a product of functions in different variables

ie dy/dx = f(x) × g(y)
It will not be possible to integrate directly from an equation in the form dy/dx= g(y)
How do I solve a separating variables question?
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STEP 1: Separate all y terms on one side and all x terms on the other side
STEP 2: Integrate both sides
STEP 3: Include one “overall” constant of integration
STEP 4: Use the initial or boundary condition to find the particular solution
STEP 5: Write the particular solution in sensible, or required, format
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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

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5.2.4 Modelling with Differential Equations YOUR NOTES

Modelling with Differential Equations
What can be modelled with differential equations?
dy
Derivative terms like are “rates of change”
dx
There are many situations that involve “change”
Temperature
Radioactivity
Medication
Sales
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How do I set up a model with differential equations?

The first task is to set up a differential equation from a description in words:
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Important phrases here are …

dy
… “rate of change” ... reference to a derivative term like
dx
k
… directly/inversely proportional to ... y = kx , y =
x
… formulate ... means to write as an equation
you may need to choose and define letters for variables
V for volume, h for height (of a cylinder, say)
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Some differential equations may involve Connected Rates of Change
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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES
 Use a highlighter (or underline) to pick out important words/phrases


Read and re-read the question several times
Jot down bits and pieces as you go; do not expect to go straight from reading
to writing down a differential equation.
 Worked Example
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5.2.5 Solving & Interpreting Differential Equations YOUR NOTES

Solving & Interpreting Differential Equations
How do I solve a differential equation?
Solving differential equations uses integration!
The precise integration method will depend on the type of question (see Decision Making)
Separation of variables is highly likely to be involved
Particular solutions are usually required to Differential Equations
An initial/boundary condition is needed
Solutions can be rewritten in a format relevant to the model
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The solution can be used to make predictions at other times

Temperature after four minutes
Volume of sales after another three months
How do I use the solution to a differential equation?
Questions may ask you to interpret your solutions in the context of the problem
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There could be links to other areas of A level maths – such as mechanics
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Sometimes multiple rates of change may be involved in a model or problem

YOUR NOTES
See Connected Rates of Change 
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How do I interpret a differential equation?

Models may not always be realistic in the long term
A population will not grow indefinitely – it will reach a natural limit
You will be expected to interpret and comment on the model
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 Worked Example

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A Level Maths CIE 

5.1 Further Integration YOUR NOTES

Integrating Other Functions (Trig, ln & e etc) YOUR NOTES

Isn’t integration just the reverse of differentiation? 

How do I integrate exponentials/ex?

The gradient of ekx is kekx

This is an example of reverse chain rule YOUR NOTES

Remember 1/x = x-1

Integrating sin and cos

Note the minus in the integral of sin x

Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

5.1.2 Integrating with Trigonometric Identities YOUR NOTES

Integrating with Trigonometric Identities YOUR NOTES

What are trigonometric identities? 

How do I know which trig identities to use?

How do I integrate tan2, cot2, sec2 and cosec2? YOUR NOTES

The integral of sec2x is tan x (+c) 

How do I integrate tan?

sin x f '(x ) YOUR NOTES

It can be derived from writing tan x as

How do I integrate other trig functions?

Experience, familiarity and recognition are important – practice, practice, practice!

Problem-solving techniques YOUR NOTES

5.1.3 f'(x)/f(x) YOUR NOTES

“The top is ‘almost’ the derivative of the bottom”

There may be coefficients to ‘adjust’ and ‘compensate’ for

5.1.4 Substitution (Reverse Chain Rule) YOUR NOTES

How do I integrate when a substitution is not given?

Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 A lot of the “work” in these problems happens in your head :

5.1.5 Harder Substitution YOUR NOTES

How do I integrate using a given substitution?

STEP 1: Differentiate the substitution and rearrange YOUR NOTES

STEP 2: Replace all parts of the integral

5.1.6 Integration by Parts YOUR NOTES

For integrating the product of two functions - reverse product rule

How do I use Integration by Parts?

STEP 1: Choose u and v’, find u’ and v

Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

5.1.7 Integration using Partial Fractions YOUR NOTES

How do I integrate using partial fractions?

A fraction with a polynomial denominator (degree 2+) can be integrated by …

STEP 1: Factorise denominator, if needed

Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 When there are several parts, read the whole question:

5.1.8 Integration Decision Making YOUR NOTES

How do I know which integration method to use?

The main two requirements for success with integration are

Key to diagram above:

f'(x ) YOUR NOTES

5.2 Differential Equations YOUR NOTES

Any equation, involving a derivative term, is a differential equation

Integration will be involved in solving the differential equation

5.2.2 Particular Solutions YOUR NOTES

What is a boundary condition/initial condition?

Differential equations are used in modelling, experiments and real-life situations