Introduction To R C Design..

Lec: ADEL .
B HAMAD Reinforced Concrete (I) Omar al-mukhtar university

autumn 2222-2222 part (1) Faculty Of Engineering
Department Of Architecture
(Part 1)
R.C Design (ACI CODE)
design theory and examples
2
Lec: ADEL .B HAMAD Reinforced Concrete (I) Omar al-mukhtar university
R.C Design
-INTRODUCTION:
1.1 Reinforced Concrete
Hardened plain concrete is characterized by its high compressive strength and its relatively
low tensile strength. The addition of steel reinforcement, which is characterized by its high
tensile strength in the tension regions, helps improve the
resistance in these regions. The final product is known as reinforced concrete.
Steel is used as a reinforcement element due to some factors, which are,
Steel improves the resistance of concrete in the tension regions due to its high tensile and
compressive strengths.
Steel and concrete have similar thermal expansion coefficients; 0.000010 to 0.000013 for
concrete and 0.000012 for steel per degree Celsius, thus causing
negligible internal stresses resulting from temperature changes, which in turn, means a good
bond between the two materials.
 Steel adds ductility which is required in the design process. The construction of reinforced
concrete structures requires the use of a form to take the shape of the built member. The
reinforcement is held in place in the form during the casting operation. Once the concrete has
hardened to the required strength, only then the forms are removed.
1.2 Advantages of Reinforced Concrete

Reinforced concrete is used as a prime construction material universally. It is used in
constructing bridges, buildings, underground structures, hydraulic structures, and so many other
uses. The remarkable success of reinforced concrete may be attributed to its numerous
advantages. These include the following:
Durability, especially fire resistance.
Ability to be formed in different shapes.
Rigidity, which means comfort for the occupants.
Low-maintenance cost.
Economy due to availability of inexpensive local materials.
1.3 Disadvantages of Reinforced Concrete

Concrete has a low tensile strength, thus requiring the use of steel reinforcement.
Low strength per unit weight compared to other structural materials such as structural steel.
Requirements of forms and shoring, which involves labor, cost and time.
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The properties of concrete are variant due to proportioning and mixing.
Quality control needs much more attention, compared to other materials such as structural steel.
Time-dependent volume changes that may cause deflections or cracking, if restrained.
1.4 Historical Development:
In 1824, Portland cement was patented by the English Joseph Aspdin. The name Portland
was used due to the resemblance of cement to the building stone quarried on the Isle of
Portland of the English coast.
The advantages of using steel reinforced concrete in building construction was first
discovered in 1850 by a Frenchman called Joseph Lambot. He found that by adding thin
steel bars or steel fibers to concrete, he could greatly increase the strength of the
concrete, making it better for use in a variety of applications. In the early years,
reinforced concrete was used for making a number of items, such as reinforced garden
tubs, road guardrails, and reinforced concrete beams. Buildings that used reinforced
concrete in their construction were constructed all over the world, especially in the
United States, Canada and Europe. In 1878, the first reinforced concrete system was
patented in the United States by an American by the name of Thaddeus Hyatt. Mathias
Koenen, in Berlin, Germany, was the first experimenter to deduce methods of
computation for load tests, publishing his analysis of tests conducted in Germany in
1886. Koenen based his theory of flexure on the following premises: (1) plane sections
perpendicular to the neutral axis prior to bending remain so following bending; (2)
stress is concrete and steel; and (4) tension stresses in the concrete are not considered.
Koenen’s basic procedure is still generally accepted and used today.
In the United States, the American Concrete Institute became an influential organization
in the development of reinforced concrete standards. Chartered in 1906 as the National
Association of Cement Users, it changed its name to ACI in1913.
1.5 Vertical Load Structural Systems

Building Frame: it is a complete frame system that provides support for gravity loads,
shown in Figure 1.1.
Moment-Resisting frame: it is a frame in which members and joints are capable of
resisting forces, including lateral loads, primarily by flexure, shown in Figure 1.2.
Bearing Wall: it is a complete vertical load-carrying space frame.
1.6 Structural Elements

A concrete building may contain some or all of the following main structural elements,
which are to be dealt with in detail in the following chapters of this book. Figures 1.1
show the main structural elements in a building frame system. These are discussed, in
short, below.
Slab is a horizontal plate element which is usually designed to resist gravity loads.
The depth of the slab is usually very small compared to its length or width. It is usually
designed to resist shear forces and bending moments.
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Beam is long, horizontal or inclined member with limited width and depth. Its main
function is to support slab loads. It is designed to resist shearing forces, bending
moments and torques, if any.
Column is a member that supports beam or slab loads. It is designed to support axial
loads and moments. It is designed to resist axial forces and bending moments.
Wall is a vertical plate element that resists gravity as well as lateral loads as in the
case of retaining wall. It is usually designed to resist shear forces and bending moments.
Stair is a structural member that provides means of movement from one floor to
another in a structure. It is designed to resist shear forces and bending moments.
Footing, or foundation, is a member that supports column or wall loads and transmit
them directly to the soil. The footing is designed to resist shearing forces and bending
moments.
Building Frame System
Figures 1.2 show the main structural elements in a momentresisting frame system. The
frame consists of main beams (girders) and columns. The load on the slab is transferred
to the girders then to the columns and footings.
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Moment-Resisting Frame System
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MATERIALS AND PROPERTIES
2.1 Introduction
Concrete is used in constructing buildings, harbors, runways, water structures, power
plants, pressure vessels. In order to use concrete satisfactorily, the designer, the site
engineer, and the contractor need to be familiar with construction materials and their
technologies. There are two common structural materials used in construction:
concrete and steel. They sometimes complement one another, and sometimes compete
with one another.
The man on the site needs to know more about concrete than about steel. Steel is
manufactured under controlled conditions in a sophisticated plant. On a concrete
building site, the situation is totally different. While the quality of cement is
guaranteed, transporting, placing, and compacting of concrete greatly influence the
final product. It is the competence of the contractor and the supplier which controls
the actual quality of concrete in the finished structure.
2.2 Concrete
Concrete for reinforced concrete consists of aggregate particles bound together by a
paste made from Portland cement and water. The paste fills the voids between the
aggregate particles, and after the fresh concrete is placed, it hardens as a result of
exothermic chemical reactions between cement and water to form a solid and durable
structural material. Although there are several types of ordinary Portland cements,
most concrete for buildings is made from Type I ordinary cement. In recent years,
there has been a substantial increase in the use of other chemical additives for cement
dispersion, acceleration or retardation of initial set, and improvement of workability.
The so called Super-plasticizers are being used in many applications where high
strength concrete with substantial slump is desired.
Aggregates are particles that form about three-fourths of the volume of finished
concrete. According to their particle size, aggregates are classified as fine or coarse.
Coarse aggregates consist of gravel or crushed rock particles not less than 5 mm in
size. Fine aggregates consist of sand or pulverized rock particles usually less than 5
mm in size. Aggregates alone exhibit a linear stress-strain relationship and so does the
hydrated cement paste. On the other hand, concrete exhibits a non-linear relationship
due to presence of interfaces and the development of micro cracking at the interfaces
under load, as indicated in Figure 2.1.
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Stress-strain relations for cement paste, aggregate, and concrete
Mixing water should be clean and free of organic materials that react with the cement or the
reinforcing bars in case of reinforced concrete. The quantity of water relative to that of the
cement, called water-cement ratio, is the most important item in determining concrete strength.
An increase in this ratio leads to a reduction in the compressive strength of concrete as
shown in Figure 2.2. It is important that concrete has workability adequate to assure its
consolidation in the forms without excessive voids. This property is usually indirectly
measured in the field by the slump test. The necessary slump may be small when vibrators are
used to consolidate the concrete. Proper curing of concrete requires that the water in the mix is
not to be allowed to evaporate from the concrete until the concrete has gained the desired
strength.
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Relation between compressive strength and water-cement ratio of concrete
2.3 Mechanical Properties of Concrete

In this section, mechanical properties of concrete, including compressive strength,
tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, shrinkage and creep will be briefly covered.
2.3.1 Concrete Compressive Strength

The compressive strength of concrete f c′ is mainly affected by the watercement ratio,
degree of compaction, age, and temperature. It is determined through testing standard
cylinders 15 cm in diameter and 30 cm in length in uniaxial compression at 28 days
(ASTM C470). Test cubes 10 cm × 10 cm× 10 cm are also tested in uniaxial
compression at 28 days (BS 1881), shown in Figure 2.3.
The ACI Code is based on the concrete compressive strength as measured

by a standard test cylinder. Designers have to pay attention to make the
necessary transformation when concrete compressive strength is based on
the cube test. The concrete compressive strength as measured by the
standard cylinder test can be approximated by Eq.(2.1)
fc′ Cylinder = 0.80 f c′ Cube
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Cube and cylinder test specimens
2.3.2 Concrete Tensile Strength
The strength of concrete in tension is low compared to its compressive strength. Tests
have shown that the tensile strength ranges from 8 to 15 percent of the compressive
strength f c′ .
Generally, the ratio of tensile strength to compressive strength is lower, the higher is
the compressive strength as indicated in Figure 2.4. There are several factors which
affect the relationship between the two strengths, the main one is being the method of
testing the concrete in tension, the size of the specimen, the shape, surface texture of
coarse aggregate, and the moisture condition of the concrete. The large difference
between the tensile and compressive strengths of concrete is attributed to the
formation of fine cracks throughout the concrete.
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Relation between tensile and compressive

strength of concrete
Tensile strength of concrete is important in structures where cracks are not permitted,
such as in the design of liquid containers.
2.3.2.1 Standard Tension Tests:
Three main tests are used to measure the tensile strength of concrete.
A. The Direct Tension Test
Direct tension tests are rarely used because of the problem of gripping the specimen
and due to the secondary stresses developing at the ends of the specimens.
B. The Split Cylinder Test (ASTM 496)

In this test, a standard compression test cylinder 15 cm in diameter and 30
cm in length is placed on its side and loaded in compression along a
diameter until splitting occurs along the vertical diameter as shown in
Figure 2.5.
The splitting tensile strength f ct is given by
where
P = maximum applied load
l = length of the cylinder
d = diameter of the cylinder
Split cylinder test
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ACI R 11.2.1.1 gives an approximate value for f ct
C. The Modulus of Rupture Test (ASTM C78)
In this test, a plain concrete beam 15 cm by 15 cm in cross section and 75

cm in length is loaded to failure in bending at the third points of a 60 cm
span as shown in Figure 2.6.
The modulus of rupture is given by
where
M = maximum bending moment
b = width of specimen
h = depth of specimen.
Modulus of rupture test
ACI 9.5.2.3 gives an approximate value for f r
Where f c′ is given in kg/cm2.
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2.3.3 Modulus of Elasticity
The modulus of elasticity of concrete Ec is defined as the ratio of normal stress to

corresponding strain for compression stresses below proportional limit. Since the
stress-strain diagram for concrete is nonlinear as evident in Figure 2.7, the slope of the
curve is variable, making the determination of such modulus a tough task. The secant
method is usually used to determine Ec , being the slope of the line drawn from a
compressive stress of zero to a compressive stress of 0.45 f c′ . According to ACI 8.5.1
and for normal weight concrete
Stress-strain diagram
2.3.4 Creep
Creep is defined as the long-term deformation caused by the application of loads for long
periods of time, usually years. The total deformation is divided into two parts; the first is
called instantaneous deformation occurring right after the application of loads, and the
second which is time dependent is called creep. Long-term deformation increases at a
slowing rate for a period of two to three years with maximum value recorded at a period
of five years.
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ACI 9.5.2.5 states that additional long-term deflection resulting from creep and shrinkage
of members under bending is determined by multiplying the immediate deflection caused
by the sustained load by a factor λ given by :
Long-term deflection multipliers
The time dependent factors ξ are given at different periods of time

3 months ---------------1.00
6 months ---------------1.20
12 months--------------1.40
60 months--------------2.00
Creep can be reduced through using high-strength concrete, good curing of concrete,
and using reinforcement on the compression side of the cross section as evident in Eq.
(2.7). Multipliers for long-term deflection are also given in Figure 2.8.
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2.3.5 Shrinkage
Shrinkage of concrete is defined as the reduction in volume of concrete due
to loss of moisture. If the concrete member is not restrained, no stresses will
be produced. On the other hand, stresses will be developed in case of
restraining the concrete member in any form. Once the allowable tensile
stresses are exceeded, tension cracking will take place.
Shrinkage can be reduced through using a low water-cement ratio, good
curing of concrete, nonporous aggregates, shrinkage reinforcement, and
expansion joints.
ACI 7.12.2.1 specifies that a minimum shrinkage and temperature

reinforcement ratio of 0.0018 is to be used in one-way slabs perpendicular
to the main reinforcement (for f y =4200 kg/cm2).
2.4 Reinforcement:
Steel and steel alloys are widely used as construction materials throughout the world.
Steel is an iron-carbon alloy with the carbon content less than 2%. Structural steel is
an alloy with carbon content ranges from 0.80 % to 2%.
Cast iron contains more than 2 % of carbon, thus characterized by its

hardness and brittleness. Steel has three main uses in construction;
structural steel, forms, pans, and steel reinforcement.
The low tensile strength of plain concrete, a brittle material, results in
limited structural applications since most structural elements carry loads
that create tensile stresses of significant magnitude. The addition of highstrength
ductile reinforcement that bonds strongly to concrete produces a
tough ductile material capable of transmitting tension and suitable for
constructing many types of structural elements, e.g., slabs, beams, and
columns.
Most concrete members are reinforced with steel in the form of bars. Steel
reinforcement imparts a great strength and toughness to concrete.
Moreover, reinforcement reduces creep and minimizes the width of cracks
2.4.1 Properties of Steel Reinforcement
Steel reinforcement in the form of longitudinal bars is used to resist tensile forces resulting
from direct tension and/or flexure. Reinforcement is also used to resist stresses resulting from
shear and/or torsion. In some cases, reinforcement is used to resist compressive stresses.
Reinforcement comes in two forms; round steel bars or welded wire fabric WWF.
When bars have smooth surfaces, they are called plain, and when they have projections on their
surfaces, they are called deformed. Round bars come in diameters ranging from 6 mm to 50 mm.
Reinforcement is to be free from mud, oil, or other nonmetallic coatings that decrease bond.
Table 2.1 shows weights and cross sectional areas of different bar sizes.
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Welded wire fabric is a prefabricated reinforcement welded together to form rectangular or square
mesh, usually used in slab or wall reinforcement.
The most important mechanical property of steel reinforcement is the yield stress f y .
Mild steel has a well-defined yield stress on the stress-strain curve, while high strength steel does
not have a well-defined yield stress as shown in Figure 2.9.
For high strength steels, ACI 3.5.3.2 defines the yield stress as the stress corresponding to a strain
of 0.0035. Grade 4200 kg/cm2 and 2800 kg/cm2 are the commonly used steel grades in our region.
Since the cost of producing the two grades are about the same, grade 4200 kg/cm2 is the most
commonly used as main reinforcement. When crack widths are to be minimized through reducing
reinforcement stresses, grade 2800 kg/cm2 is to be preferred over grade 4200 kg/cm2.
The modulus of elasticity Es is defined as the slope of the stress-strain curve.
ACI 8.5.2 gives the modulus of elasticity for mild and high strength steels as :
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DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
3.1 Structural Concrete Design
At first, the general planning is carried out by the architect to set out the layout of the
building floors based on customer's needs. Only then, the structural engineer
determines the most appropriate structural system to ensure strength, serviceability
and economy of the building. This is done through the following steps.
1. Setting out the building structural system/systems.

2. Evaluating the external loads on the members. These loads include own weights of
the members, which are estimated at the start, in addition to other loads that the
members are intended to support. Own weights of the members are to be checked
later once the design process is done.
3. Carrying out the structural analysis using computer or manual calculations to
determine the internal forces. The analysis is done using manually or using computer
software.
4. Determination of member dimensions and required reinforcement.
5. Preparation of structural drawings.
Types of Concrete Design

Concrete design can be classified into three main categories; plain concrete design, reinforced
concrete design, and prestressed concrete design.
3.2.1 Plain Concrete Design
With the advent of reinforced concrete, plain concrete is hardly used as a structural material.
It is mainly used for nonstructural members. This is due to the low strength of concrete in
tension which results in large sections, especially, when required to resist tensile stresses
resulting from direct tension or bending.
3.2.2 Reinforced Concrete Design

The compressive strength of concrete is high while its tensile strength is low. To alleviate the
situation, high tensile strength reinforcement in the form of steel bars is added in the tension
regions to enhance the capacity of concrete members as shown in Figure 1.1. The reinforcement
is usually placed in the forms before casting the concrete. Once hardened, the resulting
composite material is called reinforced concrete.
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Mechanics of reinforced concrete: (a) beam and loads;

(b) a plain concrete beam; (c) a reinforced concrete beam
1.1.1 Prestressed Concrete Design

Since the strength of reinforced concrete can be enhanced by the elimination of cracking,
prestressing is used to produce compressive high-strength steel tendons in the forms of bars,
wires, or cables that are first tensioned and then anchored to the member. When the tendons
are tensioned before the concrete is cast around them, the concrete member is called pre-
tensioned. When the tendons are passed through ducts and tensioned after the concrete has
hardened and gained enough strength, the concrete member is called post-tensioned.
When compared to classical reinforced concrete design, prestressed concrete design produces
lighter sections, thus allowing the economic use of much longer spans.
1.2 Design Versus Analysis

It involves the determination of the type of structural system to be used, the cross sectional
dimensions, and the required reinforcement. The designed structure should be able to resist
all forces expected to act during the life span of the structure safely and without excessive
deformation or cracking.
1.2.1 Analysis
It involves the determination of the capacity of a section of known dimensions, material
properties and steel reinforcement, if any to external forces and moments.
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1.3 Limit States of Reinforced Concrete Design

When a structural element becomes unfit for its intended use, it is said to have reached a
limit state. The limit states are classified into three groups:
1.3.1 Ultimate Limit States
These involve structural collapse of some structural elements or the structure altogether .
These limit states should be prevented as they tend to cause loss of life and property.
Elastic instability, rupture, progressive collapse, and fatigue are forms of these limit states.
1.3.2 Service Limit States

These involve the disruption of the functional use of the structure, not its collapse. A
higher probability of occurrence can be tolerated than in case of an ultimate limit state
since there is less danger of loss of life. Excessive deflections, immoderate crack widths,
and annoying vibrations are forms of these limit states.
1.3.3 Special Limit States
These involve damage or failure due to abnormal conditions such as collapse in severe
earthquakes, damage due to explosions, fires, or deterioration of the structure and its
main structural elements.
Generally, for buildings, a limit state design is carried out first in order to proportion
the elements, and second a serviceability limit state is conducted to check whether
these elements satisfy those serviceability limit states.
1.4 Design and Building Codes

A code is a set of technical specifications that control the design and construction of a certain
type of structures. Theoretical research, experiments, and past experience help in the process
of setting these specifications. The purpose of such code is to set minimum requirements
necessary for designing safe and sound structures. It also helps to provide protection for the
public from dangers resulting from the use of inadequate design and construction techniques.
There are two types of codes; the first is called structural code, and the second is called
building code. A structural code is a code that involves the design of a certain type of
structures (reinforced concrete, structural steel, etc.). The structural code that will be used
extensively throughout this textbook is The American Concrete Institute (ACI 318-08), which
is one of the most solid codes due to its continuing modification, improvement, and revision
to incorporate the latest advancements in the field of reinforced concrete design and
construction. Supplements containing such revisions
are made on yearly basis. Every three or six years, a comprehensive code edition is made,
combining all revisions made since the last comprehensive edition.
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A building code, on the other side, is a code that reflects local conditions such as earthquakes,
winds, snow, and tornadoes in the specifications.
Usually the building code which describes the prevailing conditions in a certain city or state,
is used in addition to the main structural or national code. Prior to the year 2000, there were
three model codes: the Uniform Building Code (UBC), the Standard Building Code (SBC)
and the Basic Building Code (BBC). In 2000, these three codes were replaced by the
International Building Code (IBC) , which is updated every three years.
1.5 Design Methods

Two methods of design for reinforced concrete have been dominant. The Working Stress
method was the principal method used from the early 1900s until the early 1960s. Since the
publication of the 1963 edition of the ACI Code, there has been a rapid transition to Ultimate
Strength Design.
Ultimate Strength Design is identified in the code as the Strength Design Method. The 1956
ACI Code (ACI 318-56) was the first code edition which officially recognized and permitted
the Ultimate Strength Design method and included it in an appendix. The 1963 ACI Code
(ACI 318-63) dealt with both methods equally. The 1971 ACI Code (ACI 318-71) was based
fully on the strength approach for proportioning reinforced concrete members, except for a
small section dedicated to what is called the Alternate Design
Method . In the 1977 ACI Code (ACI 318-77) the Alternate Design Method was demoted to
Appendix “B”. It has been preserved in all editions of the code since 1977, including the 1999
edition mentioned in Appendix “A”. In the 2002 code edition, the so called Alternate Design
Method was taken out.
1.5.1 The Strength Design Method

At the present time, the strength design method is the method adopted by most prestigious
design codes; including the 2008 version of the ACI building code (ACI 318-08). In this
method, elements are designed so that the internal forces produced by factored loads do not
exceed the corresponding strength capacities and allow for some capacity reduction. The
factored loads are obtained by multiplying the working loads (service loads) by factors
usually greater than unity. The favored mode of failure is the one that ensures a controlled
local failure of members in a ductile rather than than brittle manner.
1.5.1.1 Shortcomings:
1. The use of elastic methods of analysis to determine the internal forces in the members,
which are associated with the factored loads, is in consistent. This is due to the fact that when
the ultimate load is approached, steel and concrete are no longer behaving elastically, a basic
requirement of the validity of the elastic methods of design.
2. Regardless of the method of design used, structures are expected to behave elastically or
nearly under normal working loads. Under this condition, the strength method can not be used
and the working stress analysis should be made to determine the deformations and crack
widths .
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1.5.2 The Working-Stress Design Method
Before the introduction of the strength-design method in the ACI building code in 1956, the
working stress design method was used in design. This method is based on the condition that
the stresses caused by service loads without load factors are not to exceed the allowable
stresses which are taken as a fraction of the ultimate stresses of the materials, fcfor concrete
and fy for steel. In this method, linear elastic relationship between stress and strain is
assumed for both concrete and steel reinforcement.
The working stress-design method will generally result in designs that are more conservative
than those based on the strength design method. Now only the design of sanitary structures
holding fluids is based on the working-stress design method since keeping stresses low is a
logical way to limit cracking and prevent leakage.
1.5.2.1 Shortcomings
1. No way to account for degrees of uncertainty of various types of loads. Dead loads,
for example, can be predicted more accurately than live loads which are usually variant and
harder to predict.
2. Experimental investigations showed that analysis according to the working-stress design
method does not predict actual behavior, especially, at high stresses.
3. The elastic theory does not allow for prediction of the ductility of a structural member.
Consideration of ductility, however, is of a vital importance in the field of design for most
dynamic effects.
4. The working stress design method does not make allowances for varying quality control,
standard of construction and variations in dicating the magnitude of damage that may be
caused by possible failure of a particular element.
5. It has been confirmed by tests that the working stress design method does not give correct
information with respect to the actual factor of safety against failure of reinforced concrete
members. The factor of safety is defined as the ratio between the load that would cause the
total collapse to that used as the service or working load. It has been found that the value of
this factor is far different from the ratio of the strength to the so-called working stress.
1.6 Loads on Structures

All structural elements must be designed for all loads anticipated to act during the life span of
such elements. These loads should not cause the structural elements to fail or deflect
excessively under working conditions.
Therefore, the designer must use the available codes to estimate these loads if such estimates
are available. If not, the designer must use his own judgment to make these estimates which
are needed for the analysis process before embarking on the design process. The most
important load types are listed below.
1.6.1 Dead Load (D.L)

The dead load is usually a load of permanent status, such as the own weight of the
structure, its partitions, flooring and roofing. The exact value of the dead load is not
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known until the structural members have been proportioned. Once this is done, this
load is calculated and used with other loads to design these members. Only then, the
assumed loads are compared with the actual ones, if the difference is substantial such
as in long spans, modifications of the assumed values are necessary to guarantee
economy on one extreme and adequacy on the other.
1.6.2 Live Load (L.L)

The live load is a moving or movable type of load such as occupants, furniture, etc. Live
loads used in designing buildings are usually specified by local building codes. Live loads
depend on the intended use of the structure and the number of occupants at a particular time.
The structural engineer must use a good judgment if the expected live load is not specified
by the local code, or if he expects a larger value than the one specified by the code. Live
loads are arranged in such a way to give maximum values for the internal forces. Table 1.1
shows typical live load values used by the ASCE 7-05.
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1.6.3 Wind Load (W.L)
The wind load is a lateral load produced by wind pressure and gusts. It is a type of dynamic
load that is considered static to simplify analysis. The magnitude of this force depends on the
shape of the building, its height, the velocity of the wind and the type of terrain in which the
building exists. load is considered to act in combination with dead and live loads.
1.6.4 Earthquake Load (E.L)

The earthquake load, which is also called seismic load, is a lateral load caused by ground
motions resulting from earthquakes. The magnitude of such a load depends on the mass of the
structure and the acceleration caused by the earthquake. The provisions of the ACI Code
provide enough ductility to allow concrete structures to stand earthquakes in low seismic risk
regions. In moderate to high-risk regions, special arrangements and detailing are needed to
guarantee ductility.
1.7 Safety Provisions

Safety is required to insure that the structure can sustain all expected loads during its
construction stage and its life span with an appropriate factor of safety. The factor of
safety is used to account for the following uncertainties:
Real Loads may differ from assumed design loads, or distributed differently.
Material strengths could be smaller than those used in the design.
Executed dimensions or reinforcement are less than those specified by the designer.
Assumptions and simplifications are made during analysis or design.
The factor of safety should account for the expected type of failure and its consequences
and for the importance of the member in terms of structural integrity. The ACI strength
design method, , involves a two-way safety measure. The first of which involves using
load factors, usually greater than unity to increase the service loads. The magnitude of
such a load factor depends on the accuracy of determining the type of load under
consideration. The second safety measure specified by the ACI Code involves a strength
reduction factor multiplied by the nominal (theoretical) strength to obtain design strength.
The magnitude of such a reduction factor is usually smaller than unity. The load factors
and the strength reduction factors will be discussed in detail in the following section.
1.7.1 Load Factors
These load factors are required for possible overloading resulting from;
Magnitudes of loads may vary from those assumed in design.
Uncertainties involved in determination of internal force.
In the ACI 318-2002 Code, the load combination and strength reduction factors of the 1999
code were revised and moved to Appendix C, and remains in the ACI 318 08 code edition.
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According to ACI 9.2.1, required strength U shall be at least equal to the effects of factored
loads in Eqs. (1.1) through (1.7). The effect of one or more loads not acting simultaneously
is to be investigated.
a- Dead load and fluid load Combination:

U 1.4D F 
b- Dead load, fluid load, temperature load, live load, soil load, roof load,
snow load, and rain load combination:
U 1.2D F T1.6L H 0.5 Lr
U 1.2D F T1.6L H 0.5S

U 1.2D F T1.6L H 0.5 R
c- Dead load, roof live load, live load, rain load, wind load, and snow load
combination:
d- Dead Load, wind load, live load, roof live load, snow load, and rain
load combination:
e- Dead Load, earthquake load, live load, and snow load combination:
U 1.2 D 1.0 E 1.0 L0.2 S
23
f- Dead Load, wind load, and soil load combination:
U 0.9 D 1.6W 1.6 H
g- Dead Load, earthquake load, and soil load combination:

U 0.9D 1.0E 1.6H
Where
U = Required strength to resist factored loads, or internal forces
D = Dead loads, or related internal forces
F = Fluid loads, or related internal forces
T = Cumulative effects of temperature, creep, shrinkage, and differential
settlement
L = Live loads, or related internal forces
H = Soil pressure, or related internal forces
r
L = Roof live loads, or related internal forces
S = Snow loads, or related internal forces
R = Rain loads, or related internal forces
W = Wind loads, or related internal forces
E = Earthquake loads, or related internal forces
Regarding the above given equations, the following important notes are also given in
ACI 9.2.1 and 9.2.2
a- The live load factor on L on Eqs. (1.3), (1.4) and (1.5) is permitted to be reduced to
0.5 except for garages, areas of public assembly, and all areas where the live load is
greater than 485 kg / m2 .
b- Where the wind load W has not been reduced by a directionality factor, it is permitted to use
1.3W instead of 1.6W in Eqs. (1.4) and (1.6).
c- Where earthquake load E is based on service level forces, 1.4 E is to be used in place of 1.0
E in Eqs. (1.5) and (1.7).
d- The load factor on H shall be set equal to zero in Eqs. (1.6) and (1.7) if the structural action
due to H counteracts that due to W or E . Where lateral earth pressure provides resistance to
actions from other forces it shall not be included in H but shall be included in the design
resistance.
e- If the live load is applied rapidly, as may be the case for parking structures, loading docks,
warehouse floors, elevator shafts, etc., impact effects should be considered. In all equations,
substitute (L + impact) for L when impact should be considered.
24
For many members, the loads considered are dead, live, wind and earthquake.
Where the F, H, R, S , Lr and T loads are not considered equations (1.1) through (1.7)
simplify to those given in Table (1.2) below.
1.7.2 Strength Reduction Factors
According to the ACI Code 9.3.1, the nominal (theoretical) strength is multiplied by a strength
reduction factor to obtain the design strength. Design strength ≥ Required strength The reasons
for using the strength reduction factors include:
Allow for the probability of under-strength due to variations in material strengths and
dimensions.
Allow for inaccuracies in the design equations.
Reflect the degree of ductility and required reliability of the member under the load effects
being considered.
Reflect the importance of the member in the structure.
In the ACI 318-2002 Code, the strength reduction factors were adjusted to be compatible with
model building code.
 According to ACI 9.3.2 strength reduction factors are given as follows:
25
Lec: ADEL .B HAMAD Omar al-mukhtar university
Reinforced Concrete (I)
a- For tension-controlled sections ……….…………………….. = 0.90
b- For compression-controlled sections,
Members with spiral reinforcement …………….….……… = 0.75
Other reinforced members ………………………...………. = 0.65
c- For shear and torsion ………………………………….……. = 0.75
d- For bearing on concrete …………………………….……….. = 0.65
e- Post-tensioned anchorage zones ………………..…………… = 0.85
f- Strut and tie models …………………………………………. = 0.75
An example of showing the importance of a member in a structure is that columns have smaller
strength reduction factors, thus larger safety measures than beams. This is due to the importance
of columns when paying attention to their extensive type of failure which differs from the
localized type of failure encountered in beams. Moreover, columns are less ductile than beams,
thus requiring a larger factor of safety.
In ACI 10.3.4, sections are called tension-controlled when the net tensile strain in the extreme
tension steel is equal to or greater than 0.005 when the concrete in compression reaches its
crushing strain of 0.003, as shown in Fig. 1.2.a.
In ACI 10.3.3, sections are called compression-controlled when the net tensile strain in the
extreme tension steel is equal to or less than y
(permitted to be taken as 0.002 for reinforcement with fy 4200 kg / cm2 )
when the concrete in compression reaches its crushing strain of 0.003, as shown in Fig. 1.2.c.
There is a transition region between tension-controlled and compression-controlled sections,
shown in Fig. 1.2.b.
Classification of sections for fy 4200kg / cm2 ; (a)

Tension-controlled section; (b) Section in transition between tension
and compression; (c) compression-controlled section.
26
27
28
29
32
Design of Beams for Flexure
Introduction
Beams are structural members carrying transverse loads that can cause bending moments, shear
forces, and in some cases torsion.
This chapter deals only with shallow beams that are defined by ACI 10.7.1 as beams with depth
to clear span ratio of less than 0.25.
Design of a beam starts with proportioning its sections to resist bending moments and choosing
the required reinforcement. Once this is done, the chosen sections are checked and designed for
shear and torsion. The last step in the design process is to check the bond between the
reinforcement and concrete.
In this chapter, two problems are dealt with; analysis and design. In the first problem, the
dimensions of the cross section together with the amount of reinforcement are given; it is only
required to evaluate the bending capacity of the beam cross section.
The second problem deals with evaluating the dimensions of the cross section and the required
reinforcement, provided that either the bending moment or the loading causing it is given. In
both cases, the properties of concrete and steel reinforcement need to be known.
In order to limit deflections, the depth of the cross section is chosen to fulfill the ACI
Code serviceability requirements.
Design assumptions
The following assumptions provided by ACI 10.2 are helpful in deriving the basic equations
that are used throughout this chapter.
The strain in both reinforcement and in concrete is assumed to be directly proportional to

the distance from the neutral axis, even near ultimate strength.
Tensile strength of concrete is to be neglected in axial and flexural calculations of
reinforced concrete.
Maximum usable strain at extreme concrete compression fiber is to be equal to 0.003.
Equilibrium of forces acting on the cross section and compatibility of strains between the
concrete and the reinforcement are to be satisfied.
Stress in reinforcement below fy is taken as Es times steel strain. For strains greater than that
corresponding to fy , stress in reinforcement is considered to be independent of strain and equal
to fy . Thus, for s y , fs s Es and when s y , fs f y
The concrete compressive stress distribution may be assumed to be rectangular, trapezoidal,
parabolic or any other shape that results in prediction of strength in substantial agreement with
results of compressive tests.
32
Stress distribution for different stages of loading
1-Stage I (Un-cracked linear stage):
If a reinforced concrete beam is loaded in bending in such away that compressive stresses
develop at the top fibers of the section while tensile stresses develop at the bottom fibers, the
stress distribution according to the bending theory is given by
Cross section; (b) strains; (c),(d),(e) and (f) stress distribution
In this stage, shown in Figure 1.b and Figure 1.c, strains and stresses are distributed
linearly and satisfy the following:
32
This case is exclusively used in the design of un-cracked sections associated with
water
structures, when water is on the tension side of the section, using the working stress
design method.
- Stage II: Cracked linear stage

With higher loads applied to the beam, stresses are still distributed linearly and the
tensile stress in concrete exceeds the modulus of rupture, as shown in Figure 1.d.
Thus,
the first of tensile cracks at the bottom surface starts to develop with the tensile and
compressive strains satisfying the following:
 fc fc
fct fr
The tensile strength of concrete in the area below the neutral axis is to be neglected.
This stage is considered the basis for design of sections subjected to bending using the
working stress design method.
- Stage III: Cracked nonlinear stage

With further increase of the load, the compressive stresses in the concrete becomes
nonlinear, while the strain is still proportional to the distance from the neutral axis, as
shown in Figure 1.e.
 fc fc
fct fr
This case is not used in design, as it is a transitory case between working stress and
ultimate strength design methods.
Stage IV: Ultimate Strength Stage

With further increase in the load, the cracks push upward moving the neutral axis in that
direction until failure takes place. The stress distribution is shown in 1.f. Depending
on the properties of a beam, flexural mode of failure may be ductile or brittle as will be
explained in the next section.
A. Tension-controlled sections:
In ACI 10.3.4, sections are called tension-controlled when the net tensile strain in the
extreme tension steelt is equal to or greater than 0.005 when the concrete in compression
reaches its crushing strain c of 0.003, as shown in Figure 2.a. For these sections sufficient
warning of failure with excessive deflection and cracking may be expected. Flexural members
are usually tension-controlled.
33
B. Compression-controlled sections:
In ACI 10.3.3, sections are called compression-controlled when the net tensile strain
in
the extreme tension steel
t is equal to or less than y when the concrete in
compression reaches its crushing strain of 0.003, as shown in Figure 2.c. For these
sections, a brittle failure may be expected with little warning of impending failure.
Compression members are usually compression-controlled.
C. Transition sections:
In ACI 10.3.4, sections with small axial load and large bending moment, will have net
tensile strain in the extreme tension steel between the above limits. These sections are
in a transition region between compression and tension-controlled sections, shown in
Figure 2.b. Failure of such sections is initiated by yield of the reinforcement, but at
smaller curvature than a tension-controlled failure and hence giving less warning of
failure than tension-controlled failure.
D. Balanced sections:
In ACI 10.3.2, balanced strain condition exists at a cross section when tension
reinforcement reaches the strain corresponding to fy just as concrete in compression
reaches its assumed ultimate strain of 0.003, as shown in Figure 2.d. For these
sections,
a brittle failure may be expected with little warning of impending failure.
Classification of sections; (a) Tension-controlled sections; (b) Sections in transition between

tension and compression; (c) compression-controlled sections; (d) balanced sections.
34
Strength reduction factors, :
According to ACI 9.3.2 strength reduction factors are given as follows:
a- For tension-controlled sections ……….…………………….. = 0.90
b- For compression-controlled sections,
Members with spiral reinforcement …………….….……… = 0.75
Other reinforced members ………………………...………. = 0.65

The values of strength reduction factors in the transition region are permitted to be linearly
increased from that for compression-controlled sections to 0.90 as the net tensile strain in the
extreme tension steel at nominal strength increases from the compression-controlled strain limit
to 0.005, as shown in Figure 3. In this figure, c is distance from the extreme compression fiber
to neutral axis, and dt is the distance from extreme compression fiber to extreme tension steel.
ACI 10.3.5 specifies that for flexural members with factored axial compression load less
than0.1 f'c Ag , t at nominal strength is not to be less than 0.004.
Variation of with net tensile strain t and c / dt
Stress distribution at strength design:

In the design for flexure, the three most common distributions of concrete stresses are
the rectangular, the parabolic and the trapezoidal, shown in Figure
Stress distribution at ultimate strength
35
Whitney’s rectangular stress distribution

Whitney proposed the use of an equivalent rectangular compressive stress distribution,
shown in Figure 5, to replace the more exact parabolic stress distribution. This equivalent
stress distribution does not represent the stress distribution in the compression zone at
those obtained from laboratory tests.
According ACI Code 10.2.7.1 through ACI Code 10.2.7.3, in the equivalent rectangular
block an average stress of 0.85 fcis used with a rectangle of depth a 1 x , where x
is the distance from the extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis, and:
Whitney stress distribution
36
Maximum reinforcement ratio, max for singly reinforced rectangular

beams:
For tension-controlled sections, the maximum reinforcement ratio, max , is defined as
Where
As,max = the maximum amount of tension reinforcement evaluated when the net
tensile strain in the extreme reinforcement is 0.005 and the strain at the extreme
compression fiber is equal to 0.003.
d = the effective depth of the section, measured from the centroid of the
reinforcement to concrete extreme compression fiber.
From the strain diagram in Figure 6 and the use of similar triangles,
(a) cross section; (b) strain diagram; (c) Force diagram
37
From equilibrium of forces in the axial direction,
Minimum reinforcement ratio, min for singly reinforced beams:

ACI 10.5.1 specifies that at every section of a flexural member where tensile
reinforcement is required by analysis, As provided is not to be less than given by
amount of reinforcement applies to flexural members which are larger in cross section
than required for strength, with a very small amount of tensile reinforcement. With a very
small amount of tensile reinforcement, the computed moment strength as a
reinforced concrete section using cracked section analysis becomes less than that of the
38
corresponding un-reinforced concrete section computed from its modulus of rupture.
Failure in such a case can be sudden. However, ACI 10.5.3 states that the preceding
minimums do not have to be satisfied if the area of the tensile reinforcement provided at
every section is at least one-third greater than the area required by moment.
Concrete cover
Concrete cover is necessary for protecting the reinforcement against weather and other
effects. Concrete cover is measured from the concrete surface to the outermost surface
of steel reinforcement as shown in Figure 7. ACI 7.7 specifies minimum cover values
for different exposure conditions shown in Table 1.
Concrete cover and clear spacing between bars
39
Spacing of reinforcing bars
The ACI Code specifies limits for bar spacing to permit concrete to flow smoothly into
spaces between bars without honeycombing. According to ACI 7.6.1 and ACI 3.3.2, the
minimum clear spacing between parallel bars in a layer is not to be less than the largest
of: (shown in Figure 7)
bar diameter db
2.5 cm
4/3 maximum size of coarse aggregate
When two or more layers are used, bars in the upper layers are placed directly above
layers in the bottom layer with clear distance between layers not less than 2.5 cm as
specified by ACI 7.6.2 and shown in Figure above.
Strength of singly reinforced rectangular sections

The compressive force in concrete C is given by
42
where
= strength reduction factor for flexure
b width of section
A s  cross-sectional area of the reinforcement
h total height of section
d effective depth of section
T total tensile force in the reinforcement
C total compressive force in the concrete
fy yield stress of the reinforcement
 a depth of rectangular stress block
fc concrete compressive strength at 28 days
Design of Singly Reinforced Rectangular Sections
According to ACI 9.1.1 and ACI 9.1.2, structural members are to be designed to satisfy strength
and serviceability requirements. The strength requirement provides safety against possible
failure, while the serviceability requirement ensures adequate performance at service load
without excessive deflection and cracking.
The Strength Requirement
The strength requirement is satisfied by ensuring that the design strength of the member is
larger than or equal to the required strength.
M n  Mu
The Serviceability Requirement

Two methods are given by ACI 9.5 for controlling deflections. The first of which is by providing
a member thickness not less than given code minimum values, shown in Table 2. The second
method is by calculating the deflection and comparing it with code specified values.
The first method is easier to deal with as it eliminates unnecessary time consuming calculations.
42
The Design Equation
The design equation is obtained by substituting As b d into Eqn. (19), or
The reinforcement ratio is given in terms of Mu , cross section dimensions and material
properties by solving for the roots of a quadratic equation, or
Summary of Design Procedure

In this section, a procedure for designing singly reinforced rectangular sections is presented.
With one equation available at his disposal, the structural engineer has to make decisions in
choosing two of the three which are unknown. Added to this, he has to specify design values
for fcand fy .
When both of b and h are unknown

1. Specify fc¢ and fy .values:
The structural designer is to specify design values for fcand fy . Concrete with 10×10×10 cm
cube compressive strength fcof 250 kg/cm2 is used for members designed for flexure and
300 kg/cm2 for members designed for axial compression. Higher fcvalues are used when
concrete is exposed to harsh environments or in case of relatively long spans. For main
reinforcement, steel of yield stress fy = 4200 kg/cm2 is the most common stress value, with
reinforcement of yield stress fy equals to 2800 kg/cm2 used in case of secondary reinforcement.
2. Compute the factored bending moment Mu :

Service dead and live loads are to be estimated. Own weight of the beam, which is part of the
dead load, needs to be evaluated. Unfortunately, beam dimensions are unknown at this
particular stage.
Thus, preliminary values of b and d are to be assumed as h has to be larger than the minimum
height required in order to satisfy the deflection requirement specified by the ACI Code. The
height h and the width b are rounded to the nearest 5 cm to satisfy framework requirements.
The factored loads are evaluated by multiplying the service load values by their corresponding
42
load factors. Structural analysis is done assuming full elastic behavior.
3. Compute b and d:
An economic reinforcement ratio is selected. Two methods are possible, the first is by
assuming b and finding d from the design equation. The height of the section h is then
evaluated, rounded to the nearest 5cm, and checked to ensure that it is larger than the minimum
height specified by the code.
The second method is done through assuming a value for h (d is easily calculated), and b is
evaluated from the design equation and rounded to the nearest 5 cm.
4. Check own weight of beam and revise Mu if needed:

If the evaluated dimensions of the beam are substantially larger or smaller than the assumed
values, the own weight has to be recalculated, and the factored moment Mu is to be revised.
5. Revise the reinforcement ratio r :
Using the revised values of b, d, and Mu evaluate the reinforcement ratio using Eqn. (23),
where is not to be less than min specified by the code.
6. Calculate the area of steel reinforcement As :

The area of steel reinforcement
A s is calculated using the revised values of , b, and d. Number of bars is to be selected, and
spacing between reinforcing bars is checked against code specified values.
Larger size bars are used, or more than one layer of reinforcement is chosen when reinforcement
bars are too close to each other, thus preventing smooth flow of concrete between them.
7. Sketch the cross section and its reinforcement:

Neat sketches showing overall cross sectional dimensions and chosen reinforcement are to be
provided.
8. Check the bending capacity Mu of the designed section:

This is an optional step done to ensure that the designed section can sustain the loading without
causing failure.
When each of b and h is known

1. Specify fcand fy values.
2. Compute the factored bending moment Mu .
3. Compute the reinforcement ratio using Eqn. (23).
4. Calculate the area of steel reinforcement As .
5. Check the bending capacity Mu of the designed section.
43
Example (1):
For the beam shown in Figure below. calculate the design moment Md if f'c 250 kg / cm2
and fy 4200 kg / cm2 .
Beam cross section
Solution:
1- Check whether the available reinforcement is not less than ACI Code minimum
Forces acting on section
44
Strain diagram
45
Example (2):
Determine the maximum factored load that the beam shown in Figure can sustain.
Use f'c 300 kg / cm2 , fy 4200 kg / cm2 .
(a) Beam and loading; (b) cross section
Solution:
1- Check whether the available reinforcement is not less than ACI Code minimum
46
c: Strain diagram
47
Example (4.3):
The 3.0 m-long cantilever beam, shown in Figure 10.a, carries service loads consisting of a
dead load of 0.80 t/m (own weight is not included), and 2.0 ton concentrated live load at the
free end. Design the section at maximum bending moment.
Use fc250 kg / cm2 and fy 4200 kg / cm2 .
Beam and loading
Solution:
48
or bd 2 55170.71cm3
Letting b = 30 cm, d = 42.88 cm
Assuming one layer of 20 mm reinforcement and 8 mm stirrups
h = 42.88 + 4.0 + 0.80 +2.0/2 = 48.68 cm
Use a 30 × 50 cm cross section
Own weight of the beam has increased to
0.30 (0.50) (2.5) = 0.375 ton/m
The factored moment is revised to take into account the change in beam own weight
Designed
cross
section
49
52
52
52
T – Section Beam
Analysis of T – section beam for Flexural
53
54
Design of T-Shaped Sections

Introduction
When floor slabs and their supporting beams are cast monolithically, they deflect along
with the beams under the action of external loads. Therefore, slabs in the vicinity of the
beams act as flanges for the beam. Interior beams have a flange on both sides, which are
called T-beams. Edge beams have a flange on one side only, and referred to as L-beams as
shown in Figure 8. Isolated T-beams, which are produced as precast concrete elements, are
used in concrete construction.
Effective Flange Width
In the elementary theory of bending, stresses are assumed to be constant along the beam
width. But if the flange width is very large, it is known that parts of the flanges at a
distance from the web do not take their full share in resisting bending moment, and the
stresses are varying.
55
To simplify analysis and design of T-sections, the actual stress distribution is replaced by
uniform
stress distribution based on the principle of static equivalence, shown in Figure 9.
According to ACI 8.12.2, effective flange width of a T-beam, be , shown in Figure 10, is not
to exceed the smallest of:
One-fourth the span length of the beam, L/4.
Width of web plus 16 times slab thickness, bw 16t .
Center-to-center spacing of beams.
where bw is the width of web, t is the slab thickness, and L is span of beam.
For L-shaped beams, ACI 8.12.3 requires that the effective flange width not to exceed the
smallest of:
For isolated beams in which the T-shape is used to provide a flange for additional
compression area, ACI 8.12.4 states that the flange thickness is not to exceed half the web
width, bw / 2 , and the effective flange width be not more than four times the web width, 4bw
.
56
T- versus Rectangular Sections
When T-shaped sections are subjected to negative bending moments, the flange is located
in the tension zone. Since concrete strength in tension is usually neglected in strength
design, the sections are treated as rectangular sections of width bw . On the other hand,
when sections are subjected to positive bending moments, the flange is located in the
compression zone and the section is treated as a T-section shown in Figure 11.
- Maximum Reinforcement, As max
Strength of T and L-shaped sections is affected by the depth of the rectangular stress block,
a . Two cases are considered, the first of which when the depth a is smaller than, or equal
to the flange thickness. The second case occurs when the depth a is larger than the flange
thickness.
Case ( I ): when a t

The maximum amount of tension reinforcement, As,max is evaluated when the net tensile
strain in the extreme reinforcement is 0.005 and the strain at the extreme compression fiber
is equal to 0.003, according ACI code 10.3.4.
57
The distance to the neutral axis, xmax is given by the following equation and shown in
Figure 12.
The resultant of the compressive forces in the concrete is given by
The tensile force in the reinforcement is given by
The maximum reinforcement is given as
58
Case ( II ): when a t

The distance to the neutral axis, xmax is given by the following equation and shown in
Figure 13.
The compressive force in the concrete is divided into two forces, one represents the force
in the rectangular beam C1,max , and the second represents the forces in the flange
overhangs C2,max
59
From equilibrium of forces,
Minimum Reinforcement, As min
According to ACI 10.5.2, for a statically determinate T-section with flanges in tension,
the area shall not be less than the larger of the two following equations, with b'w is 2 bw
or the width of flange, whichever is smaller.
62
-Strength of T-sections :
Case (I): when a t

The problem starts with the assumption that a t as shown in Figure 14, then checking
for the validity of this assumption once a is evaluated.
The resultant of the compressive forces in the concrete is given by
ce
C 0.85 f a b
The tensile force in the reinforcement is given by
T As fy
T C 0 and
If a t as assumed, then proceed on with the next step for evaluating the flexural
capacity of the section. If not, quit case (I) and start the solution according to case (II),
shown in the next section.
The nominal Strength Mn is evaluated using the equilibrium of moments acting on the
section,
and the design moment is given by
62
Case (II): when a t
The compressive force in the concrete is divided into two forces, one represents the
force in the rectangular beam C1 , and the second represents the forces in the flange
overhangs C2 , as shown in Figure 15.
C1 0.85 f a b
C2 0.85 fcbe bwt

From equilibrium of forces,
T C1 C2
From equilibrium of moments,
 M n C1 d a / 2C2 d t / 2

and the design moment is given by
 M n C1 d a / 2C2 d t / 2
Design of T-sections
The design of a T-section involves the determination of five unknowns; be ,t ,bw ,h ,and As.
Material properties fcand fy are specified by the structural designer. The slab thickness, t is
evaluated from the design process of the slab, a step that usually precedes the design of the
beam. The effective flange width be , is evaluated according to ACI 8.12.2 through 8.12.4,
given that spacing between adjacent beams, beam span, and slab thickness are known. The
height of section h, is chosen to satisfy both the strength requirement at the supports and the
serviceability requirement according to ACI 9.5. The beam width, bw is chosen in such away
that it is enough for fitting the reinforcement with enough spacing. Therefore, the only
quantity that needs to be determined is the area of reinforcement, As .
The design procedure is summarized as follows:

1. Maximum amount of reinforcement permitted by ACI Code, As max is determined.
2. Using the moment strength equation, the depth of the rectangular stress block in concrete,
a is
determined through solving a quadratic equation in terms of a.
3. The depth a is checked to see if it is smaller than or larger than t. If a t , then the required
reinforcement is evaluated from the equation
62
then steps 2 and 3 are to be repeated using the moment strength equation .
M n C1 d  a / 2  C2 d  t / 2.
4.The evaluated reinforcement is checked against

evaluated reinforcement is satisfactory, if not, the dimensions of the cross section
are to be enlarged until this condition is satisfied.
5.Bar diameters and numbers are chosen, and the minimum clear spacing between
bars is to be satisfied.
6.The cross section along with the required reinforcement is neatly drawn to an
appropriate drawing scale.
63
Solution:
For an Interior beam,

be is the smallest of:
64
Solution:
65
66
Solution:
67
Solution:
68
69

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Lec: ADEL .

B HAMAD Reinforced Concrete (I) Omar al-mukhtar university

Steel is used as a reinforcement element due to some factors, which are,

1.2 Advantages of Reinforced Concrete

1.3 Disadvantages of Reinforced Concrete

1.4 Historical Development:

1.5 Vertical Load Structural Systems

1.6 Structural Elements

Building Frame System

Moment-Resisting Frame System

MATERIALS AND PROPERTIES

Stress-strain relations for cement paste, aggregate, and concrete

Relation between compressive strength and water-cement ratio of concrete

2.3 Mechanical Properties of Concrete

2.3.1 Concrete Compressive Strength

The ACI Code is based on the concrete compressive strength as measured

Cube and cylinder test specimens

2.3.2 Concrete Tensile Strength

Relation between tensile and compressive

2.3.2.1 Standard Tension Tests:

A. The Direct Tension Test

B. The Split Cylinder Test (ASTM 496)

Split cylinder test

ACI R 11.2.1.1 gives an approximate value for f ct

C. The Modulus of Rupture Test (ASTM C78)

In this test, a plain concrete beam 15 cm by 15 cm in cross section and 75

The modulus of rupture is given by

Modulus of rupture test

ACI 9.5.2.3 gives an approximate value for f r

Where f c′ is given in kg/cm2.

2.3.3 Modulus of Elasticity

The modulus of elasticity of concrete Ec is defined as the ratio of normal stress to

Long-term deflection multipliers

The time dependent factors ξ are given at different periods of time

ACI 7.12.2.1 specifies that a minimum shrinkage and temperature

Cast iron contains more than 2 % of carbon, thus characterized by its

2.4.1 Properties of Steel Reinforcement

The modulus of elasticity Es is defined as the slope of the stress-strain curve.

1. Setting out the building structural system/systems.

Types of Concrete Design

3.2.1 Plain Concrete Design

3.2.2 Reinforced Concrete Design

Mechanics of reinforced concrete: (a) beam and loads;

1.1.1 Prestressed Concrete Design

1.2 Design Versus Analysis

1.3 Limit States of Reinforced Concrete Design

1.3.1 Ultimate Limit States

1.3.2 Service Limit States

1.3.3 Special Limit States

1.4 Design and Building Codes

1.5 Design Methods

1.5.1 The Strength Design Method

1.5.2 The Working-Stress Design Method

1.6 Loads on Structures

1.6.1 Dead Load (D.L)

1.6.2 Live Load (L.L)

1.6.4 Earthquake Load (E.L)

1.7 Safety Provisions

1.7.1 Load Factors

a- Dead load and fluid load Combination:

U 1.2D F T1.6L H 0.5 Lr

U 1.2D F T1.6L H 0.5S