INFILTRATION AND PERCOLATION: PROCESSES AND MEASUREMENTS

Infiltration is the process of water entering the soil. The rate of infiltration is the
maximum velocity at which water enters the soil surface. When the soil is in good condition or
has good soil health, it has stable structure and continuous pores to the surface. This allows water
from rainfall to enter unimpeded throughout a rainfall event.

A low rate of infiltration is often produced by surface seals resulting from weakened
structure and clogged or discontinuous pores. Infiltration rate in soil science is a measure of the
rate at which soil is able to absorb rainfall or irrigation. It is measured in inches per hour or
millimeters per hour. The rate decreases as the soil becomes saturated. If the precipitation rate
exceeds the infiltration rate, runoff will usually occur unless there is some physical barrier. It is
related to the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the near-surface soil. The rate of infiltration can
be measured using an infiltrometer. We should differentiate between percolation and infiltration
Percolation is the process by which water moves through soil because of gravity. It should be
mentioned that the main reason of studying Infiltration is determining the runoff in the rain fall-
runoff relation. The rate and quantity of water which infiltrates is a function of soil type, soil
moisture, soil permeability, ground cover, drainage condition, depth of water table i.e. water
characteristics and intensity and volume of precipitation. Infiltration is the downward movement
of water from the land surface into the soil profile. Some water that infiltrates will remain in the
shallow soil layer, where it will gradually move vertically and horizontally through the soil and
subsurface material. Eventually, it might enter a stream by seepage into the stream bank. Some
of the water may continue to move deeper (percolate), recharging the local groundwater aquifer.
A dry soil has a defined capacity for infiltrating water. The capacity can be expressed as a depth
of water that can be infiltrated per unit time, such as inches per hour. soil has a defined capacity
for infiltrating water. The capacity can be expressed as a depth of water that can be infiltrated per
unit time, such as inches per hour.
Factors Affecting Infiltration Capacity

 Slope of the land

The steeper the slope, the less the infiltration or seepage.

 Degree of Saturation

The more saturated the loose Earth materials, the less the infiltration.
 Porosity

Porosity is the percentage of open space in earth surface. The greater the
porosity, the greater the amount of infiltration.

 Compaction

The clay surfaced soils are compacted even by the impact of rain drops which
reduce infiltration.

 Vegetation

Grasses, trees and other plants capture falling precipitation on leaves and
branches keeping that water from being absorbed into the ground.
 Land Use

Roads, parking lots, and buildings create surfaces that are not longer
permeable. Thus, infiltration is less.

 Temperature

At high temperature viscosity decreases and infiltration increases.

Methods of measuring Infiltration

A. Lab Measurements (Rain fall simulator)

A device (sprinklers) that simulate the rainfall with certain intensity, rate and time by
placing the soil with whatever conditions I like (slope, soil characteristics, etc.) taking in
consideration all the boundary conditions for the artificial water shed developed and by
measuring the volume at the predefined outlet the infiltration will be the difference between the
volume out from the sprinklers and the volume measured from the outlet.

B. Field Measurements (Infiltrometers)

Single ring infiltrometer

The single ring involves driving a ring into the soil and supplying water in the ring either
at constant head or falling head condition. Constant head refers to condition where the amount of
water in the ring is always held constant. Because infiltration capacity is the maximum
infiltration rate, and if infiltration rate exceeds the infiltration capacity, runoff will be the
consequence, therefore maintaining constant head means the rate of water supplied corresponds
to the infiltration capacity. The supplying of water is done with a Mariotte's bottle. Falling head
refers to condition where water is supplied in the ring, and the water is allowed to drop with
time. The operator records how much water goes into the soil for a given time period. The rate of
which water goes into the soil is related to the soil's hydraulic conductivity.
Double ring infiltrometer
Double ring infiltrometer requires two rings: an inner and outer ring. The purpose is to
create a one dimensional flow of water from the inner ring, as the analysis of data is simplified.
If water is flowing in one-dimension at steady state condition, and a unit gradient is present in
the underlying soil, the infiltration rate is approximately equal to the saturated hydraulic
conductivity. An inner ring is driven into the ground, and a second bigger ring around that to
help control the flow of water through the first ring. Water is supplied either with a constant or
falling head condition, and the operator records how much water infiltrates from the inner ring
into the soil over a given time period.

Methods of calculations of Infiltration

Infiltration can be measured by calculation of infiltration rate. The infiltration rate (ƒ),
expressed in inches per hour or centimeters per hour, is the rate at which water enters the soil at
the surface. If water is ponded on the surface, the infiltration occurs at the potential infiltration
rate. If the rate of supply of water at the surface, for example by rainfall, is less than the potential
infiltration rate then the actual infiltration rate will also be less than the potential rate. Most
infiltration equations describe the potential rate. The cumulative infiltration F is the accumulated
depth of water infiltrated during a given time period and is equal to the integral of the infiltration
rate over that period:

where τ is a dummy variable of time in the integration. Conversely, the infiltration rate is the
time derivative of the cumulative infiltration:

A. Horton’s Equation
Several rainfall-runoff generating processes have been recognized over the years (Dunne, 1978;
Freeze, 1980; Beven, 1989). The transformation of precipitation into surface runoff is controlled
by the independent interaction of many spatially variable processes. Horton runoff (Horton,
1933) and Dunne runoff (Dunne and Black, 1970) are perhaps the two most important
conceptual models for surface runoff. Horton runoff is considered the excess of precipitation
intensity over soil infiltration rate at a point (Freeze, 1974).

f(t) = f + ( f - f ) e-kt

where f(t) is the infiltration at time t (cm/hr), f0 is the initial infiltration rate (cm/hr), fc
is the constant infiltration rate (cm/hr), and k is a decay constant.

Example:
The initial infiltration capacity of a watershed is estimated as fo = 1.5 in/hr, and the time
constant taken to be k=0.35 hr^-1. The equilibrium capacity is estimated as fc=0.2 in/hr. What is
the values of infiltration rate and cumulative infiltration at t=30 min.
Answer: 1.291 in/hr ; 0.696in

B. Philip’s Equation
Philip (1957) solved Richards equation under less restrictive conditions by relating conductivity
and diffusivity to the soil moisture content. The cumulative infiltration F can expressed

F = S t1/2 + Kt

where S is sorptivity. The infiltration rate at time t can be obtained by differentiating the above
equation
Example:
Compute the infiltration rate and the cumulative infiltration after 1 hour. If after 15 min
the cumulative infiltration was 30 mm. K = 0.4mm/hr.
Answer: 30.3 mm/hr ; 60.2 mm

C. Green-Ampt method
Green and Ampt (1911) developed approximate solutions of Richards equation for infiltration
calculation. The Green-Ampt method of infiltration estimation accounts for many variables that
other methods, such as Darcy's law, do not. It is a function of the soil suction head, porosity,
hydraulic conductivity and time. Once integrated, one can easily choose to solve for either
volume of infiltration or instantaneous infiltration rate.
Example:

Use Green-Ampt method to compute infiltration rate and cumulative infiltration at every
0.25 hr from the beginning of infiltration for silty clay soil. Suction head, =29.22cm ; K=0.05
cm/hr. Assume the initial effective saturation is 30% and it has continous ponding.

Answer : 0.4735 cm ; 0.9636 cm/hr ; 0.6745 cm ; 0.6914 cm/hr ; 0.8307 cm ; 0.5708 cm/hr ;
0.9638 cm ; 0.4988 cm/hr

Percolation Rate

Water percolation rate of the soil refers to the rate of the movement of water through the soil as it
passes through the small holes or spaces between the particles of the soil. The soil percolation
rate indicates how quickly water moves through soil and helps evaluate the ability of the soil to
absorb and treat effluent — waste water that has received preliminary treatment in a septic tank.
The percolation rate is measured in minutes per inch (mpi). Soils with slower percolation rates,
through which it takes longer for water to travel, need larger drain fields to handle a given
amount of waste water than those with faster percolation rates. Soils with very slow percolation
rates may be unsuitable for drain fields.
Calculation

 Determine the porosity () of the pea gravel.

 Calculate the correction factor (C)

 Determine the conversion factor (K)

Where,

P= percolation rate

R= Average precipitation rate

I = Inside diameter

O= Outside diameter

D= Actual diameter
 Range of Values of Porosity

Example:

An average percolation rate of 29 min/in was obtained from a percolation test using the
12-inch diameter test hole. The actual diameter of the test hole was found to be 12.5 inches.
The inside and outside diameters of the perforated pipe were 9.8 and 10.1inches respectively.
The porosity of the pea gravel used was found to be =0.37.

Answer : 3.801 min/in

I. GROUNDWATER STORAGE AND THE FLOW OF WATER

What is groundwater?

Groundwater is fresh water (from rain or melting ice and snow) that soaks into the soil
and is stored in the tiny spaces (pores) between rocks and particles of soil. Groundwater accounts
for nearly 95 percent of the nation’s fresh water resources. It can stay underground for hundreds
of thousands of years, or it can come to the surface and help fill rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, and
wetlands. Groundwater can also come to the surface as a spring or be pumped from a well. Both
of these are common ways we get groundwater to drink. About 50 percent of our municipal,
domestic, and agricultural water supply is groundwater.
How does the ground store water?

Groundwater is stored in the tiny open spaces between rock and sand, soil, and gravel.
How well loosely arranged rock (such as sand and gravel) holds water depends on the size of the
rock particles. Layers of loosely arranged particles of uniform size (such as sand) tend to hold
more water than layers of rock with materials of different sizes. This is because smaller rock
materials settle in the spaces between larger rock materials, decreasing the amount of open space
that can hold water. Porosity (how well rock material holds water) is also affected by the shape
of rock particles. Round particles will pack more tightly than particles with sharp edges. Material
with angular-shaped edges has more open space and can hold more water.

Groundwater is found in two zones. The unsaturated zone, immediately below the land
surface, contains water and air in the open spaces, or pores. The saturated zone, a zone in which
all the pores and rock fractures are filled with water, underlies the unsaturated zone. The top of
the saturated zone is called the water table. The water table may be just below or hundreds of
feet below the land surface.

What is an aquifer?
Where groundwater can move rapidly, such as through gravel and sandy deposits, an
aquifer can form. In an aquifer, there is enough groundwater that it can be pumped to the
surface and used for drinking water, irrigation, industry, or other uses. For water to move
through underground rock, pores or fractures in the rock must be connected. If rocks have good
connections between pores or fractures and water can move freely through them, we say that the
rock is permeable. Permeability refers to how well a material transmits water. If the pores or
fractures are not connected, the rock material cannot produce water and is therefore not
considered an aquifer. The amount of water an aquifer can hold depends on the volume of the
underground rock materials and the size and number of pores and fractures that can fill with
water.
TYPES OF AQUIFER

A. UNCONFINED AQUIFER

In unconfined aquifers, water has simply infiltrated from the surface and saturated the
subsurface material. These aquifers are sometimes called groundwater tables, because they
are the first to be found when sinking a well. Unconfined aquifers generally acts like water
table aquifers or alluvial aquifers. Their supply area is proportional to their extent, which
can be quite considerable, producing an aquifer with a large storage capacity.

WATER TABLE WELL

A water table well is a well that brings water to the surface from the water table or the
upper surface of the zone of saturation wherein water must be pulled or pumped up to be
used.
B. CONFINED AQUIFER

Confined aquifer is an aquifer that is confined between two relatively impermeable layers
or aquitards. As name implies, not in direst vertical communication with surface, but are
overlain by a confining layer. Rather than a water table surface that defines the top of the
water, this aquifer has a potentiometric surface, which is the level to which water rises in a
cased well that has its base in that aquifer.

CONFINING LAYER BROKEN INTO 3 CATEGORIES:

1. AQUITARD – describes the less permeable beds in stratigraphic sequence, also known as
“leaky confining layer” – retards flow significantly.

2. AQUIFUGE – totally impermeable to flow

3. AQUICLUDE – is a saturated geologic formation that is incapable of transmitting

significant amounts of water under ordinary circumstances.
ARTESIAN WELL

In a confined aquifer, the water level in a well may rise above the top of the aquifer. If this
is the case, the well is referred to as an artesian well, and the aquifer is said to exist under
artesian conditions.

FLOWING ARTESIAN WELL

In some cases, the water level may flow above the ground surface, in which case the aquifer
is known as flowing artesian well, and the aquifer is said to exist under flowing artesian
conditions. This doesn't require a pump to bring water to the surface; this occurs when
there is enough pressure in the aquifer. The pressure forces the water to the surface
without any sort of assistance.
C. PERCHED AQUIFER

A perched aquifer is a special case of unconfined aquifer. A perched aquifer forms on top of
an impermeable layer located well above the water table. These aquifers are mainly formed
in sedimentary deposits when a low permeability layer (often clay) in the saturated zone
creates a small aquifer situated above the main reservoir. The extent of these aquifers can
be poor. They can also be perennial or seasonal. When sinking wells, it is important not to
mistake a perched aquifer for the unconfined aquifer that is being sought.

PERCHED WATER TABLE WELL

A perched water table well is a well that brings water to the surface from the perched
water table where there is an impermeable layer of rock or sediment (aquiclude) or
relatively impermeable layer (aquitard) above the main water table/aquifer but below the
land surface.
SPECIFIC YIELD AND SPECIFIC RETENTION

A. Specific yield (Sy) tells how much water is available for man’s use. The total amount of
water in aquifer of area (A) and thickness (b) is,

𝑉 = 𝐴𝑏𝑛
Where,
V- total volume of water
A- surface area of aquifer
b- thickness of the aquifer
n- porosity

However, the total amount of water that will drain freely from an aquifer is,

𝑉𝑑 = 𝐴𝑏𝑆𝑦

Where,
𝑉𝑑 - volume of free draining water
𝑆𝑦 - specific yield

From the equation, 𝑉𝑑 = 𝐴𝑏𝑆𝑦 , Ab is equivalent to the volume of aquifer that can be represented
by 𝑉𝑡 , thus we can say that specific yield of an aquifer is equal to,

𝑉𝑑
𝑆𝑦 =
𝑉𝑡
 B. Specific retention (Sr) tells how much water remains in the rock after it is drained by
gravity. It is the ratio of volume of retained water to volume of aquifer as a film on the
surface of grainsor held in small openings by molecular attraction.

𝑉𝑟
𝑆𝑟 =
𝑉𝑡

Where,
Vt- volume of retained water

Example:

What is the volume of free-draining water in an unconfined aquifer of surface area A=

130 sq. miles, thickness b= 300 ft, and specific yield= 0.05? Express your answer in cubic
miles.

Answer : 0.369 mi^3

SPECIFIC STORAGE, TRANSMISSIVITY AND STORATIVITY

A. SPECIFIC STORAGE (Ss)

Specific storage of a confined aquifer is defined as the volume of water released per unit volume
of aquifer per unit decrease in hydraulic head. Compressibility considerations lead to the
following expression for specific storage:

Ss = ρg(α+nβ)

In which Ss = specific storage in L-1 units.

Where

ρ = mass/volume ratio (density) (M/L3)

g = gravity acceleration (9.81 m/s2) (L/T2)
α= aquifer compressibility (T2L/M)
n = total porosity (unitless)
β= water compressibility (4.4 x 10-10 m/sec2/kg or Pa-1) (T2L/M)
Values of Specific Storage Assuming Porosity Equal to 15% (after Younger, 1993)

TYPICAL LITHOLOGIES SPECIFIC STORAGE (m-1)

Clay 9.81 x 10-3

Silt, fine sand 9.82 x 10-4

Medium sand, fine 9.87 x 10-5

Coarse sand, medium gravel, highly fissured 1.05 x 10-5

Coarse gravel, moderately fissured rock 1.63 x 10-6

Unfissured rock 7.46 x 10-7

To estimate storativity for an aquifer of known lithology and thickness, select appropriate
specific storage from the above table and multiply by the aquifer thickness.

B. TRANSMISSIVITY (T)

Transmissivity is the volume of water per unit time passing from per-unit width under unit
hydraulic gradient through the whole saturation thickness. It is another very important
transmission property of an aquifer, which is different from hydraulic conductivity (K) in that it
includes the whole saturation thickness, m, of the aquifer while K is defined for unit saturation
thickness only.

T = Kb

In which T = transmissivity (L2T-1) units.

Where

K = hydraulic conductivity (LT-1) units

b = aquifer thickness (L units)

Logically, high transmissivity values imply high potentiality. Generally accepted numerical
boundary values and their verbal explanations are given in the table below (Wiest, 1965):
 TRANSMISSIVITY (m2/day) POTENTIALITY DESCRIPTION
T<5 NEGLIGIBLE
5<T<50 WEAK
50<T<500 MODERATE
T>500 HIGH

C. STORATIVITY (S)

Storativity of a confined aquifer is defined as the volume of water released from storage per unit
surface area of the aquifer per unit decline in hydraulic head. It is also known by the terms
coefficient of storage and storage coefficient.

The groundwater fraction which is of interest for abstraction is quantified by the storativity. In a
confined aquifer, water release is related to the water-expansion and aquifer compaction effect
attributes to aquifer pressure changes due to pumping. The elastic water release is quantified by
the storage coefficient:

S = Ssb

In which S = storativity a dimensionless unit.

Where

Ss = ρg(α+nβ) in which,
ρ = mass/volume ratio (density) (M/L3)
g = gravity acceleration (9.81 m/s2) (L/T2)
α= aquifer compressibility (T2L/M)
n = total porosity (unitless)
β= water compressibility (4.4 x 10-10 m/sec2/kg or Pa-1) (T2L/M)
b = aquifer thickness

Typical values of storativity vary in the range of 0.005 to 0.00005. Given the definition of
specific storage, large decreases in hydraulic head over extensive formations are required in
order for a confined aquifer to yield substantial amounts of water.

In unconfined aquifers, the concept of specific yield is equivalent to the storativity of confined
aquifers. Typical values of specific yield vary in the range 0.01 to 0.30. The higher values of
specific yield – as compared to storativity – reflect the fact that releases from an unconfined
aquifer represent an actual dewatering of the pore spaces. On the other hand, releases from
confined aquifers represent only the secondary effect of aquifer compaction caused by changes
in fluid pressure. The favorable yield properties of unconfined aquifers make them suited to well
exploitation.
Example:
1. Calculate the storativity of a confined aquifer of thickness b=50m, porosity
n=0.05, and compressibility =1.0 X 10^-8 Pa. Assume fluid density p= 1g/cm^3
and compressibility =4.4 X 10^-10 Pa.
Answer : 0.00492

2. An Aquifer has 723 m thickness and the hydraulic conductivity is calculated as

2X10^-6 m/s. what is the aquifer potentiality?
Answer : 124.934 m^2/day

II. HYDROLOGIC INVESTIGATIONS IN DETERMINING SUBSURFACE

RESOURCE

The intensity of groundwater investigations depends on project purposes and scope,

complexity of site conditions, and availability and accuracy of existing information and records.
Recommendations must conform to State, Federal, Tribal, and local water and health laws.

A. Reconnaissance Investigations

A reconnaissance investigation is based on a review of existing information and an

examination of surface features at the site. Prior to making a reconnaissance of the site, the
investigator should assemble and study topographic, geologic, and soil maps and literature and
reports regarding geology and groundwater applying to the area. Data from a field
reconnaissance should contain general descriptions and locations of the surface features and
conditions, including the following items:
 general geology of the project site
 geologic conditions that influence groundwater movement and recharge
 surface features resulting from groundwater movement, such as seeps, springs,
and landslides
 general character of streams and valleys including volumes of flow, streambanks and
bed, steepness of valley grades, and side slopes
 groundwater development, yields, quality, and use
 water well logs
 groundwater quality reports and data

B. Preliminary investigation

A preliminary investigation is made to determine the geologic and hydrologic characteristics of

the subsurface material. This will establish the feasibility of the project, be a basis for estimating
costs, and determine the need and intensity of further study.

(1) Maps.
A study of available resource maps is an excellent way to start a preliminary groundwater
investigation.
 (2) Imagery
Aerial photos and GIS data sets can be used to make initial interpretations of geologic structure,
landforms, potential recharge areas, springs, land use, and vegetation patterns. Satellite imagery,
as well as Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) data, may also be used if available for the area
of study.

(3) Field study

In areas where stratified sedimentary rocks are exposed, the details of local structure and its
relationship to possible aquifers in the geologic section must be determined.

(4) Mapping
A geologic map should always be prepared on the best available base map including:

 areal and surficial geology

 structure of bedrock, stratification, folding, faults, or fractures
 surface groundwater features including springs, seeps, swamps, and marshes
 sinkholes and disappearing or reappearing streams
 legend listing all formations shown on map. This includes a brief description of
characteristics of aquifers, aquicludes, and other pertinent information
 locations of wells. Well record data and logs will be included in reports

(5) Geologic sections

To complete and interpret the information on a geologic map, one or more geologic sections and
fence diagrams should be prepared, based on logs of wells, test holes, geophysical studies, or
other related information. The fence diagram is constructed in three-dimensional perspective
from actual well logs to show geologic relationships.

(6) Report of preliminary investigation

A geologic report generally following the outline in this chapter should be prepared for a
preliminary groundwater investigation. The report should include a concise discussion of
groundwater conditions, interpretations, conclusions, and recommendations for solving any
problems. The preliminary report should also include recommendations for methods to be used
in making a detailed groundwater investigation, where needed. Well records, log of borings, and
other supporting data should be reviewed, interpreted, and included where applicable with the
preliminary investigation report. Geologic maps and sections should be included.

(C) Detailed investigations

A detailed investigation collects data for making sound geologic interpretations. Specific site
materials and groundwater conditions are documented to provide sufficient subsurface
information for the design and construction of project measures.

(1) Data collection

Geophysical survey—seismic or various types of electrical resistivity equipment

can be used to determine depths to bedrock and depths to a water table, as well as fracture
 zones. Multiple-probe seismographs are useful in rapid analyses, especially using
variable shock sources and post processing software. Portable electrical resistivity meters
can be used to perform rapid surveys over long traverses.

Test drilling—detailed plans should be prepared showing locations and depths of

wells desired to obtain sufficient information on the position, depth, gradient, and nature
of the aquifer or underground cavernous or water storage area. Field permeability tests
may be needed on the aquifer and overlying materials. Samples of water should be
obtained to determine its quality.

Sampling—when drilling is done during the detailed investigation, samples

should be collected to:
 determine gradation, storage capacity, chemical composition, and permeability rates of
unconsolidated materials and rock formations
 assist in the correlation of horizons or rock formations
 determine the nature and extent of faulting, jointing, and cavernous conditions
 determine the possibility of surface subsidence or collapse of certain horizons
 determine the nature of an aquifer, its storage potential, productive capacity, and
transmissibility of groundwater

Tracers—to use tracers in groundwater investigations, the “upstream” or intake

area must be accessible. If not, drill holes or test pits will need to be prepared. The
discharge area also must be accessible, or holes or pits will be needed at a measured
distance in the down -gradient direction where water samples can be quickly observed or
tested.

The following dyes are the most common ones used: Fluorescein, potassium
permanganate, rhodamine “B”, methylene blue, aniline red, aniline blue, and auramine
yellow. Caution is advisable in using any kind of tracers, especially if large amounts are
used and they find their way into drinking water for humans or animals or into water used
for fish and wildlife. Poisonous or objectionable tracers should not be used.

(2) Correlation and interpretation

After reviewing the available information and completion of geophysical, drilling, and
excavation investigations, detailed geologic sections and fence diagrams can be prepared and
correlated. The data obtained should be complete enough to provide accurate correlation of
geologic conditions and to supply the desired information on groundwater, showing stratigraphic
sequence, geologic age, thickness, character, and composition of unconsolidated and
consolidated strata. Continuity, confining or impervious strata, barriers or aquicludes, water-
bearing formations, cavernous or fractured rock conditions, and water levels will be noted.

(3) Report of detailed investigation

A detailed investigation contains collected data on observations made and other information
assembled during the investigation. The report also includes interpretations, conclusions, and
recommendations made from these factual data
 III. SUBSURFACE RESOURCE

 Water Resource Definition

Surface water isn't simply water sitting in a pond, lake or river. The Arizona Department
of Water Resources classifies surface water as water from all sources, whether it flows in
canyons, streams or ravines. It doesn't matter if it is floodwater or wastewater. Subsurface
water, also called groundwater, fills the spaces in geologic strata and soils underground.

 Surface Water Sources

Precipitation replenishes subsurface water through a process called recharging. About 10
to 20 percent of that precipitation winds up in aquifers. An aquifer is a layer of rock that
holds water. Recharging usually happens during the winter in temperate climates and in
tropical climates when the rainy season arrives. Subsurface water can flow to the surface
if the atmospheric pressure above ground is lower than the subsurface water pressure.

IV. HYDRAULICS OF FLOW OF GROUNDWATER

 Hydraulic Gradient
The Hydraulic Gradient is a vector gradient between two or more hydraulic head
measurements over the length of the flow path.

For Groundwater it is also called the 'Darcy slope':

 Groundwater flow direction determination

In order to define groundwater flow directions and rates through aquifers, individual
measurements of hydraulic head are combined to generate contour maps of water level –
or potential energy. These maps define the potentiometric surface, which is much like a
topographic contour map, but defines the distribution of potential energy in the
groundwater system. Each contour, or equipotential, represents a line of equal hydraulic
head.

To first approximation, groundwater flows down-gradient (from high to low hydraulic

head). As is the case with surface water, or a ball rolling down a hill, the water flows in
the direction of the steepest gradient, meaning that it flows perpendicular to
equipotentials. There are exceptions to this – for example, if the hydraulic conductivity of
the aquifer is much higher in one direction than another, or dominated by fractures with
particular orientations, then these can redirect groundwater flow askew to the maximum
gradient.

 Groundwater Storage
is the difference between recharge and discharge over the time frames that these
processes occur, ranging from days to thousands of years. Changes to both groundwater
and surface-water levels may ultimately alter the interaction between groundwater and
surface water and the interaction between natural and societal water supply and demand
(Hanson et al., 2012).

Most groundwater occurs in small pore space within rock and unconsolidated sediment.
Water flows through this sediment slowly.
 Groundwater tends to collect above materials that are impermeable.

 Porosity

the amount of space in between sediment grains, cracks or fractures in rocks

 Permeability

This is the ability to transmit water. Rocks may have high porosity but if the pores are not
interconnected then the permeability will be low.
 Discharge and Recharge

Discharge – volume of groundwater flowing out at an aquifer over time.

Recharge – water flowing into an aquifer.
 Darcy’s Law
Henri Darcy established empirically that the energy lost ∆ℎ in water flowing through a
permeable formation is proportional to the length of the sediment column ∆𝐿.

The constant of proportionality K is called the hydraulic conductivity. The Darcy’s

Velocity 𝑉𝐷 :

∆ℎ
𝑉𝐷 = −𝐾 ( )
∆𝐿

And since,

𝑄 = 𝑉𝐷 𝐴

Therefore;

∆ℎ
𝑄 = −𝐾𝐴( )
∆𝐿

Darcy’s experiment (1856)

1. Velocities are small 𝑉~0 so,

𝑃1 𝑃2
+ 𝑍1 = + 𝑍2 + ℎ𝐿
𝛾 𝛾

2. Head Difference doesn’t change with inclination of the sand filter.

3. Again, Darcy related reduced flow rate to head loss and length of
column through a constant of proportionality K,

𝑄 ∆ℎ
𝑉= = −𝐾( )
𝐴 ∆𝐿
 Hydraulic Conductivity

K represents a measure of the ability for flow through porous media:

 Darcy’s Velocity
 V is the specific discharge (Darcy’s Velocity)
 (-) indicates that V occurs in the direction of the decreasing head.
 Specific discharge has units of velocity.
 The specific discharge is a macroscopic concept and is easily measured. It should
be noted that Darcy’s Velocity is different.
 From the miscroscopic velocities associated with the actual paths if individual
particles of water as they wind their way through the grains of sand.
 The microscopic velocity are real, but are probably impossible to measure.

 Darcy & Seepage Velocity

Darcy velocity is a fictitious velocity since it assumes that flow occurs across the entire
cross-section of the soil sample. Flow actually takes place only through interconnected
pore channels.

From the continuity equation:

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉𝐷 =𝐴𝑣 𝑉𝑠

Where:

Q= flow rate

A= total cross-sectional area of material

𝐴𝑣 =area of voids

𝑉𝑠 = seepage velocity

𝑉𝐷 = Darcy’s Velocity
𝐴
Therefore: 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝐷 (𝐴 )
𝑣
 Multiplying both sides by the length of the medium (L)
𝐴𝐿 𝑉
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑑 (𝐴 𝐿) = 𝑉𝐷 (𝑉𝑇 )
𝑣 𝑉

Where:

𝑉𝑇 =total Volume

𝑉𝑣 =void volume
𝑉
By definition, 𝑉𝑣 = 𝑛, the soil porosity.
𝑇

𝑽𝑫
Thus, 𝑽𝒔 = 𝒏

 Turbulence and Reynold’s Number

1. The path of water molecule takes is called streamline. In laminar flow,
streamlines do not cross and the viscous forces due to hydrogen bonds are
important.
2. In turbulent flow, acceleration and large scale motion away from a smooth
path is important (this is the F=ma) and streamlines cross.
3. We could take the ratio of inertial to viscous forces. When the number is
“large”, inertial forces are more important and flows are turbulent.
4. This ration is known as the Reynold’s number 𝑅𝑒:
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝑅𝑒 =
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠

 Viscosity
 1. Viscosity is a fluid’s resistance to flow.
𝑘𝑔
2. Dynamic viscosity 𝝁 , units 𝑃𝑎 ∙ 𝑠 = 𝑁 ∙ 𝑠/𝑚2 or 𝑚∙𝑠 is determined
experimentally. If a fluid with a viscosity of one 𝑃𝑎 ∙ 𝑠 is placed between two
plates and one plate is pushed sideways with a shear stress of one Pascal, it
moves a distance equal to the thickness of the layer between the plates in one
second.
3. Kinematic viscosity 𝒗, is the dynamic viscosity divided by the density. The
𝑚2
SI unit of 𝑣 is .
𝑠

 Reynolds: Inertial/Viscous Forces

Gravity: 𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝜌𝐿3 𝑔

𝑑𝑢
Viscosity: 𝐹𝑣 = 𝜇 (𝑑𝑦) 𝐴 = 𝜇𝑉𝐿

Inertia: 𝐹𝑖 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝜌𝑉 3 𝐿𝑇 −2 = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝐿2

So,

𝜌𝑉 2 𝐿2
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇𝑉𝐿

𝑉𝐿
= 𝜇
𝜌

(𝑽𝑳)
=
𝒗

Example:

A confined aquifer has a source of recharge. K for the aquifer is 50 m/day and n=0.2. the
piezometric head in two wells 1000 m apart is 55 m and 50 m respectively, from a common
datum. The average thickness of the aquifer is 30 m, and the average width of aquifer is 5m.

Find:

(a) The rate of flow through the aquifer

(b) The average time of travel from the head of the aquifer
(c) Seepage velocity
Solution:

Cross-sectional area = 30(5)(1000) = 15 × 104 𝑚2

(55−50)
Hydraulic Gradient = = 5 × 10−3
1000

K = 50 m/day

50𝑚
𝑄=( ) (15 × 104 )(5 × 10−3 )
𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝑚3
𝑄 = 37,500
𝑑𝑎𝑦

• Seepage velocity:
𝑉𝐷 = 𝑄𝐴

0.25𝑚
𝑉𝐷 = 37500(15 × 104 ) =
𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝑉𝐷
𝑉𝑠 =
𝑛

0.25 m
𝑉𝑠 = = 1.25
0.2 day

 Time to travel 5km downstream:

 4(1000)
𝑇= 𝑚 = 3200 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑜𝑟 8.77 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
1.25
𝑑𝑎𝑦

Example 2:

A channel runs almost parallel to a river, and they are 2000 ft apart, as shown in figure
below. The water level in the river is at an elevation of 120 ft . The channel is at an
elevation of 110ft. A pervious formation averaging 30 ft thick and with hydraulic
conductivity K of 0.25 ft/hr joins them. Determine the flow rate Q of seepage from the
0.9𝑓𝑡 3
river to the channel. (ans: 𝑄 = )
𝑑𝑎𝑦

V. GROUNDWATER EXPLORATION AND EXPLOITATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

 Groundwater as a Resource
The Philippines obtain its supply from different source. These include:

 Rainfall
 Surface water resource
 Rivers
 Lakes
 Reservoirs
 Groundwater resource
Several groundwater basiins are underlain by about 100,000 sq km of various rock formation and
that these resources are located in:

 Northern Kuzon
 Central Luzon
 Laguna Lake Basin
 Cavite-Batangas-Laguna basin
 Southeast Luzon
 Mindoro Island
 Negros Island
 Northeast Leyte
 Ormoc-Kananga basin
 Agusan-Davao basin
 Occidental Misamis basin
 Lanao-Bukidnon-Misamis basin

 Groundwater Exploration
Groundwater exploration is the investigation of underground formations to understand
the hydrologic cycle, know the groundwater quality, and identify the nature, number and
type of aquifers.

Most of the liquid freshwater resources are stored underground as groundwater (99%).
The regional distribution on earth, however, varies and depends mainly on climatic
conditions as well as the geology of the subsurface. In contrast to many raw materials, a
great amount of the groundwater is recharged in the hydrologic cycle by infiltrating
precipitation.

The data required for a resource assessment are obtained by:

 Hydrogealogical exploration, obeservations and measurements

at boreholes and wells.
 Geophysical investigations on the earth’s surface
 Airbone geophysical surveys
 Satellite image analysis or meteorological observations
 Groundwater Exploitation
Water exploitation is referred to the extraction of water for irrigation and human
consumption. Water exploitation is greatly connected with agriculture. Nevertheless, a
large contribution to water exploitation is connected with the industrial and residential
sectors and seasonally with tourism. Water exploitation can be estimated by “the
exploitation index” that is defined as withdrawal of conventional freshwater resources
(surface and groundwater) over total renewable resources.

The proper exploitation of groundwater resources involves apart from the location of
suitable source, the construction of properly designed wells. The design and the execution
of water supply systems and their maintenance is an integral part of the scheme of
exploration and management. Numerous problems of groundwater exploration &
exploitation require systematic use of scientific techniques.