NAVAL ARCHITECTURE

Q1) Write Short notes on:

A. Free Surface Effect due to Slack Tank.
B. Multiple Loadlines.

MULTIPLE LOAD LINES:

• Issuance of multiple load lines was a result of commercial

considerations. Many ports have deadweight restrictions on ships that
call on them. These restrictions have no bearing on vessel’s safety,
draft, etc. To get around the deadweight restriction, shipowners
petitioned their governments and obtained permission to have
several sets of marks, with a Load line certificate issued by RO for each
set. None of these additional sets of load line can be higher than the
minimum freeboard assigned under the International Load Line Rules.
The Rules allow only one set to be in use at any one time, so that the
ship may arrive in port using one set, but sail out using another. Any
marks not in use should be painted out to hide them.
• Indian Rules on Multiple Load Lines are as follows: The Owner must
make a request in writing to the Indian Register of Shipping (IRS)
indicating the required deadweights (or drafts) for which the multiple
load lines are to be assigned.
1. The request will be evaluated and if found acceptable, a
memorandum of freeboard (MOF) will be issued by IRS, under
intimation of the Naval Architecture branch of DG.
2. The following condition will be verified by IRS before issuing a multiple
load line certificate:
a) The Load Line marks corresponding to the deepest drafts of the
vessel, as well as other assigned marks are permanently marked
on the side shell.
b) The vessel is issued with a ‘multiple load line assignment booklet’ by
the Assigning Authority, (ship’s copy) in order to keep the records of
the use of multiple load lines. A copy of this booklet shall be
retained by the Owner/Company as the ‘company copy’ for
records.
c) Stability information for the relevant statutory loading conditions
 corresponding to each load line mark is approved by IRS and is
available on board.
3. Company’s SMS shall have clear procedures for changing of load line
marks and maintenance of records of the same.
4. The GT and NT of the vessel shall remain unaltered and shall be those
corresponding to the deepest draft.
5. All statutory certificates must show only the greatest deadweight of
the ship.

C. Effect of Draft and Displacement on Rolling.

Q2) With the help of suitable sketch, explain the wind and weather criterion (Rolling
Criteria) as enumerated in the IMO Code of Intact Stability.

The ability of a ship to withstand the combined effects of beam wind and
rolling shall be demonstrated by complying with the weather criterion
given below:

• The ship is subjected to a steady wind pressure acting

perpendicular to the ship's centre line which results in a steady
wind heeling lever (Lw1);
• From the resultant angle of equilibrium (φ0), the ship is assumed
to roll to windward due to wave action to an angle of roll (φ1).
The angle of heel under action of steady wind (φ0) should not
exceed 16° or 80% of the angle of deck edge immersion, whichever
is less;
• The ship is then subjected to a gust wind pressure which results
in a gust wind heeling lever (Lw2) and under these
circumstances, area b shall be equal to or greater than area a, as
indicated in figure below:
Where;

φ0 = angle of heel under action of steady wind

φ1 = angle of roll to windward due to wave action

φ2 = angle of down-flooding (φF) or 500 or φC, whichever is less, φC = angle of second intercept
between lever Lw2 & GZ curve

• The wind heeling levers Lw1 and Lw2 are constant values at all angles of inclination and shall
be calculated as follows:
Q3) Panamax vessels have complained that they have encountered very severe rolling
with heavy seas from the bows or quarters at times losing large number of containers
overboard. Discuss the factors responsible for suck rolling and remedial action required to
prevent it.
ONLY WRITE PARAMETRIC ROLLING.

PARAMETRIC ROLLING:

• Parametric rolling occurs when the pitching period is either equal to or

half of that of the rolling period. Large roll angles may occur quickly in
head or stern seas or nearly head or stern seas. The roll angle may
increase from a few degrees to over 30 degrees in only a few cycles.
• It is caused due to the combination of various factors such as low
initial stability, large flare around the water line, waves as long as
ship’s length, sufficiently large wave amplitudes, period of encounter
half the rolling period and low hydrodynamic roll damping.
• Parametric rolling is produced by the pitching motion on vessels which
have a very fine bow together with very wide and flat stern like large
container ships which have a large flare forward and a flat after ship.
• Parametric rolling is more when a ship is operating in heavy sea
condition. Such conditions can generate extremely high loads on the
lashings and containers. It can even exceed the breaking load of the
container lashings. As a result, the cargo & vessel could be damaged &
containers could be lost.
• Parametric rolling causes heavy stresses in the ship’s structure
especially fore and aft parts. It also causes variation in the load of ship’s
main engines. If not tackled quickly, it can also result in the capsizing of
the vessel.
• As the stern dips into the waves, it produces a rolling action. The
rolling action is different at the stern than to those at the bow which
causes a twisting along the ship leading to the extra rolling motion.
• IMO suggests that parametric rolling is dangerous when the
wavelength is one to 1.5 times the ship’s length.
• Ships which have a high GM will have a shorter roll period and unlikely
to have parametric rolling in head/stern seas. Ships which have a low
GM will have a long rolling period and are likely to have parametric
rolling in head/stern seas.
• To reduce parametric rolling, following actions are suggested:
1. Use ballast changes to alter KG and so the GMT of the vessel. By doing
 so, the rolling period will change making it of a non-synchronous
value.
2. Anti-rolling stability tanks to be provided to transfer water across
the ship. A quick response time is vital to counteract this rolling.
3. Hydraulic fin stabilizers would help to reduce parametric rolling.
Slow down and alter to a more favourable course to ease vessel's motion by
breaking resonance between rolling period & wave encounter period.

SYNCHRONOUS ROLLING

• Every vessel has a natural rolling period which is inversely proportional

to the square root of the GM and directly proportional to the beam of
the ship.
• Synchronous rolling is caused when the rolling period becomes
‘synchronous’ with the period of wave encounter. When this occurs,
the ship will heel over and in exceptional circumstances be rolled
further over by the action of the wave.
• If the vessel encounters a series of swell in such a manner that the
wave period matches the natural rolling period, the vessel will have
no time righting itself before the next wave strikes. This situation if
not corrected, can result in capsizing of the ship.
• The vessel encountering synchronous rolling is in a serious danger that
she may heel over beyond a point from which it cannot return to the
upright condition. She may end up with negative stability & eventually
capsize.
• Synchronous rolling can be experienced regardless of the direction of sea
w.r.t. the ship’s heading. But it is most likely to happen when natural
rolling period of the ship is short or when sailing in high beam or
quartering seas.
• Other danger associated with it is that of cargo shifting that can result
in loss of stability and capsizing. Also, cargo lashings may give way
because of the excessive rolling and cause damage to the cargo and in
some cases, structural damage to the ship.
• A vessel which has suffered engine failure is most vulnerable to
synchronized rolling and efforts to bring the vessel’s head into the
wind should be made while she still has headway.
 • To reduce synchronous rolling, following actions are suggested:
1. Use ballast changes to alter KG and so the GMT of the vessel. By doing
so, the rolling period will change making it of a non-synchronous
value.
2. Change the course of the ship so as to effectively change the period
of wave encounter and eliminate the condition.
3. Alter the speed of the ship until the synchronous rolling ceases to exist.
• It is imperative that the OOW recognizes the condition of
synchronization immediately and immediately alters course to
change the period of wave encounter and eliminates the condition.

Q4) Explain how rolling period test is taken. What is the relationship between GMT and
rolling period? What precautions must be observed when using this formula?

Rolling Period Test

• The GM can be determined approximately by the means of a rolling
period test. It is performed by measuring rolling period of the vessel.
The rolling period test is a frequently used method to determine the
stability of smaller vessels. Stiff vessels have a high GM and a short
rolling period, while tender vessels have a low GM and a long rolling
period.
• Rolling period test can be performed at any time and the crew can
perform it themselves. The test can be performed in the following way:
1. Mooring lines should be slack and the vessel should not be too near to
the harbour.
2. The vessel is made to roll. When the vessel’s roll is sufficient
(approximately 2-60) to each side, the vessel is allowed to roll freely and
naturally.
3. The time taken for the vessel to complete approximately 4 oscillations
is noted. One complete oscillation will have been made when the
vessel has moved from one extreme end right across to the other
extreme end and back to the original starting point.
4. The time in seconds (T) for one oscillation is found by dividing the total
time with the number of oscillations made.
5. If the calculated value of (T) in seconds in less than the breadth of the
 vessel in metres, it is likely that the initial stability is sufficient and the
vessel has high freeboard.
6. As the vessel’s supplies decrease, the rolling period (T) becomes
longer since the vessel’s COG becomes higher and GM becomes
smaller. In such circumstances, it is recommended that the calculated
value of T in seconds should not be more than 1.2 times the breadth of
the vessel in metres.

Rolling period formula is given by:

2𝜋𝐾
𝑅𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑇 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑠 =
/𝑔. 𝐺𝑀

Where, K is the radius of gyration, g is the acceleration due to gravity

(9.81m/s2) and GM is the metacentric height.

(Radius of gyration is defined as the distance from the axis of rotation to

a point where the total mass of the body is supposed to be
concentrated, so that the moment of inertia about the axis may
remain the same. Simply, gyration is the distribution of the
components of an object.)

Precautions to be taken while carrying out the rolling period test:

1. Depth or UKC should be enough so that the rolling is not restricted.
2. Mooring lines should be slack and vessel should roll freely as
practicable.
3. There should be no loose weights.
4. Slack tanks should be minimum.
5. Liquid in tanks should be at normal working levels.
6. Systematic lifting and lowering of weights can initiate the roll but at
the time of measuring the roll, everything must be stand still.
7. For timing a roll, take a set of 5 rolls. A stopwatch is used for this
purpose. Take the average from each set of observations.
8. Ensure that the sea condition is calm.
Q5) What do you understand by “Torsional Moment”? How do you calculate the torsional
moment in a container ship? How significant is torsional stress in a container ship?

Q6) With reference to Intact Stability Code 2008, explain suitable diagrams, how the
severe wind and weather heeling criteria to be satisfied by Cargo vessels.
SAME AS QUESTION NO.2.

Q7) How will you determine ships stability by Rolling Period test?
SAME AS QUESTION NO.4

Q8) Differentiate between Type A and Type B-100 Ships as per International Load Line
Conventions 1966 as amended.

TYPE A TYPE B 100

Ships designed to carry liquid cargoes in
bulk such as oil tankers, chemical carriers
and LPG and LNG carriers.
They have only small access openings of
cargo compartments, closed with
gasketed steel covers and have low
permeability of cargo compartments.
Type B ships are those which do not fall
under the Type-A ship category.
Type-B ships have large hatch
openings which can be only made
weathertight. Also, permeability of
the holds is high.

There is No sub-division requirement if There is no sub-division requirement for

the ship is of less than 150m in length. ships of less than 100m in length.

Type A vessels have a smaller freeboard The reduction in freeboard is 100% of the
as compared to Type B Ships. difference between the tabulated values
indicated in Table A and B. In other words,
the freeboards of Type A and B-100 are the
same.
No additional condition of assignments. Additional Condition of Assignment for
Ships over 100m in length.
 Type-A ships of over 150m in length
but less than 225m, when loaded shall
be able to withstand flooding of one
compartment with an assumed
permeability of 0.95 and shall
remain afloat in a satisfactory
condition of equilibrium.
Ships of length over 100m but less
than 225m, must be able to withstand
flooding of any two adjacent fore
and aft compartments. (not
including machinery spaces) with
assumed permeability of 0.95 and
shall remain afloat.

Type A ships greater than 225m have
the same requirement as above, but
machinery space must be treated as
a floodable compartment with
permeability of 0.85.
If ship is over 225m in length, then
machinery space to be treated as one
of the floodable compartment with
permeability of 0.85.

Q9) State the conditions of assignment of Freeboard for a vessel which is 200m long.

• When inspecting the conditions of assignment of freeboards, the

following areas are referredto:
1. Position 1 (P1) – exposed freeboard, raised quarter deck and
superstructure within 25% of L from the FP.
2. Position 2 (P2) - exposed freeboard, raised quarter deck and
superstructure outside of 25% of L from the FP.

• Conditions of assignment deal with the following:

1. The construction and design of the ship must be such that the
stability in all loading conditions is sufficient for freeboard assigned.
2. Access openings in bulkheads – Height of sills of openings shall be
atleast 380mm above thedeck.
3. Hatchways at P1 and P2 closed by portable covers and secured
weathertight by tarpaulins and battening devices, minimum height
of hatchways shall be 600mm in P1 and 450mm in P2. Weather
tightness of covers and tarpaulins & strength of beams and fittings
must be ensured.
4. Hatchways at P1 and P2 closed by weathertight covers of steel fitted
 with gaskets and clamping devices, minimum height of hatchways
shall be 600mm in P1 and 450mm in P2. This height may be reduced
or omitted altogether if the Administration is convinced that the
safety of the ship is not impaired. Weather tightness of steel
gasketted covers and strength of beams and fittings must be
ensured.
5. Machinery space openings and miscellaneous openings in freeboard
and superstructure decks shall have the sill heights of watertight
doors atleast 600mm in P1 and 380mm in P2 and suitably plated for
strength. Manholes shall be closed with substantial weathertight
covers.
6. Ventilators on freeboard and superstructure decks shall be provided
with strong bracketed coaming of 900mm height in P1 and un-
bracketed 760mm in P2. Also, means of closure shall be provided if
coaming height is less than 4.5m in P1 and less than 2.3m in P2.
7. Air pipes shall have a height of atleast 760mm above the freeboard
decks and atleast 450mm above the superstructure decks. They
must have permanent means of closure.
8. Cargo ports and other side openings - No doors shall be fitted below
the load line decks. Structural and water tight integrity of the hull
must be maintained, if any W/T door is fitted below the freeboard
deck.
9. Scuppers, inlets and discharges – If from enclosed spaces either above
or below the freeboard deck, they must be provided with non-
return (storm) valves, with accessible controls and position
markings in engine room. Scuppers from open spaces shall lead
directly overboard.
10. Side scuttles – If below freeboard deck and in superstructures, they
shall have efficient hinged water tight deadlights. There shall be
no side scuttles below 500mm or 2.5% of ship’s breadth,
whichever greater, above the summer load line.
11. Freeing ports – Sufficient freeing ports must be provided where
bulwarks can cause wells to be formed on exposed deck. The lower
edge of the freeing port should be as close as possible to the deck
to allow drainage of most of the accumulated water. Height of
opening shall not be more than 230mm, and if flaps are provided,
they must be of the non- jamming types.
12. Protection of the crew – Exposed freeboard and superstructure
 decks shall have guard rails or bulwarks to a minimum height of
1000mm. Lower most rail spacing shall not exceed 230mm, and
others 380mm. Gangways and walkways (cat-walks) are to be
provided wherenecessary (e.g. tankers)

• The details of the Conditions of Assignment of freeboard which are

checked during a Load Line survey are given in a separate attachment
and form part of the Load Line certification.

Q10) With suitable sketches, explain why does a vessel normally heel outwards & not
inwards when settles into a turn at a uniform rate of turn.

Q11) State the Intact Stability Criteria for Cargo Ships.

• Application: The code applies to cargo and passenger ships of 24 m in

length and over. The Code contains intact stability criteria for cargo
ships, cargo ships carrying timber deck cargoes, passenger ships, fishing
vessels, special purpose ships, offshore supply vessels, mobile offshore
drilling units, pontoons and cargo ships carrying containers on deck and
containerships.

• General Criteria for Intact Stability

a) On vessels fitted with anti-rolling devices, compliance is required
even in case power failure renders these devices inoperable.
b) Conditions like ice accretion and green seas on deck and the
consumption of fuel and stores should be taken into consideration,
when deciding compliance with the criteria.
c) Each ship shall have an approved stability booklet. If this is
supplemented by a loading instrument, then it shall be approved by
the Administration.

• Criteria regarding righting lever curve properties

a) Area under the GZ curve up to 30° of heel should not be less than
0.055 m-rad.
b) Area under the GZ curve up to 40° of heel or angle of flooding
 (whichever is least) shall not be less than 0.09 m-rad.
c) Area under the curve between 30° and 40° or the angle of flooding
(whichever is least) shall be not less than 0.03 m-rad.
d) The righting lever GZ shall be at least 0.2 m at an angle of heel of 30°
or more.
e) The maximum righting lever shall occur at an angle of heel
preferably exceeding 30° but not less than 25°.
f) The initial GM shall not be less than 0.15 m.

Q12) How is brittle fracture different from ductile fracture? Elaborate on grounds of
temperature, thickness, Superficial appearance, Speed of propagation, Type of Steel to
withstand and tests used to evaluate the above.

Stress/Brittle Fracture/ Fatigue:

(A) When a material is subject to stress, it will deform through the elastic
range, followed by the plastic range and then finally fracture i.e.
separation of the material into two or more parts.
(B) Brittle fractures occur in materials with low ductility. In ductile
materials, a fracture occurs after a period of plastic deformation and is
called the ductile fracture. This is a slow process leading to final
fracture. On the contrary, a brittle fracture occurs suddenly with little
or no plastic deformation. The speed of the brittle fractures have
found to exceed 340 m/s i.e. speed of sound and are called
supersonic fractures.
(C) Fatigue failures are caused by repeated and cyclical application of
stress. Initially, micro-cracks are formed. (Initiation stage) This stage is
followed by the propagation stage, when the crack enlarges. The final
stage is when the fracture spreads rapidly.

Q13) Write Short notes on Force Rolling. Why large ships tend to roll heavier in rough
seas?

FORCED ROLLING:
Forced rolling is a function that comes standard with a stabilizing /
damping system. The forced roll mode is basically a testing mode that
makes the ship roll even when there are no waves. Forced rolling is used
 for testing the effectiveness of the roll damping system. In other cases, it
is a system that is used by technicians to measure the ship's roll-period
and the roll damping percentage.

WRITE PARAMETRIC ROLLING AS ANSWER FOR WHY LARGE SHIPS TEND

TO ROLL HEAVIER.

Q14) What is non-combustible material? How is a standard fire test used to qualify a non-
combustible material for bulkheads used onboard ships?

Non Combustible Material

• It is the one which neither burns nor gives off flammable vapours in
sufficient quantity for self-ignition when heated to approximately
7500C, as indicated in the FTP Code.
• A & B class divisions shall be constructed of non-combustible materials
with the following exceptions:
a) Adhesives and vapour barriers, but they should have low flame
spread characteristics.
b) Sealing materials used in penetration systems.
c) Seal for gas/weather/water tight doors.

Standard Fire Test

• A standard fire test is a test in which specimens of the relevant bulkhead
or decks are exposed in a test furnace to temperatures corresponding
approximately to the standard time-temperature curve in accordance
with the test method specified in the FTP Code.
• In a standard fire test, a specimen bulkhead or deck of exposed area
of at least 4.65m2 and height 2.44m is exposed in a test furnace and
time-temperature points are drawn.
• It must resemble the intended construction and include at least one
joint(weld).
• Class A and B Class bulkheads and doors shall be tested from each side.

• A-Class un-insulated steel bulkheads and decks without openings shall

be treated as A-0 and no test is required. All other divisions, including
class "A- 0" divisions with a structural core of aluminium, are required
to be tested.
• Constructions shall be tested without paint or other superimposed
finishes, subject to the approval of the Administration.
• Temperature thermocouples are placed at various points on the
specimen to be tested as per FTP Code. During the test, temperatures
are recorded at intervals not exceeding 1 minute.
• The average temperature of the furnace as derived from the furnace
thermocouples shall be monitored and controlled such that it follows
the standard time-temperature curve. (This is a smooth curve drawn
using furnace temperature points measured at 5m, 10m, 15m, 30m
and 60m starting from the initial furnace temperature.)
• The average temperature rise on the unexposed surface shall be
calculated as the average of the rises recorded by the individual
thermocouples to check if the specimen complies with the requirement
on temperature rise.
• If there is any flaming seen on the unexposed side, the duration and
the location shall be recorded. In cases where it is difficult to identify
whether or not there are flames then the cotton-wool pad shall be
applied to see if ignition of the pad can be initiated.
• For all "A" class divisions, including those with doors, the test shall
continue for a minimum of 60 min. For all "B" class divisions, including
those with doors, the test shall continue for a minimum of 30 min.

Q15) What are the several precautions against capsizing of ships?

PRECAUTIONS AGAINST CAPSIZING

• Capsizing of a ship means its overturning in the water. It occurs when
the vessel’s transverse stability i.e. the righting lever disappears and is
replaced by an upsetting lever. The GZ values increase with the
angle of heel and later drop as the angle of heel continues to
increase. GZ becomes zero at a certain angle of heel which we call
‘the point of vanishing stability’. From this point onwards, an
upsetting lever develops and continues heeling the ship till it has
capsized.
• Following are the conditions which can lead to the vessel’s capsizing:
a) Shifting of cargo, Liquefaction of cargo and Free Surface effect
b) Grounding / Flooding / Collision
 c) Synchronous and parametricrolling

• The International Code on Intact Stability lays down specific stability

parameters which the vessel is supposed to comply with, to prevent
capsize. It is wrong to assume that a vessel will not capsize if she
complies with the criteria since events like Fire, heavy weather
damage and grounding can reduce the vessel’s stability and still lead to
capsize.
• Chapter 5 of the Code gives following guidelines to prevent capsizing:
General precautions against capsizing

a) Masters should exercise prudence and good seamanship having regard

to the season of the year, weather forecasts and the navigational zone
and should take the appropriate action as to speed and course as
required by the prevailing circumstances.
b) Before a voyage commences, care should be taken to ensure that the
cargo, cargo handling cranes & other equipment’s have been properly
stowed or lashed so as to minimize possibility of shifting at sea due to
rolling -pitching.
c) The number of slack tanks should be kept to a minimum because of
their adverse effect on stability. Passenger ships with pools must should
take into account the Free surface effect created by them.
d) The stability criteria gives minimum values for GM, but no maximum
values are recommended. It is advisable to avoid excessive GM, since
these might lead to acceleration forces which could be detrimental to
the ship. If high GM is unavoidable, slack tanks can be used to
compensate after carefully considering the effects of ‘sloshing’.
e) Liquefaction of certain bulk cargoes can be catastrophic to the vessel.
Hence, attention should be paid to the IMO Code of Safe Practice for
Solid Bulk Cargoes (IMSBC Code) when carrying such cargoes.

Q16) What are the Intact Stability Requirements for a bulk carrier loading grain?
SAME AS ANSWER 11.
Q17) Write Short Notes on torsional Stress on ships.

TORSIONAL STRESS:

• When a body is subject to a twisting moment which is commonly

 referred to as torque, that body is said to be in ‘torsion’. A ship heading
obliquely (45°) to a wave will be subjected to righting moments of
opposite direction at its ends twisting the hull and putting it in ‘torsion’.
• In most ships, these torsional moments and stresses are negligible but
in ships with extremely wide and long deck openings they are
significant. A particular example is the larger container ship where at the
topsides a heavy torsion box girder structure including the upper deck
is provided to accommodate the torsionalstresses.
• Torsional stresses also occur due to unsymmetrical loading along the
centre line of the vessel. (For example, too much load on the fwd-port
side and at the aft-stbd side)

Q18) What was the traditional method of building a ship? In what way is prefabrication
different from the earlier method? What are the advantages of prefabrication?

PREFABRICATION
• Owing to the increases in size of bulk carriers and tankers, some
shipyards with restricted facilities, building berth or dock size in
particular have resorted to building the ship in two halves and joining
these afloat using a ‘Caisson’ (A structure used in underwater work,
consisting of air tight chamber, open at the bottom and containing air
under sufficient pressure to exclude the water).
• Prefabrication of the ships units, that is the construction of individual
sections of the ships structure prior to erection.
• Often the units are manufactured at a location remote from the
shipyard and the erections in the shipyard was carried out with the
schedule which looks very impressive today.
• Some units have to be prepared undercover for better weld
conditions.
• In prefabrication it is possible to turn units over to allow down hand
welding which is easier and gives better results.
• The prefabrication sequence has been planned in order to fit the time
allowed at berth or In the building dock.
Q19) Derive an expression for angle of heel of a vessel during turning.

HEEL DUE TOTURN

• When a body moves in a circular path, there is an acceleration

towards the centre equal to v2/r where ‘v’ represents the
velocity of the body and ‘r’ represents the radius of the circular
path.
• The force required to produce this acceleration, called a
‘Centripetal’ force, is equal to Mv2/r, where M is the mass of the
body.
• In the case of a ship turning in a circle, the centripetal force is
produced by the water acting on the side of the ship away from
the centre of the turn. The force is considered to act at centroid
of the underwater area of the ship's side away from the centre
of the turn. The centroid of this area is considered to be at the
level of the centre of buoyancy.
• For equilibrium there must be an equal and opposite force,
called the ‘Centrifugal’ force. This force is considered to act at the
centre of mass (G).
• These two forces produce a couple which tends to heel the ship
outwards
i.e. away from the centre of the turn.
Q20) With reference to the International Load Line Convention 1966, define,
a. Length.
Length: The length (L) shall be taken as 96 per cent of the total length on a
waterline at 85 per cent of the least moulded depth measured from the
top of the keel, or as the length from the fore side of the stem to the axis
of the rudder stock on that waterline, if that be greater. In ships designed
with a rake of keel the waterline on which this length is measured shall be
parallel to the designedwaterline.

b. Freeboard Deck.
Freeboard Deck: The freeboard deck is normally the uppermost complete
deck exposed to weather and sea, which has permanent means of closing
all openings in the weather part thereof, and below which all openings in
the sides of the ship are fitted with permanent means of watertight
closing.

c. Superstructure.

Superstructure: A superstructure is a decked structure on the freeboard

deck, extending from side to side of the ship or with the side plating
not being inboard of the shell plating more than 4 per cent of the breadth
(B). A raised quarter deck is regarded as a superstructure.

Q21) What are the conditions of assignment of freeboard for Scuppers, Inlets and
Discharges?

Scuppers, inlets and discharges – If from enclosed spaces either above or

below the freeboard deck, they must be provided with non-return
(storm) valves, with accessible controls and position markings in engine
room. Scuppers from open spaces shall lead directly overboard.

Q22) Describe various grades of steel used for construction of a modern vessel. Where are
these put to use?

SHIPBUILDING STEEL

Mild Steel: Steel for hull construction purposes is usually mild steel
containing 0.15 to 0.23 per cent carbon, and a reasonably high
manganese content. Both Sulphur and phosphorus in the mild steel are
kept to a minimum (less than 0.05 per cent). Higher concentrations of
both are detrimental to the welding properties of the steel, and cracks
can develop during the rolling process if the Sulphur content is high.
 High Tensile Steel: These are steels having a higher strength than mild
steel. They are employed in the more highly stressed regions of large
tankers, container ships and bulk carriers. Use of higher strength steels
allows reductions in thickness of deck, bottom shell, and framing
where fitted in the midship portion of larger vessels. The weldability of
higher tensile steels is an important consideration in their application
in ship structures and reduced fatigue life with these steels has been
suggested. Also, the effects of corrosion with lesser thicknesses of plate
and section may require more vigilant inspection.

Corrosion Resistant Steels: Steels with alloying elements that give

them good corrosion resistance and commonly referred to as stainless
steels are not commonly used in ship structures, primarily because of
their higher initial and fabrication costs. Only in the fabrication of cargo
tanks containing highly corrosive cargoes might such steels be found.
(for example, SS tanks of chemical tankers)

Q23) Briefly explain standard fire test, ‘A’ class divisions and ‘B’ Class Divisions. A-60 Fire
Division.
STANDARD FIRE TEST SAME AS QUESTION NO.14.

"A" Class Divisions:

• A-Class Divisions are those divisions formed by bulkheads and decks that
are constructed of steel or other equivalent material, suitably
stiffened and insulated with approved non-combustible materials
such that the average temperature of the unexposed side will not rise
more than 140ºC above the original temperature, nor will the
temperature, at any one point, including any joint, rise more than
180ºC above the original temperature, within the time listed below:
Class “A-60” = 60 Minutes
Class “A-30” = 30 Minutes
Class “A-15” = 15 Minutes
Class “A-0” = 0 Minutes
• They are constructed as to be capable of preventing the passage of
smoke and flame to the end of the one-hour standard fire test.
• The Administration requires testing of a prototype bulkhead or deck
in accordance with the Fire Test Procedures Code to ensure that it
meets the above requirements for integrity and temperature rise.

"B" Class Divisions

• B-Class Divisions are those divisions formed by bulkheads, decks, ceilings
or linings which are constructed of approved non-combustible
materials, may include combustible veneers, and must have an
insulation value such that the average temperature of the unexposed
side will not rise more than 140ºC above original temperature, nor
will the temperature at any one point, including any joint, rise more
than 225ºC above the original temperature, within the time listed
below:
Class “B-15” = 15 Minutes
Class “B-0” = 0 Minutes
• They are constructed as to be capable of preventing the passage of flame
to the end of the first half hour of the standard fire test.
• The Administration requires testing of a prototype division in
accordance with the Fire Test Procedures Code to ensure that it meets
the above requirements for integrity and temperature rise.

Q24) At present a large no. of ocean going ships are built with high tensile steel, in this
regard explain the advantage & disadvantages of using high tensile steel w.r.t.
i. Initial Cost.
ii. Structural Maintenance.
iii. Earning Capacity.
Q25) What are the advantages and limitations of aluminium used as the construction
material for Ship building?

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF ALUMINIUM IN SHIPBUILDING:

Aluminium alloys are tested & graded by classification society

surveyors in the same manner as mild steel.
Advantages:
1. Light weight. Its density is 2.72 t/cum as compared to 7.84 t/cum for Steel.
 2. Saving in deadweight means more cargo carrying
capability. Superstructures made of aluminium had led to lowering
of COG, thereby improving stability.
3. Lower hull weight means less power required for propulsion or more
speed for the samepower.
4. Strength-wise, it is comparable to steel. At lower temperatures, it
is more durable than steel. Steel becomes brittle at low
temperatures, forming cracks which rapidly propagate. Aluminium
does not have this problem, which makes it useful as a tank material
on LPG and LNG carriers.
5. Aluminium has high corrosion resistant properties.
6. Aluminium is non magnetic. It will help the magnetic compass as
there won’t be inducedmagnetism.
Disadvantages:
1. Aluminium has low melting point as compared to steel. In normal
conditions this temperature is sufficiently high. However in case of
fire the aluminium structure could melt & collapse.
2. Difficulty in welding aluminium is another factor against its use in
shipbuilding. The metals affinity for oxygen causes aluminium alloys
in the molten state to readily absorb oxygen, thereby weakening
the metal. Only MIG and TIG welding processes are suitable, thus
making it a costly affair.
3. Aluminium is very expensive, almost ten times more expensive than steel.
4. Aluminium has to be insulated from steel to prevent a galvanic cell
being set up and bimetallic corrosion taking place.

Q26) With Respect to subdivision requirements of Passenger ships as per SOLAS 1974 as
amended explain:
i. Flooded Length.
• ‘Floodable length’ at any point within the length of the ship is the
maximum portion of the length, having its centre at the point of
flooding, which can be symmetrically flooded at the prescribed
permeability, without immersing the margin line.
• The floodable length at any point in the length of the ship is determined
by taking into account the draught and other characteristics of the
ship.
• The floodable length is not the actual length between two bulkheads.
Floodable length curves are made including the allowed permeability
of the spaces being covered.
• Since the forward and aft parts of the ship are more prone to change of
trim, the floodable length is shorter.
• Whereas in the middle portion the floodable length is larger as
flooding causes more of bodily sinkage. Also, the bow and stern areas
give a larger floodable length since there parts are narrow than other
areas.
• The concept of floodable length and subdivision (deterministic
method) is an old one and has been replaced by the Probabilistic
Damage Assessment method.

ii. Permissible Length.

• ‘Permissible Length’ or the maximum permissible length of a
compartment having its centre at any point in the ship's length is
obtained from the floodable length by multiplying the latter by an
appropriate factor called the factor of subdivision.
• The factor of subdivision depends on the length of the ship, and for a
given length it shall vary according to the nature of the service for
which the ship is intended.
• It decreases in a regular and continuous manner as the length of the
ship increases. The factor of subdivision will always be equal to or less
than 1. Thus, the permissible length will always be lesser than the
floodable length.

iii. Subdivision Loadlines.

• ‘Subdivision load line’ is a water line used in determining the sub-
division of the ship. Deepest subdivision load line is the waterline which
corresponds to the greatest draught permitted by the applicable
subdivision requirements.
• In order that the required degree of subdivision shall be maintained, a
load line corresponding to the approved subdivision draught shall be
assigned and marked on the ship’s sides.
Q27) Functional requirements for fire protection and detection.

Basic Principles or functional requirements of fire protection system:

a) Division of the ship into main vertical zones by thermal and structural
boundaries (Passenger ships).
b) Separation of accommodation spaces from the remainder of the ship
by thermal and structural boundaries.
c) Restricted use of combustible materials.
d) Detection of any fire in the zone of origin.
e) Containment and extinction of any fire in the space of origin.
f) Protection of the means of escape or access for firefighting.
g) Ready availability of fire extinguishing appliances.
h) Minimization of the possibility of ignition of flammable cargo vapours.

Q28) Write Short Note on Sprinkler type fixe fire extinguishing system.

SPRINKLER SYSTEM:
• A fire sprinkler system is an active fire protection measure, consisting
of a water supply system, providing adequate pressure and flow rate
to a water distribution piping system onto which fire sprinklers are
connected.
• This system consists of a pressure water tank with water pipes leading
to various places in the compartments. These water pipes consist of
sprinkler head which comes in operation when there is an outbreak
of fire.
• The pressurized water tank is half filled with fresh water.
• The pressure in the tank is such that it would be able to deliver
pressure at highest sprinkler head in the system.
• The sprinkler heads are grouped into different sections with not more
than 200 sprinkler heads in each section and has its own alarm
system.
• The sprinkler head consists of a quartzoid bulb which bursts when the
temperature increases beyond the limit and the water starts flowing
from the sprinkler head.
• The quartzoid bulbs are coded in RED, YELLOW and GREEN.
• The rating of red bulb is 68 Deg, yellow is 80 Deg, Green is 93 Deg C.
• When the sprinkler head bursts and comes into operation, the Non-
Return valve in the line opens and water starts flowing.
• Due to this flow there is a drop of pressure in the line and the alarm
activates for the particular section, indicating fire in the section.
• This system is also connected to SW pump which can supply water to
the system in case the water in the pressure tank is used up.
• Various alarms and pressure switches are provided in the system for
maintenance and check of alarms and activation of SW pump by
isolating the system.
• The sprinkler system is generally used in accommodation, paint room
and other places on the ship.

Q29) With the help of suitable sketches describe:

i. Differences between A-60 and A-0 Class fire divisions.
SAME AS QUESTION NO.23
ii. Service Spaces

SERVICE SPACES:

• Service spaces are those spaces used for galleys, pantries containing
cooking appliances, Lockers, store-rooms, workshops, etc. other than
those forming part of the machinery spaces, and similar spaces and
trunks to such spaces. Service spaces are divided into two categories:
a) Service spaces (Low Risk) include lockers and store rooms not
having provisions for the storage of flammable liquids and having
areas of less than 4m3 and drying rooms and laundries.
b) Service spaces (High Risk) include galley, pantries containing
cooking appliances, paint lockers, lockers and store rooms having
area of 4m3 or more, spaces for the storage of flammable liquids,
saunas and workshops other than those spaces forming part of
machinery spaces.

iii. The requirements for a ‘Trunk Way’ passing through an A-Class division.

Q30) Under sub-divisions of Ships describe any 3:

i. Permeability of compartments.

Permeability of compartments – it is the percentage of space that can

be occupied by water. Surface permeability is the area of a water plane
that can be occupied by water.

ii. Criterion for service numeral.

• The numerical is based on the relation between the volume of the
spaces allocated to passengers and machinery and the total
volume.
• The greater the volume for passengers and machinery, the larger
the value of Cs.
• The criterion of service is a numerical intended to express the
degree to which a vessel is a passenger vessel.
• A numerical 23 corresponds to a vessel carrying mainly cargo but
has accommodation for a small number of passengers.
• A numerical 123 corresponds to a vessel solely engaged in carrying
passengers.

iii. Floodable length.

iv. Permissible length.
SAME AS QUESTION NO.26

Q31) Explain factor of sub-division and criteria service numeral. How do both relate to
floodable length and permissible length of passenger ships wrt subdivision requirements
as per SOLAS 74 as amended.
SAME AS QUESTION NO.26.

Q32) Describe Body Plan, Sheer Plan, Half Breadth Plan and their uses with sketches.

SHEER OR PROFILE PLAN:

A plane that runs from bow to stern directly through the center of the
ship and parallel to the sides of the imaginary box is called the ‘centre
line plane’. A series of planes parallel to one side of the centre line
plane are imagined at regular intervals from the centre line. Each plane
will intersect the ship’s hull and form a curved line at the points of
intersection. These lines form the ‘sheer plan’ and are referred to as
‘bow lines’ forward and ‘buttock lines’ aft. These lines show the true
shape of the hull from the side view for some distance from the centre
line of the ship. Hence, they are also known as ‘profile plan’ as they
reflect the profile of the ship.

HALF-BREADTH PLAN
The bottom of the imaginary box is a reference plane called the ‘base
plane’. The base plane is usually level with the keel. A series of planes
parallel and above the base plane are imagined at regular intervals. Each
plane will intersect the ship’s hull and form a line at the points of
intersection. These lines are called ‘waterlines’ and all are projected
onto a single plane called the ‘Half-Breadth plan’. Each of these
waterlines shows the true shape of the hull form from the top view for
some elevation above the base plane. Since ships are symmetrical

about their centre line, they only need to be drawn for the starboard
or port side, thus the name ‘Half Breadthplan’.

BODY PLAN:
Planes parallel to the front and back of the imaginary box are called
‘stations’. There are three important stations. The intersection of the
ship’s stem at the design water line known as the Forward
Perpendicular (FP), the intersection of the stern at the design waterline
(immersed transom) or the rudder stock called the Aft Perpendicular
(AP) and the station midway between the perpendiculars called the
midship station. Each station plane will intersect the ship’s hull and form
 a curved line at the point of intersection. These lines are called ‘sectional
lines’ and are all projected onto a single plane called the ‘Body Plan’. The
body plan takes advantage of the ship’s symmetry. Hence, only half
sections are shown. The sections forward of amidships are shown on
the right side, and the sections aft of amidships are shown on the left
side. The amidships section is generally shown on both sides of the body
plan.

Q33) What parts of a ship counteract sagging, hogging, racking and grounding stresses?

HOGGING AND SAGGING:

• Hogging: If the buoyancy amidships exceed the weight due to loading

or when the wave crest is amidships, the ship will Hog, as a beam
supported at mid length and loaded at the end.
• Sagging: If the weight amidships exceed the buoyancy or when the
wave trough amidships the ship will sag, as a beam supported at the
ends and loaded at mid length.
• The deck and bottom shell, longitudinals, deck girders, etc. contribute
significantly to counteracting the bending stresses. Bending stresses
are greater over the middle portion of the length and hence required
greater scantlings.

RACKING STRESS:

• When a ship is rolling, the deck tends to move laterally relative to the
bottom structure and the shell on one side tends to move vertically
relative to the other side. This type of deformation is referred to as
 ‘racking’.
• Transverse bulkheads primarily resist such transverse deformation.
Where transverse bulkheads are widely spaced, deep web frames and
beams may be introduced tocompensate.

Q34) Difference between Floodable Length and Permissible Length of Passenger Vessels.
Give a very brief outline as to how are these calculated and what parameters go as input
to its calculations? Explain also which length is larger
SAME AS QUESTION NO.26
Q35) Write Short notes on Uniform Average Permeability.

Q36) Explain with the help of a neat diagram the following tests:
i. Tensile Stress.

TENSILE TEST:
• The tensile test is carried out in order to determine the tensile
strength of a metal used in ship building.
• A tensile test, is also known as tension test.
• It is one of the most fundamental and common types of mechanical
testing.
• A tensile test applies tensile (pulling) force to a material and measures
the specimens response to the stress.
• By doing this, tensile tests determine how strong a material is and how
much it can elongate.
• Tensile tests are simple to perform and are fully standardized.

•
 i. Hardness Test.

HARDNESS TEST:
• The test is used to determine the strength of the material.
• The hardness test is carried out using a machine which applies a load
to dent the surface of the metal.
• The load is applied for 15 seconds and then inspected under the
microscope for cracks, damage etc.

ii. Bend Test.

BEND TEST
• A bend test is a method for measuring stiffness on ductility of the metal.
• The plate is bent cold through 180 degrees till the ends are parallel.
• The bent are is then closely examined for cracks and fractures.
Q37) What is the sequence of calculating assigned freeboard?
SAME AS QUESTION NO.09

Q38) Describe Step by Step the procedures for computing the summer freeboard of Type B
Ship.

Type-B ships:

• Type B ships are those which do not fall under the Type-A ship category.
• Type-B ships have large hatch openings which can be only made
weathertight. Also, permeability of the holds is high.
• There is no sub-division requirement for ships of less than 100m in length.
• Type-B ships that exceed 100m and are fitted with steel hatch covers
and have sufficient sub-division then may be allowed a reduction in
freeboard (B60 and B100). For this, they must conform to all or some of
the properties of the Type-A ship to be assigned lower freeboards.
• When a type B ship is bilged, seawater will run into the damaged
compartment increasing the displacement and reducing the Freeboard.
• If a Type-B ship satisfies the additional conditions of assignment of
freeboard with respect to structure and damage stability, then there
is a reduction of Freeboard as follows:
1. Type B-60 – where the reduction in freeboard is 60% of the
difference between the tabulated values indicated in Table A and B.
2. Type B-100 – where the reduction in freeboard is 100% of the
difference between the tabulated values indicated in Table A and B.
In other words, the freeboards of Type A and B-100 are the same.

Forexample,ashipof140mlength,TypeA=1803mm.TypeB=2109
mm. Difference = 306mm.
Type B-60 = 2109 – (0.6 x 306) = 1925 mm.
Type B-100 = 2109 – (1 x 306) = 1803 mm.

Q38) WRT International Load Line Convention 1966, write short notes on the following:
i. Length.
Length: The length (L) shall be taken as 96 per cent of the total length on a
waterline at 85 per cent of the least moulded depth measured from the
top of the keel, or as the length from the fore side of the stem to the axis
of the rudder stock on that waterline, if that be greater. In ships designed
with a rake of keel the waterline on which this length is measured shall be
parallel to the designedwaterline.

ii. Block Co-efficient.

• The block coefficient of a ship is the ratio of the underwater volume
of ship to the volume of a rectangular block having the same overall
length, breadth and depth.
• Now let us say that the extreme dimensions of the ship's hull at this
draft are 'L' and 'B'. In other words if we have a box of length 'L',
Width 'B' and height 'd', the ship's underwater area at this draft
would exactly fit this box.
• Now the ship's block coefficient at this draft (Cb) would be, Cb
= Displacement of the ship / L x B x d
• Correction for Block Coefficient: Where the block coefficient (Cb)
exceeds 0.68, the tabular freeboard as given in the Convention
must be multiplied by a factor given by (Cb + 0.68)/1.36. The
greater the Cb over 0.68, the greater will be the freeboard assigned.

iii. Watertight and Weathertight.

Weathertight: Weathertight means that in any sea conditions water will

not penetrate into theship
Watertight means having scantlings and arrangements capable of
preventing the passage of water in any direction under the head of water
likely to occur in intact and damaged conditions. In the damaged condition,
the head of water is to be considered in the worst situation at
equilibrium, including intermediate stages of flooding.

iv. Side Scuttle

• The ship’s windows are known as portholes; shortened form of the
word ‘port-hole window.’ Portholes, however, are also not just a part
of ships but are found in submarines and spacecrafts.
• Certain times ship portholes are known as ‘side scuttles’, mainly
because they are located on both the sides of the ship. The portholes
are designed in such a way that when a ship cruises into the middle of
the seas, one can get the best possible view from the ship’s porthole.
• For this, the height of the portholes is strategically decided and one
end of the portholes is hinged. The materials generally used for
building ship portholes are steel, aluminium, brass, bronze, and iron.
• The glass used in the portholes is compulsorily made involving sand.
The process of making glass is known as sand-casting and the main
material for this process is silica sand.
• In order to make the glass, a mixture of silica, lime and ash is mixed,
heated and cooled until the right consistency of glass is achieved. The
process further involves re-heating the mixture in huge furnaces
constantly so that the glass reaches its appropriate thickness.
• Then this mixture is laid on top of a melting tin which ensures that the
right shape of the glass is achieved. The the glass is finally cooled. This
process is referred to as tempering, which ensures that the glass does
not break or shatter.

v. Effective length of super structure.

• In all cases where an enclosed superstructure of standard height is
set-in from the sides of the ship as permitted in regulation 3(10), the
effective length shall be the length modified by the ratio of b/Bs,
where:
b is the breadth of the superstructure at the middle of its length; and
Bs is the breadth of the ship at the middle of the length of the
superstructure.
 vi. How the minimum bow height is assigned and importance of bow height.

Bow height is of paramount importance in providing a safeguard against

excessive loads on the foredeck and forward hatch covers associated with
shipping green seas. While general cargo ships tend to have bow heights
exceeding the minimum ICLL value, some bulk carriers do operate at the
minimum allowable bow height.
Q39) Explain the salient features of the Load Line Convention.
Q40) WRT International Tonnage Convention give 2 examples of excluded spaces.

• Excluded Spaces – Notwithstanding the provisions of the above

paragraph, the spaces referred in sub-paragraphs (a) to (e) shall be
called excluded spaces and shall not be included in the volume of
enclosed spaces, except that any such space that fulfills atleast one of
the following three conditions shall be treated as an enclosed space.
1. The space is fitted with shelves or other means for securing cargo
and/or stores.
2. The openings are fitted with any means of closure.
3. The construction provides any possibility of such openings being closed.

A space shall be considered an ‘Excluded space’ in the following cases:

a) A space within an erection opposite to an end opening extending
from deck to deck.
b) A space under an overhead deck covering, open to the sea and
weather, with no other connection to the ship side other than
stanchions.
c) A space in a side-to-side erection directly in way of opposite side
openings.
d) A space in erection immediately below an uncovered opening in the
deck overhead, which is exposed to weather.
e) A recess in the boundary bulkhead of an erection which is exposed to
the weather and the opening of which extends from deck to deck
without means of closing.

Examples of Excluded Spaces : Wheelhouse, Navigation spaces, Machinery

spaces above the upper deck, Galley etc.

Q41) Difference between enclosed spaces and excluded spaces WRT International
Tonnage Convention.

Q42) Describe the checks which will be carried during the Load Line Renewal Survey.
International LL convention came into force in 1968 for ships of more than 24m in length.
A renewal survey is required every 5 years before the certificate in force has expired. A
wooden freeboard batten should be kept ready for measuring the statutory freeboard.
The Chief Officer should ensure that the loadline marks, Deck line and draft marks are de-
rusted, painted and verified with the certificate. In brief, ensure that the hull is watertight
below and above the freeboard deck. The various loadline items to be surveyed are
indicated on the Record of Condition of Assessment of Freeboard.
On the day of the Survey, have the Certificate and record ready for the surveyors
inspection. Sufficient crew should be available for work such as opening cargo hatches,
ladders and stages should be ready for the surveyor to view the Load Line marks.
1. Check for Water Tightness: Check manholes, scuppers and other similar parts enabling
water flow for water-tightness.
2. Check Access Points: All movable parts (Clamps, dogs, etc.) should be well greased.
Gaskets and watertight packings should be checked for cracks and repaired
accordingly.
3. Check Ventilators and Air Pipes: ventilators and air pipes (openings) should be
provided with closing mechanisms. Check the installation if already provided and
repair any damage.
4. Check Hatches: Hatches should be checked for being weather tight. Check booby
hatches too for the same. The butterfly screw should be checked for easy movement.
5. Check Locking Bars: Locking bars, pins, hatch ventilators must be checked, de-rusted
and operated for free movement. As we all know, liberal use of WD40 is always
encouraged and helpful.
6. Ensure Proper working of Non-Return valves: The non-return valves must be checked
for working efficiency with respect to overboard discharge. Most authorities are rather
strict when it comes to this.
7. Keep Machinery spaces Clean: All machinery space openings on deck must be kept
clean and thoroughly inspected. Keep the general appearance at these sections for
they generally have patches of oil and other dirt.
8. Check ports for water integrity: All ports under the freeboard deck must be strictly
checked for their water tight integrity. Also any and every freeing port should be
moved freely. Inspect that shutters, hinges, pins are not corroding and are well
lubricated and have free movement.
9. Repair fractures: Fractures in guardrails and bulwarks must be repaired. In fact,
irrespective of any impending survey, these areas ought to be in good condition since
they mean so much to personal safety.
10. Check Side Scuttles: Side scuttles below the freeboard deck and deadlights must be
checked for watertight integrity. The rubber packing around the deadlights is of
paramount importance and must be thoroughly inspected for cracks.
11. Records must be kept ready for inspection: The loadline certificate and relevant
records should be kept ready for inspection on the final day. The stability information
should also be kept ready to show compliance of rules of Loading/Discharging and
Ballasting/De-ballasting.
Q43) Describe the following and support with sketches where necessary:
i. Stress-Strain graph of Mild Steel.
 ii. Grades of Steel.
SAME AS QUESTION NO.22

Q44) Venting arrangement requirements for oil tankers as per SOLAS.

Primary means of Venting

As per SOLAS Chapter II-2, reg 11.6.1, The venting arrangements shall be so designed and operated
as to ensure that neither pressure nor vacuum in the cargo tanks shall exceed design parameters…

Mast Riser
Mast riser is generally fitted on crude oil tankers as these ships would always carry
homogeneous cargo in all tanks.
Because crude oil tankers carry homogeneous cargo, the cargo tanks of these ships have a
common cargo tank venting pipelines.
All these cargo tank venting pipelines lead to the Mast riser.
The mast riser is a vertical pipe fitted to the common venting pipelines of all the cargo
tanks.

The mast riser is fitted with a valve (called mast riser valve).
When loading the pressure inside the cargo tank is released through the mast riser by
opening the mast riser valve.

Pressure Vacuum (PV) Valves (High Velocity Vents)

Mast riser is a good option for venting arrangements for tankers carrying homogeneous
cargoes such as crude oil tankers.

But for ships that carry different grades, it will not be a good option.

This is simply because the cargoes can get damaged if the vapours of different grades are
allowed to mix by having a connection between the vapour spaces of the tanks.

PV valves fitted on each tanks solve this issue. PV Valves are also called High velocity vents.

Each tank has its own PV valve and the venting take place through the PV valves as the tanks
is loaded or discharged.

As the name suggests, the PV valve consists of two valves

• Pressure valve that lifts (activates) under a set positive pressure

• Vacuum valve that lifts (activates) under a set vacuum (negative) pressure

Secondary means of Venting

As per SOLAS Chapter II-2, Reg 11.6.3.2 A secondary means of allowing full flow relief of vapours, air
or inert gas mixtures shall be provided to prevent over pressure or under pressure in the event of
failure of primary means of venting.

Pressure sensors
The most common secondary means of venting fitted on modern tankers is the pressure
sensors.

And if you see, these are not exactly the means of venting. But still these can act as the
secondary means of venting.

The purpose of these pressure sensors is to alert the operator (duty officer) by an alarm if the
primary method of venting fails.

SOLAS permits the pressure sensors fitted on each tanks to be considered as a alternative to
the secondary means of venting.

Q45) With respect to International Tonnage Convention write Short notes on the
following:
 i. Gross Tonnage.
• Gross tonnage is calculated by measuring a ships volume (from keel to funnel, to
the outside of the hull framing) and applying a mathematical formula and is actually
a measurement in cubic capacity.
• Gross Tonnage is a unitless index related to a ships overall internal volume. Gross
tonnage is different from Gross Registered Tonnage.
• Gross Tonnage is calculated based on the moulded volume of all enclosed spacces
of the ship and is used to determine things such as ships manning regulations,
safety rules, registration fees and port dues.
• GT is measured according to the law of the national authority with which the ship is
registered.
• The measurement is broadly the capacity in cubic feet of the spaces within the hull
and of the enclosed spaces above the deck available for cargo, stores, passengers
and crew, with certain exceptions divided by 100.
• Thus 100 cubic feet of capacity is equivalent to 1 Gross Ton.

ii. Net Tonnage.

• Net tonnage is based on a calculation of the volume of all cargo spaces of the ship.
It indicates the vessel’s earning space and is a function of the moulded volume of all
cargo spaces of the ship.
• NT is the volume of cargo the vessel can carry, i.e. the gross register tonnage less
than the volume of spaces that will not hold cargo (i.e. Engine Compartment, Helm
Station, Crew Spaces etc. again with differences depending on which port or
country is doing the calculations).
• It represents the volume of the ship available for transporting freight or passengers.
It was replaced by net tonnage in 1994, under the tonnage measurement
convention in 1969.
• NT shall not be taken as less than 0.30GT.

Q46) Explain the purpose of Gross Tonnage (GT) and Net Tonnage (NT) & Write the
respective formula for calculating GT & NT.
WRITE SAME AS QUESTION NO.45
Formula for determining Gross Tonnage & Net Tonnage are as follows,
Gross Tonnage (GT) = K1V
Where,
V – Total volume of all enclosed spaces in Cubic Metres.
K1 = 0.2 + 0.02 log10V (or tabulated in Appendix 2).
Net Tonnage (NT) = K2VC (4d/3D)2 + K3 (N1 + N2/10)
Where,
VC – Total volume of all cargo spaces in Cubic Metres.
K2 = 0.2 + 0.02 log10 VC (or tabulated in Appendix 2).
K3 = 1.25 (GT +10000)/10000
D – Moulded depth amidships in metres.
d – Moulded draft amidships in metres ( Summer Load Line Draught)
N1 – No. of Passengers in cabins with not more than 8 Berths.
N2- Number of other passengers.

Q47) With the Help of a Block Diagram explain the General Layout of a Ship Yard and
cooperation between various departments.
Q48) Write Short Notes on:
i. Stiff and Tender Ships.

STIFF SHIPS TENDER SHIPS

It has large GM because high-density cargo on the It has small GM because most of the loading on top
bottom and KG is very small. and KG is large.
It has a large righting lever. It has a small righting lever.

In this ship rolls violently and irregular. In this ship rolls smoothly and regular.
The time period to returns its original position is The time period to returns its original position is
small. large.
Very uncomfortable situation. Uncomfortable but better than stiff ship situation.

Structural damage to the ship may occur due Chances of having Structural damage to the ship is
to racking. less.

Bulk cargo less likely to shift as the angle of roll This will create greater and more prolonged strain
is small, but loose gear will be thrown out. on cargo lashings and increase the risk of cargo
shift, but to very less extent.

Severe stresses set up on the hull. Less severe stresses set upon hull.
 ii. Shift of CG due to loading of heavy lift by Ships crane.

Q49) Describe the correction which are made to the basic tabular freeboard of a type-B
vessel under the International Loadline Convention.

Q50) With the aid of sketches, describe the procedure of impact test conducted on a
metal.
Q51) Explain the following wrt properties and treatment of steel:
i. Malleability.
• It is a physical property of metals that defines the ability to be hammered, pressed and
rolled into thin sheets without breaking.
• The property of a metal to deform under compression.
• A metals malleability can by measured by how much pressure (compressive stress) it
can withstand without breaking.
• Differences in malleability amongst metals are due to variances in their crystal
structures.
• When a large amount of stress is put on a malleable metal, the atoms roll over each
other, permanently staying in their new position.

ii. Ductility.
• It is a measure of a metals ability to withstand tensile stress- any force that pulls the
two ends of a material away from each other.
• Ductility is the plastic deformation that occurs as a result of such strain.
• The term ‘Ductile’ literally means that a metal substance is capable of being stretched
out into a thin wire, it does not become weaker or brittle in the process.

iii. Elasticity.
• It is a property of an object or material which will restore it to its original shape
after distortion.
• A spring is an example of an elastic object when stretched, it exerts a restoring
force which tends to bring it back to its original length.
• This restoring force is in general proportion to the stretch.

iv. Annealing.
• It is a process by which the properties of steel are enhanced. Annealing is a process
of heating the steel slightly above the critical temperature of steel (260 to 760 Deg
C depending on the alloy) and allowing it to cool down very slowly.
• This process is mainly suited for low carbon steel.
• There are various types of Annealing,
 1. Full Annealing: The process involves heating the steel to 30 to 50 Deg C above the
critical temperature of steel and maintaining the temperature for a specific period
of time, then allowing the material to cool slowly down inside the furnace itself
without any forced means of cooling.
2. Process Annealing: The material is heated up to a temperature just below the
lower critical temperature of steel.
3. Stress Relief Annealing: This process involves heating the casting or structure to
about 650 Deg C. The temperature is maintained constantly for a few hours and
allowed to cool down slowly.
4. Spherodic Annealing: The material is heated just below the lower critical
temperature (About 700 Deg C.), the temperature is maintained for about 8 Hours
and allowed to cool down slowly.

v. Hardening.
• It involves heating the steel, keeping it an appropriate temperature generally 20 to
30 Deg C above the critical point and is then quenched.
• Quenching is the process of cooling the metal by rapidly immersing it in a
quenching bath.
• These baths could be air, water, oil etc.
• The microstructure of a hardened steel part is usually accompanied by brittleness.
Q52) Explain the erection sequence in shipyard practice in ship construction.
Q53) Differentiate in between steel castings. Give examples of scantlings on a ship where
these are used.
Q54) What is a Wire Frame Model? Discuss its benefits.

• In recent times, a ship’s hull and its subsequent fairing for

production purposes is accomplished without committing any plan on
paper.
• Software systems are used which are based on the concept of the
‘Ship Product Model’ in which the geometry and the attributes of all
elements of the ship derived from the contract design and
classification society structural requirements are stored. This model
can be visualized at all stages and can be exploited to obtain
information for production of the ship.

• Data is input into the CAD software which in turn produces wire
frame models. Wire frame images are extensively used in the
animation industry.
• Both lofting and fairing which were previously done manually, are now
done using the software to produce 3-D images which can be
manipulated by the software to produce the required design
parameters. With this technique, effects of load on the hull structure
can be reproduced on the screen.
• The model can be worked on interactively with other stored
shipyard standards and practices to produce detailed arrangement
and working drawings.
• The precision of the structural drawings generated enables them to be
used with greater confidence than was possible with manual
 drawings. Also, the materials requisitioning information can be
stored on the computer to be interfaced with the shipyard’s
commercial systems for purchasing and material control.
• A 3-D steel assembly can be rotated by the draughtsman on screen to
assess the best orientation for maximum down-hand welding.
• The use of 3-D drawings is particularly valuable in the area of outfit
drawings where items like pipe work and ventilation/air-conditioning
trunking can be ‘sighted’ in the 3-D mode and more accurately
measured before being created in the 2-D drawing.

Q55) Explain:
i. Lines Plans.

LINES PLAN:
• The form of the ship can be determined by passing a set of parallel
planes through the hull at regular intervals and measuring the
outlines on these planes. The plan that defines the ‘form’ of the ship by
use of such planes is known as the ‘lines plan’.
• When the planes are vertical and parallel to the centerline, a ‘sheer
plan’ or side view isobtained.
• When the planes are horizontal and parallel to the waterline, a ‘half
breadth plan’ or bird eye view is obtained.
• When the plan is vertical and perpendicular to the centerline a ‘body
plan’ or an end view is obtained.
• The lines plan help in the calculation of various parameters such as:
1. Block co-efficient, prismatic co-efficient and WPA co-efficient.
2. Displacement at variousdrafts
3. Transverse and longitudinal COB
4. Cross curves ofstability
5. Capacity of Holds

ii. Lofting.

LOFTING:
• Shipbuilders before beginning work must resort to a practice of lofting
or laying down the lines of the ship. Lofting consists of preparing a full
size or an exact skeleton plan of the hull to be built.
• Computers and dedicated programs for ship building are used to draw a
full scale plan. This plan is saved as a ‘wire frame model’ in the
computer and can be rotated and viewed from any angle. CAD
(computer aided design) is used for shipbuilding design and lofting
process.

Q56) Compare and Contrast between Steel and Aluminium as ship building material.

STEEL v/s ALUMINIUM AS SHIP-BUILDING MATERIAL:

• The use of aluminium in ship building reduces the weight of the ship
structures by upto 50% compared to those made from low carbon steel.
• Aluminium requires lower maintenance cost in comparison to Mild steel.
• By reducing the vessel’s weight, the use of aluminium alloys allows for
higher speeds, greater cargo carrying capacity, lower fuel
consumption, longer distances and excellent manoeuvrability.
• The position of steel as the most widely used material in the
shipbuilding industry originates from its superior mechanical
properties and low manufacturing costs.
• Alloys Al-Mg and Al-Mg-Si were found to be reliable in marine service as
well as during the manufacturing. Aluminium alloys meet or exceed
the minimum yield strength requirements for normal strength steels
(mild steels) and could even compete with high strength steels. They
also have a superior corrosion resistance.
• The superstructure & other auxiliary equipments are made from
aluminium to save weight and increase the cargo carrying capacity of
the ship.
• Aluminium ships have a clear advantage over steel ships with regards
to total ownership costs. This is due to the fact that aluminium ships are
lighter and use lesser fuel than steel ships. They also do not incur
lifecycle maintenance costs with painting and because they are
generally smaller, they require lessmanning.
• When aluminium reaches the end of its lifespan, it continues to
provide significant benefits as a result of its high recycling value.

• With all the existing technologies and methods available for

aluminium shipbuilding, aluminium has the potential to replace steel
in the future as the main ship construction material. The use of
 aluminium alloys will especially grow in smaller ships, while the bigger
ships and tankers will continue to be dominated by steel.
• All in all, the future of aluminium in shipbuilding looks bright.

Q57) What precautions are to be taken against corrosion when aluminium is connected to
steel work?

CONNECTING ALUMINIUM SUPERSTRUCTURE TO STEEL DECK:

While connecting aluminium superstructure to steel deck, bimetallic
corrosion is an issue that needs to be tackled. This is done in various
ways:
Bimetallic Transition Inserts –
A transition sheet
comprising pure aluminium
and mild steel is separated
by polystyrene and is
explosively bonded
together. These sheets are
used to separate the
aluminium section from the
steel plate and ‘weld nugget
process’ is used to weld this
sheet to the aluminium and
steel section. The nugget is
steel to steel on one side and
aluminium to aluminium on
the other side. The latter is
welded first.

Adhesive Bonding –
This technique is used mainly by car
makers, but now making its way in
shipbuilding industry as well. An
electrically inert adhesive agent is
used to bond the aluminium and steel
 surfaces together, while a sealant
keeps out electrolyte from seeping
into the joint.

Mechanical fastening with Bolts and Rivets

The two dissimilar metals

(steel and aluminium) are
separated from each other
with an inert neoprene joint.
The rivet/bolt is driven
through the metals, but is
separated from it by a
neoprene tube. Similarly, the
bolt and nut surfaces are also
separated from the dissimilar
metals.

Modern Welding Techniques-

Modern welding techniques

like ‘friction stir pot welding’
are being developed that
will allow the direct welding
of steel to aluminium.
Q58) State with suitable sketches the difference between Heeling Arm Curve & Righting
Arm Curve for a vessel authorized to carry grain.

Q59) How is the initial KG of the vessel calculated?

INCLINING EXPERIMENT

• Before the stability of a ship in any particular condition of loading can

be determined, the initial conditions must be known. This means
the ship’s lightweight and KG at this lightweight must be known.
The Inclining Experiment is performed in order to find this KG for the
light condition. The experiment is carried out by the builders when
the ship is as near to completion as possible; that is, as near to the
light condition as possible.
• Before commencing the test, dock water density must be accurately
measured. Drafts must be accurately noted before and after the
test.

• The ship is forcibly inclined by shifting weights through a fixed

distance across the deck. The weights used are usually concrete
blocks, and the inclination is measured by the movement of plumb
lines across specially constructed battens which lie perfectly
 horizontal when the ship is upright. Usually two or three plumb lines
are used and each is attached at the centre line of the ship at a height
of about 10m above the batten. If two lines are used then one is
placed forward and the other aft. If a third line is used it is usually
placed amidships.
• For simplicity, let us consider only one weight and one plumb line.
The following conditions are necessary to ensure that the KG
obtained is as accurate as possible:
a) There should be little or no wind, as this may influence the
inclination of the ship. If there is any wind the ship should be head on
or stern on to it.
b) The ship should be floating freely. This means that nothing outside
the ship should prevent her from listing freely. There should be no
barges alongside; mooring ropes must be slacked right down &
there must be sufficient UKC to ensure that at no time during the
experiment will she touch the ground.
c) Any loose weights within the ship should be removed or secured in place.
d) There must be no free surfaces within the ship. Bilges should be dry.
e) Boilers and tanks should be completely full or empty.
f) Any persons not directly concerned with the experiment must be
sent ashore.
g) The ship must be upright at the commencement of the experiment.

• When all is ready and the ship is upright, a weight is shifted across the
deck transversely, causing the ship to list. A little time is allowed for
the ship to settle and then the deflection of the plumb line along the
batten is noted.
• If the weight is now returned to its original position the ship will
return to the upright position. She may now be listed in the
opposite direction.
• From the deflections noted, the GM is obtained as follows.

a) In the figure below, let a mass of `w' tonnes be shifted across the deck
through a distance of `d' metres. This will cause the centre of gravity of
the ship to move from G to G1 parallel to the shift of the centre of
gravity of the weight.
 a) The ship will then list to bring G1 vertically under M, i.e. to ϴ degrees list. The
plumb line will thus be deflected along the batten from B to C. Since AC is
the new vertical, angle BAC must also be ϴ degrees.
𝐵𝐶
𝐼𝑛 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝐵𝐶, tan 𝜃 =
𝐴𝐵

𝐺𝐺1
𝐼𝑛 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐺𝐺1 𝑀, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
𝐺𝑀

𝐵𝐶 𝐺𝐺1
∴ = 𝐺𝑀
𝐴𝐵

𝐴𝐵
∴ 𝐺𝑀 =
𝐵𝐶
𝐺𝐺1𝑥

𝑤 𝑥𝑑
𝐵𝑢𝑡, 𝐺𝐺1 =
𝑊

𝑤 𝑥𝑑 𝐴𝐵
∴ 𝐺𝑀 𝑥
𝑊 𝐵𝐶
=

Q60) Distinguish between stability at small and large angles of heel with the help of
suitable sketches.

Q60) Difference between synchronous and parametric rolling.

SAME AS QUESTIO NO.3