Psychology class note

Psychologists have been studying whether nonhuman species can acquire human language for many
decades. Formal studies of language learning in nonhuman species gained momentum in the mid-1950s
when psychologists attempted to teach spoken English to a chimpanzee named Viki (Hayes & Hayes,
1951). Viki was cross-fostered , meaning that she was raised as a member of a family that was not of the
same species. Like humans, chimps come into the world dependent on adults for care, so the humans
who raised Viki were basically foster parents. Although the psychologists learned a lot about how smart
chimpanzees can be, they did not learn that Viki was capable of language—she managed to whisper only
about four words after several years of trying. Psychologists who followed in these researchers’
footsteps did not consider the case to be closed. Perhaps Viki’s failure to learn spoken English was a
limitation not of the brain, but of physical differences in the vocal tract and tongue that distinguish
humans and chimpanzees. One project that began in the mid-1960s involved teaching chimpanzees to
use American Sign Language (ASL). The first chimpanzee involved in this project was named Washoe.
The psychologists immersed Washoe in an environment rich with ASL, using signs instead of speaking
and keeping at least one adult present and communicating with her throughout the day. By the time she
turned two years old, Washoe had acquired about 35 signs through imitation and direct guidance of
how to configure and move her hands. Eventually, she learned approximately 200 signs.

Instead of using sign language, some researchers have developed a completely artificial language to
teach to apes. This language consists of symbols called lexigrams—small keys on a computerized board
that represent words and, therefore, can be combined to form complex ideas and phrases. One subject
of the research using this language is a bonobo named Kanzi (bonobos are another species of
chimpanzee). Kanzi has learned approximately 350 symbols through training, but he learned his first
symbols simply by watching as researchers attempted to teach his mother how to use the language. In
addition to the lexigrams he produces, Kanzi seems to recognize about 3000 spoken words. His trainers
claim that Kanzi’s skills constitute language (Savage-Rumbaugh & Lewin, 1994). They argue that he can
understand symbols and at least some syntax; that he acquired symbols simply by being around others
who used them; and that he produced symbols without specific training or reinforcement. Those who
work with Kanzi conclude that his communication skills are quite similar to those of a young human in
terms of both the elements of language (semantics and syntax) and the acquisition of language (natural
and without effortful training). Despite their ability to communicate in complex ways, debate continues
to swirl about whether these animals are using language. Many language researchers point out that
chimpanzees’ signing and artificial language use is very different from how humans use language. Is the
vastness of the difference important? Is using 200 signs different in some critical way from being able to
use 4000 signs, roughly the number found in the ASL dictionary (Stokoe et al., 1976)? If our only
criterion for whether a communication system constitutes language is the number of words used, then
we can say that nonhuman species acquire some language skills after extensive training. But as you have
learned in this module, human language involves more than just using words. In particular, our
manipulation of phonemes, morphemes, and syntax allow us to utter an