sxwas intended for use by more than one person ata time, Multiuser aipable many people to have accounts on a single fons viedata kept secure from others. Multitasking enables many people ny programs on the compute tthe same ime, with each person porn more than one program. The person assigned to manage all ofa tinux systemn’s resources is called the system administrator. There are mainly aad system user oot user; This is also called super user and would have complete ‘aj unfettered control of the system. A super user can Tun any commands without any restriction. This user should be assumed as a system sninistrator, The default prompt for the root user is @ pound sign (also cileda hash mark):#. the al three types of users in Linux: root user, regular user, users have the necessary privileges to perform running word processors, files in their own home ally have administrative Regular user: Regular Sindard tasks on a Linux computer such as tabases, and Web browsers. They can store ectories Since regular users do not norm: Mivilees, they cannot accidentally delete critical operating system iein Files, The default prompt fora regular users Simpy © on needed for the ‘operation of System user: System accounts are those Pecific: compon i yecounts eo example mail accounts: ‘These a se ‘i ur system, and any ‘sully needed for some specific function on ¥°ration pe on accounl Only the ser TOOL User fare) J+ ‘ecounts and group accounts, rk interfac on — It used 10 be ' configure network interfaces as wo jnterfaces- Now, many Linux deskto and stoP network interfaces from totally up to Mas to he r00t user tg ta Pa allow nese tn 81 hong their ¢ Fegular users to stg lesktop Using aa many lege Managet- servers — Configuring web servers, filesery servers, mail servers, and dozens of other s, privilege, as does starting and stopping th Pe {itty ers, domain name eIVETS require root Bes, t i lose ‘i that services Fun as Non-Toot users, and content, such sre Often, tet, | geadded to servers by non-root users if you configure yor earn jour system to allow that. « Security features — Setting up security features, such as firewalls and user access lists, is usually done by the root user. It’s also up to the root user to monitor how the services are being used and make sure that server resources are not exhausted or abused. Common Administrative Tasks The Common Administrative Tasks can be classified as: Judes: the free disk space checking for the system performance, user yecific functions etc.) System automation which. inc! ‘ad reporting periodic backups, data ‘count maintenance (creation, deletion etc), Business sp ‘monthly/quarterly/yearly report, (Pushing data to a web server, running 1d document p Documentation: ‘A good system é licies, Procedures, and Changes- : stem administrator should be ® & ware of at least ee do, what cscs cree dministrator shoul Communication; A good SY / nicator too, All the users shoule 2 system administrator: what he 18 going he has done.128 raentifying Administrative Files Configuration and Log fic, entify ckofitself Linux files are grouped according 1.4, J go there are separate directories for configu ia og file 10 store the data of logins and the 1 people are trying to access the comm ing with system admin. The functions Linux k functionality and usagi and log files keep th user can monitor the system (0 illegally, These files are dea administrative files are the following: + Setting the Run Level + System Services + User Management + Network Settings + Scheduling Jobs * Quota Management | + Backup and Restore + Adding and Removing software/packages + Setting a Printer | + Monitoring the system (general, logs) | * Monitoring any specific services running. Eg. DNS, DHCP, ! NIS, NPT, Proxy etc, Configuration Files Configuration files on a Linux system that control user p system applications, daemons, services, and other administrative ta multi-user, multi-tasking environment. These tasks include accounts, allocating disk quotas, managing e-mails and news; configuring kernel Parameters, In Linux each the configuration file format. accounts, network addresses, files (configuration fil The advantage of plai €s, or GUI pteferences— is stored i ] le). This has some advantages and some d intext files is that it’s easy to read andva administration any text editor will do. The d guration files, nO error checki rogram tat reads these files to find out Svar tayal a eed Bore erie oe the won ‘YOU set up the files votre interface t0 fail, The two major locations of cor nfigu - uration files are ; where your personal configuration files asiloa) adic eee (which holds system-wide configuration fles).The following ate s interesting configuration files in /etc: lowing are some « etc/passwd — Stores account information for all valid users for the system. Also includes other information, such as the home directory and default shell. /etc/printcap— Contains definitions for the printers configured for your computer. /etc/shadow — Contains encrypted passwords for users who are defined in the passwd file. /etc/shells — Lists the shells that are available on the system, as well as their locations. Jete/group — Identifies group names and group IDs (GIDs) that are defined on the system. /ete/gshadow — Contains shadow passwords for groups. /ete/hosts — Contains IP addresses and host names that you can teach from your computer. Jetc/inittab — Contains information that defines which programs start and stop when Linux boots, shuts down, or goes into different sates in between. This configuration file is the first one read when Linux starts the init process. : /ete/login.defs - Configuration file for the login command. : [ete/skel- Contains files and directories that are automatically copied ii ed. over to a new user’s home directory when new uae creat “2 /ete/default/useradd - Contains default values for adding mew users:ee ts 130 a Log Files ages about the system, inclu and applications running on it, There are diferen formation. For example, there is a default System jg security messages, anda log file for cron tasks, (gg scripts at a given date and time) i SS Log files ar files that contain me the kernel, services, files for different in! file, a log file just for allows users to run commands or ful when trying to troubleshoot a probjg with the system such as trying to load a kernel driver or when looking. f unauthorized login attempts to the system. So we can use Jog files to hal tracking the different problems. Most log files are located in the /var/ 4 directory. The following are some interesting log files in /var/log: Log files can be very use © /var/log/messages: Contains many general informational messag about the system. /varflog/secure: All user authentication events are logged here. stores all security related messages including authentication failu ¢ /var/log/boot.log: This is the repository of booting rel information and messages logged during system startup ¢ /var/og/kern.log: It contains information logged by the kem ¢ /var/log/faillog:This file contains information on failed log attempts. * /var/log/cron:This log file records information on cron j0 Whenever a cron job runs, this log file records all rele) information including successful execution and error mes case of failures, ppd; ee Alnsl servers related logs are stored here. re sent or received during a particular p Role of system administrator i activities; following are the Service to its users, This involves a Vse bain — ‘Adding new users to the system a directories and basic privileges, 131 nd configuring their home Installing any new software, includin ofthe operating system, or bug fixes, Monitoring the usage of the file s c a yystem, ensuring that using too much disk space and t) Tee a hat all backups are carried out ‘¢ Responding to problems from users, attempti 7 F s S, ipting to track de and meeting with suppliers as appropriate. Se sgee Installing new hardware components. applications, new versions «Ensuring the smooth operation of any network services, such as electronic mail or remote access to other machines. ; Managing user accounts-adding & deleting users Adding and managing users are common tasks for Linux systems administrator. User accounts keep boundaries between the people who use your systems and between the processes that run on your systems: Groups area way of assigning rights to your system that can be assigned to multiple users at once. : Users who want to log in to a Linux computer must have an existing user account, which consists of properties that allow a user to access files mation can be created and folders stored on the computer. This account info : and stored on the computer itself or on another computer on the neswork. ‘Accounts stored on the computer are called local user accounts. ‘Accounts stored in eDirectory are called eDirectory user accounts. Adding, users - useradd The command to add new user is useraad [options] useradd ‘command for sae a useradd. The synatx is: Ifthe system administrator uses then he must set an initial password for the user using pass passwd [options] Options used wi Options ‘comm | -dhome dir | -e expire date | bee 1 in the /et The new user inserts necessar Set the home directory to use for the account. The. deta TMs Atm ra ssw information se da stop flee file Al, Jetc/shado so ry entries in ith useradd command Meaning. - Provide a description of the new user account, Typical this will be the person’s full name. Replace Comment with the name of the user account is to name is the same as the login name and to place ig) in /home. Replace home_dir with the directory name toll use Rather than create a new account, save the supplied information as the new default settings for any new accounts that are created. Assign the expiration date for the account in YYYY- MM-DD format. Replace expire_date with a date you, want to use, -f days. Set the number of days after a password expires. until] the account is Permanently disabled. The default, -1,| disables the option. Setting this to 0 disables the account| immediately after the password has. expired. Replace - (that’s minus one) with the number to use. 3 -8 group Set the primary group the new user will be in. Rep Sroup with the group name. Without this option, anew cep is serene’ that is the same as the user name and used as that user’s Primary grou -G grouplist i Ev. = Ee mate list of groups that user belongs to. : the cea Create the user’s home directory and oP) [eles in theskeleton directory (/etc/skel) to it. re] |a adiration — = | Allow the creation of 2 133 f | Fost | Enter a password for the account y ? must be an enerypted password, awed | Specify the command shell to us Options used with passwd command h 4 User account with a duplicate (non-unique) UID. Du are adding, This for this account Specify the user ID number for the n-separated fields; each word(x) stored in Be Shell. Fi f seven colo! The above entry contains a set o! field has its own meaning. The fields eee directory, ‘“c/shadow file, User ID, Group ID, : ting: it fo eradd command performs n for Torvalds, the us‘ idd command pe! the accoun' ————— ||Lint Ady Mira jult/useradd fi} 134 ; Reads ein. deps and /e ead les to é BCL dep ne /etc/los : : ; : jh reat eating accounts. values to us It n cre va Si . .¢ parameters to find out which defi, Checks command-line pat mall to override, as a new user entry in # he /ete/passwd and /etc/shady, e Create: : he default values an‘ , fi d.command-line parameters, based on #l @ iu Creates any new group entries in the /efc/group file. © é : the user’s name, i ‘Creates a home directory, based on the home directory. . ©. Copies any files located within the /etc/skel directory to the ney home directory. This usually includes login and application stay scripts. Example2: The useradd command is told to create a home directory Tarvalds (-m), make users theprimary group Torvalds belongs to (-2) add to the groups Linux and Unix and assign fcsh as primary command shell (8). I$ sudo useradd -c "Linus Leora rir Pari or eoer Tar ‘ion tokens updated successfully Modifying users with usermod command After creating user accounts, charige the attributes of directory, login name, logi case “usermod’ comman , in some scenarios where we nee an existing user such as, change uset’s hom in shell, password expiry date, ete, wherei™ is used. Syntax is as follows: usermod [options] “Susername>— = —- 135 Fe omment” | Provide a description ofthe new i , User account, Typica will be the person’s full name. Replace cera aly this name of the user account ment with the Le dir | Set the home directory to use for the account \¢ di The default is | Frome dit eit ome rectory to use for the account. The default is fe same as the login name and to place it in / home. Replace home_dir with the directory name to use “expire date | Assign the expiration date for the account in YYYY-MM- DD format. Replace expire date with a date you want to use. Ta Set the number of days after a password expires until the account is permanently disabled, The default, -1, disables the option. Setting this to 0 disables the account immediately after the password has expired. Replace -I (that’s minus one) with the number to use. a -g group Set the primary group the new user will be in. Replace group with the group name. Without this option, a new group is created that is the same as the user name and is used as that R ‘user’s primary group. F | egrouplist || Set the list of groups that user belongs to. i \a moving the contents ‘of the home directory from existing home wi dir to new dir. a ‘A group having the same name as the user being added to the a system will be created by default. 1 Enter a password for the account you are adding, This must be an encrypted password. Specify the command shel to use for this account ify the user ID number for the account a fo the name supplied after 1 q change login name of account ample ~usermod -s /bin/esh Torvalds Deleting users- userdel cena command from the system, js used to remove a user me mere : ies pertaining t© the specified user from ts three fil che General format is: ‘etcipasswd,Jercshadow, an4 /ee/270¥?-Line Ady, sry ie ie me> =: userdel [options] The chmod utility support two modes for modifying permissions: * Symbolic Mode * Absolute(Numeric) Mode 1. Symbolic Mode e operators to set the The symbolic mode uses letters and som Demission, Wz asing the symbotic mode the chmod comimans Iss the ‘lowing syntax: chmod [ug 0 aff -=} The name of group will change into newname. To change the group ID ary eos To change the group GID to a non-unique value, To change the encrypted password xample: groupadd oldgroup //Creates new group oldgroup groupmod -n newgroup oldgroup //Change the group name to newgroup groupmod —g 9090 newgroup //Change the group ID of newgroup to 9090 ‘Temporary disabling of users accounts Linux systems allow you to disable access to particular user account without changing anything from the account. This might be useful ifyou do not want to remove user account permanently but, you Just want it disabled and no longer able to use the system. The disabled vse" will still ceive emails for example, but he will not be able to login and check tee Rae care tcamporarily disabled or permanently SO disable user account: ‘There are two methods to temporary 1. Editing /etc/shadow file 2. using passwd command ting /etc/shadow file - ee s jorarily by J event Sa sfites en fed inthe file etc/shadow. or“! at- Liner Adminisy won't permit login for this account. Whenever This means that “*” and “! ine asterisk and the user acc you want to enable the account, just case f is back in operation, with its old passwor For example you want to disable user “Torvalds” then you can do jig as follows: vi /ete/shadow Torvalds:*$1$narMEFm6$fhA | puOU422HiSL Saget ip 211193:0:99999:7:-1:-1:134539228 Here, the second field is the encrypted password. You can prefix the password with “*” or “!”, This will render user account inaccessible and i will mean that no login is permitted for that user. 2. Using passwd command user password. Torvalds;!!$1$eFd7EIOgSEeCk6X gk ktWSUgi2pGUpk.:13852:0:99999:7::: Now in case if you want enable the account just unlock it using -U option as follows: ‘You can also enable account by removing manually the “!” chara from the user’s Password line in /etc/shadow. Creating and mounting file system A fille system is the me uses to keep track of files organized on the disk, that is used to store th thods and data structures that an operating system Ona disk or partition; that is, the way the files are The word is also used to refer to a partition or 4 e files or the type of the file system.efore any partition or and actual data structures need to be x of all the records on the disk, This Sk is used ag 'ystemy, ni 14 file system, it is i tial ilized Written to the disk w ep: a onto thedisk which ke Process is called making , fi g a file A file system is either the device file associated pice ons the directory where the fle system is momen nent requirement fo mount a partition or to use a parti a eae The basic wet frst be installed on it, This is al ae data blocks. Creating a file system writes information to the device and create iyder of the empty space. This file system-related data consumes a iT ntage of the space. The remaining space on the disk drive is mk into ‘small, consistently sized segments called blocks. Linux supports a number offile system types, some of which are described as follows eu ae oa High performance for fixed disk and removable media file system SO a process of creating inodes ext3 Journaling version of ext2 | ext4 Supports larger files and file system sizes Vfat MS-DOS file system useful when sharing files between | Windows and Linux High-performance journaling file system storage system: |__Birfs [| Addresses scalability requirements of large tems_| Creating a file system The command to build a mkfs, The syntax for the comma! a 5 mbfs [options] device for each file s: a device, or hard disk Linux file system 0 ind is: stem type: The depending on the ee vumarized lO"a Ui han, an a, uth filesystem, (ext2,¢; Select,he-type of the filesy me ext2. default file system tY1 Bios Search for bad blocks and initialize the bad Doris © accordingly Ennai duce verbose output, all fle ya Beis commands that are executed. Specifying gption more than once inhibits execution of an, | system-specific commands. This is really only yor for testing. es Display version information and exit. Option -V disig~ version information only when it is the only parame. otherwise it will work as —verbose. , “version Example: To make a ext2 files system on a hard disk, use the following The default file system type created when using thé mkfs command: ext2. Following commands create an ext2 file system on the specified device Here sda2 means second partition of the first HDD: mkfs /dev/sda2 mke2fs /dev/sda2 mkfs.ext2 /dev/sda2 To create an ext3 file system, use any of the following commands mkfs —t ext3 /dev/sda2 mke2fs -t ext3 /dev/sda2 mkfs.ext3 /dev/sda2 To create an ext4 file system, use any of the following command ; mkfs +t ext4 /dev/sda2 ‘ mke2f —t ext /dev/sda? eet mkfs.ext4 /dev/sda2 To see which supported = ‘ehh use the Is /sbin/mkfs* ae types are installed in yousnaivtaion F punting He _— —=-— a The meaning of Mounting is to attacy tem 10 the currently accessible file Sana int Sony structure begins with the root directory, wh Ber contains allother diectories and files onthe oe forward slash (/). The currently accessible files that can DE accessed at given time w: Y ly created. file . On Linux 08, ichis the directory j ea ands referred by stem isthe file syste ithout special programming orsertnes, File systems on different partitions and remoy: . (os DVDS or USB Mash crives, mstbeatachedo eee jp be accessed. To attach a partition or device, a mount point a @ created. Mount point refers to the empty directory the caneaty svailable file system with which a newly created or additional filesystem t mounted. The /mnt directory already exists in Linux. This directory ‘vith its subdirectories like /mnt/floppy, /mnvlusb are intended specifically fo be used as mount points for removable media such as CDROMS, USB key drives and floppy disks. So a mount point is simply 2 directory created with the mkdir command. After a directory, or mount point, is created, attach the partition by using the mount ‘command. Syntax for the mount command is: mount -b sectorsize Specify the sector size of the disk. Specify the number of cylinders of the disk. Specify the number of heads of the disk. Specify the number of sectors per track of the disk List the partiti : mare ie ie oaioa tables for the specified devices 3 : 7 splay the size of the Partition (in blocks) :To lists all the pattitions on your system, use:artitions on the Specific device, use sk’s partitions, you have to enter incor Il commands which are available for fdisk, ommand mode for the first disk device: Silisk /dev/sda The followingiW Ady vag display units {verify the pation te write table co isk and exit pperts only) cal Command (m for help): Meaniny [Command mode option | [To print listof commands —_1“To create a new partition fi To delete a partition To print current partition table eee | Create a New Disk Partition: To create a new partition; type ‘n’ in command mode. While creating anew partition, it will ask you two options ‘extended* or ‘primary’ partition creation. Press ‘e* for extended partition and ‘p‘ for primary partition. Yo. 1 will then be prompted to enter the first cylinder or sector number of the partition to be created. You may press Enter to accept the defaults, whichis the first free sector on the disk. Then, specify the last sector number of ie Partition to be created. You may press Enter to use all available space ai the first sector or enter a specific size such as +2G or +256M for a2 gigabyte or 256 megabyte partition respectively. —~ =| 5 After creating a new Partition, you should run ‘w‘ command to alttt and’ save new changes to partition table and i ‘p Verify newly created partition, Ea After the new. ae Partition i partition using ion is creat ite cee ted, you need to format the newly creat re mifs.extd /dev/sda2 er formattis Sa: flag ‘s* (displays sen ets Check the size of that partition 1 size of any specifig on with fdisk command. This way YO Siisk-s feyjagyfdisk dev/ada nin memory only, ‘w), Until you decide to write them ‘To delete a partition for the hard disk and free up space occupied by that partition enter ‘d* in command mode. Then you will be prompted to cnler partition numbet that you want to delete, Then run “w* command to alter andisave new changes to partition table and reboot for changes. For example, if you want to delete the partition 4 from /dev/sda hard disk, then justtype 4. Then it will delete partition number 4° (je, /devisda4) disk and free space in partition table. : — Tae156 = . Installing and removing packages with rpm command Jageisa consolidation of files needed to Provide a fey i ‘An RPM pack gor, a photo viewer, or a file server. Inside an Rp such as a word pro onfiguration files, and documentation that maja can be the contre, However, an RPM file also contains metadata jl ise es sida about the contents of that package, where the pack, Se eat jt needs to run, and other information. Each sof Pela is actually an RPM package, consisting of an archive of so files and information about how to install those files. Each archive regi asa single file with a name that ends with .7pm, indicating it isa softy package that can be installed by the RedHat Package Manager. RPM (Red Hat Package Manager) is a default open source and mg popular package management utility for Red Hat based systems (RHEL, CentOS and Fedora). The tool allows system administrators users to install, update, uninstall, query, verify and manage software packages in Unix/Linux operating systems. The RPM fon knowns .rpm file, that includes compiled software programs and needed by the packages. This utility only works with packages that bu on .rpm format. © RPMis free and released under GPL (General Public License). © RPM keeps the information of all the installed packages unde var/lib/rpm database, * RPMis the only way to install packages under Linux systems. * RPM deals with .rpm files, which contains the actual inform about the packages such it i a as: what it is, from where comes, dependencies info, version info etc, There are five basic modes for RPM command is Install : It is used to install on any RPM package.a ’ Tnstall the package [Giastallithe packag ‘date package, same removed. s install but any previou = ly Previous y ~ version is ee Perform query operation List all installed packages in system ‘List all configuration files from package List all documentation files from fee List all dependent packages Provide information about package all files from package ind the package which belon: Perform query jn individual package package we use -i options. h Eg: rpm —-q MySql ‘To listall installed packages insystem, We pm —qa 6 We can use -ga option with last, it will rpm packages. rpm —qa —last 7. To get more detailed information about a package s release, architecture, group, size, build date, install vendor we can use following command. rpm -qi Eg: rpm—qi MySql 8, To view all the files of an installed rpm packages, use the list) with rpm command. = rpm -4l Ss Be the fem superuser, tare the different users i Users in Li Differentiate sudo Sie in Linux? Define useradd command He low to set a Password for the ‘TeW user? Define userde] ot What is chmod aes What is the us, © OF chown Svmcommand? 1 2 3. 4, ot 6 Defi T Den Pade Command, 8 9,"what is the + hat is disk partitioning? __ pansion powto-aztete ® grouy jch command is used for mot z fi whi unting file system? an ferentiate uname and hostname command. what is apm? use of mkfs command? Part B ‘What are the roles of system administrator? Write note on configuration and log files. Write note on how to add and delete a user. How to set permission for a file? | Howto change the ownership of a file? . Write note on how to add and delete a group. ‘What are the different methods to temporary disable a user account? What are the commands used for monitoring system performance? | Write note on creating and mounting file system. How disk partitioning is performed? |. Write note on rpm packages. Part C Explain the common administrative tasks in Linux. 5 What is file system? Explain how to create and mount a file system in Linux. Explain the following commands: a, Useradd b) userdel ¢) Groupadd d)groupdel b. Chmod and chown