Chemistry Full

4 Electrons in Atoms
ENCOUNTER THE PHENOMENON

Write the Encounter the Phenomenon question for this module.
How do we know what stars are made of?
Use the “What I Know” column to list the things you know about the Encounter the Phenomenon
question. Then list the questions you have about the Encounter the Phenomenon question in the
“What I Want to Find Out” column. As you read the module, fill in the “What I Learned” column.
K W L
What I Know What I Want to Find Out What I Learned
stars emmit visibile light in a How are stars created? Quantumn

specific electromagnetic
spectrum, based on their what are they made of? Photon
electrons arrangment.
What are stars mostly made of Electromagentic waves and
and how do we know? radiations and their
characteristcs.
Are stars born or made?
Stars are made of very hot gas.
What is a quantum? This gas is mostly hydrogen
and helium, which are the two
What is a quantum theory? lightest elements. Stars shine
by burning hydrogen into
What are photons? helium in their cores, and later
in their lives create heavier
elements. New stars are
formed from this material.
Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education
Science Notebook • Electrons in Atoms

59
Electrons in Atoms
1 Light and Quantized Energy
REVIEW Recall the definition of the Review Vocabulary term.
VOCABULARY Transmission or emission of energy in the form of waves or
radiation
radiation
particles through space or material medium.
NEW VOCABULARY Define each New Vocabulary term.

electromagnetic radiation Energy that exhbits wave like behavior
electromagnetic radiation
wavelength as it travels through space.
frequency
The distance between two corresponding points in a wave
wavelength
amplitude
electromagnetic spectrum
Number of waves in a given point per second
quantum frequency
Planck’s constant amplitude
Height of wave from orgin to trough or to crest.
photoelectric effect Includes all electromagentic radiations.

electromagnetic spectrum
photon The minimum amount of energy that can be gained or lost by
quantum
atomic emission spectrum
an atom.
6.626*10^-34
Planck’s constant
Eletrons ejected from metal surface when light at
photoelectric effect
specific frequencies shine on them.
A massless particle that holds a quanta of light.

photon

Set of frequencies of the electromagnetic
atomic emission spectrum
waves emitted by the atoms of an element.

60
1 Light and Quantized Energy (continued)
List the three reasons scientists found Rutherford’s nuclear atomic
model to be fundamentally incomplete.
1. Did not begin to account for the similarities and difference of chemical
behaviour among the various elements.

2. Doesn't explain the arrangement of electrons.
3. Didn't explain why electrons were not pulled in by the positive

charged nucleus.

Explain the relationship shown by the figure below. Use the following
terms: wavelength, frequency, and speed.
Longer
wavelength
Lower frequency
Shorter
wavelength
Higher frequency
As we can see that the wavelength of the red wave is longer than the
wavelength of the purple wave. However, the red wave has a lowed
frequency than the purple wave.
C05-02C-828378-08

61
Get It? Explain how wavelength and frequency of a wave are
related.
They are inversely related, were as one increases the other decreases
and vice versa.
Solve Read Example Problem 1 in your text.
YOU TRY IT
Problem
Radio waves are used to transmit information on various channels.
What is the wavelength of a radio wave having the frequency of
5.40 × 1010 Hz?
1. Analyze the Problem

5.40*10^10 3.00*10^8
Known: ν = and c =
Unknown: λ = 5.56*10^-3
You know that because radio waves are part of the electromagnetic
spectrum, their speed, frequency, and wavelength are related by the
formula c = λν.
2. Solve for the Unknown

Solve the equation relating the speed, frequency, and wavelength
of an electromagnetic wave for wavelength (λ).

c/nu
If c = λν, then λ =
Substitute c and the frequency of the radio wave, ν, into the

equation. Note that hertz is equivalent to 1/s or s–1.
(3.00*10^8 m/s)*
λ = (5.40*10^10 s^-1
Divide the values to determine wavelength, λ and cancel units as

required.
5.56*10^-3 m
λ=

62
3. Evaluate the Answer
The answer is correctly expressed in a unit of meters .
Both of the known values in the problem are expressed with 3
significant figures, so the answer must have 3 significant
figures.
Identify two facts the wave model of light failed to explain.
1. Why some metals emitted electrons when light at certain frequencies

shine on them?

2. why heated objects emitted only certain frequencies of light at a given

temperature?

Describe Planck’s quantum concept by completing the following

statement.
energy
The quantum concept concludes that matter can gain or lose
only in small, specific amounts called quanta . A quantum is the

gained lost
minimum amount of energy that can be or
by an atom.
Get It? Describe the photoelectric effect.

A phenomenon in which electrons called photoelectron are emitted from a
metal’s surface when light at or above a specific frequency shine on
them, metal’s will not eject electron below a specific frequency.

63
Compare and contrast Einstein’s equation with Planck’s equation by
completing the following sentence.
Eq=h*nu
Planck’s equation, , demonstrates mathematically that the
frequency
energy of a quantum is related to the of the emitted
radiation. Einstein went further by explaining that, in addition to its
wavelike characteristics, a beam of light can be thought of as a stream of

energy photon
called .
Contrast the continuous electromagnetic spectra and the atomic

emission spectra.
Continous spectrum has all types of wavelengths with no gaps between

them. However, the emission atomic spectra have only specific
wavelengths and gaps between them. The continous spectrum has all
forms of electromagentic radiations, while the emission spectrum has only
the set of frequencies of the electromagnetic waves emitted by the atom of
the element. Both are emission spectra.
Get It? Explain how an emission spectrum is produced.

When the emitted light from the neon passes through a glass prism.

64
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
8. Describe the relationship between changing electric and magnetic fields and particles.
Moving particles create a electric force field, moving charged particles make a magnetic force field,
accelerating charged partciles create changing electric and magnetic force fields that propagate as
electromagnetic waves.
9. Compare and contrast continuous spectrum and emission spectrum.
They are both emission spectra, but one has all the wavelengths with no gaps between them
(continous), while the other has specific wavelengths with gaps between them (emission).
10. Discuss the way in which Einstein utilized Planck’s quantum concept to explain the
photoelectric effect.
Einstien used Planks quantum in order to explain the photoelectric effect and photons. He said that in
order for metal to eject electron the energy of photons must have a threhold value. Also, he used the
quantum thereoy to explain that the energy of a photon is dependent and related to the frequency of
the radiation.
11. Calculate Heating 235 g of water from 22.6°C to 94.4°C in a microwave oven

requires 7.06 × 104J of energy. If the microwave frequency is 2.88 × 1010 s–1, how
many quanta are required to supply the 7.06 × 104 J?
1.91*10^-23 j/s
12. Interpret Scientific Illustrations Use Figure 5 and your knowledge of

electromagnetic radiation to match the numbered items with the lettered items.
The numbered items may be used more than once or not at all.
a. longest wavelength 1. gamma ray
b. highest frequency 2. infrared wave
c. greatest energy 3. radio waves
3 and A/ 1 and B and C

65
Electrons in Atoms
2 Quantum Theory and the Atom
VOCABULARY
atom The smallest unit of matter that participates in chemical reactions.
atom

ground state
ground state The lowest allowable energy state of an atom.
quantum number The number of the atom orbitals.

quantum number
de Broglie equation
Wavelength= h/m*nu
de Broglie equation
Heisenberg uncertainty
principle
quantum mechanical Heisenberg uncertainty principle States that it is impossible to
model of the atom
predict the position and velocity of particles at the same time.
atomic orbital
principal quantum quantum mechanical model of the atom A model derived from
number Bohr's atomic model that shows the wavlength of each energy level.
principal energy level

atomic orbital Region that predicts the locations of electrons.
energy sublevel
principal quantum number Quantum number that indicates the
relative size and energy of atomic orbitals.
principal energy level Atom's major energy levels.

energy sublevel The levels of the major energy levels, meaning they
are the sublevels.

66
2 Quantum Theory and the Atom (continued)
Classify the characteristics of each series in hydrogen’s line
spectrum. Include the following information.
1. Beginning orbit(s) and ending orbit
2. Description of the spectral line
Balmer Paschen Lyman

1. Energy Level2 1. Energy Level3 1. Energy Level1
2. Electrons: N2 --> 2. Electrons: N3 —> 2. Electrons:

higher orbitals, higher orbitals. N1->higher
then emit diff lights. Then emit red light. orbitals, then emit
violet light.
Get It? Explain why different colors of light result from electron

behavior in the atom.
Electrons in an atom can move form one allowable energy level, and
depending on the energy level it moves to, when the electrons returns to
it's ground state it will emit a specific amount of energy depedning on the
difference of the energies between the two energy levels, and because the
space between energy levels isn't evenly spaced, electrons will emit
different colors of light when they return to their ground states, because teh
differnce of the energies of differnet electron movements is not equal.
Sequence de Broglie’s process in developing his equation by

completing the following sentences.

number wavelengths
1. Whole of are allowed in a circular
radius
orbit of fixed .
wavelike particlelike
2. Light has both and characteristics.
waves
3. Can particles of matter, including electrons, behave like ?
wavelength motion
4. If an electron has and is restricted to circular
electrons
orbits of fixed radius, the is allowed only certain
frequencies energies
possible wavelengths, , and .

67
Get It? Identify which variables in the de Broglie equation
represent wavelike properties.
The wavelength of the wave, the velocity (v) and mass (m) of the particles
all represnet wavelike properties in De Broglie equation.
Wavlength = h/m* v
Discuss how Heisenberg’s principle influenced Schrödinger to

develop his wave equation.
Heisenberg’s saidthat it is fundamentally impossible to find the the exact

location and velocity of an electron in at the same time. Hesienberg also
stated that Bohr’s models of describing the pathway of electrons are
incorrect, and the only way influenced Schrondinger to develop the
quantum mechanical model of the atom, where he states that the only
quantity that can be used to find the position of these electrons is through
probability. Thin influenced Schrodinger greatly, where he started to
develop the quantum mechanical model of the atom, where it predicts the
3D regions around the nucleus and probabe electron positions.
Get It? Identify the only quantity of an electron’s orbit that can be

determined.
The only quantity of an electron orbit that can be determined is the

probability of an electron to occupy a certain region around the nucleus.
Get It? Compare and contrast Bohr’s model and the quantum

mechanical model.

Bohr's model uses energy levels in order to describe the pathway of
electrons. However, in the quantum model it doesn't use energy levels.
Additionally, Bohr's model showed the location of each electron, while the
other model described different probable locations of an electron. In both
each energy level limits electron to specidic energy values.
Get It? Describe where electrons are located in an atom.

In an atom the electrons are located around the nucleus, where they are
moving with high speed making it impossible to find their exact position.
However, 90% of the time electrons are located inside of the boundary of
teh atom around the nucleus, and the majority of the electrosn of an atom
can be found close to the nucleus of the atom where it is mainly dense
there in the quantum mechanical model of the atom.

68
Identify four facts about atomic orbitals by completing the following
statements.
The principal quantum number
1. indicate the relative sizes and
energies of atomic orbitals.
2. The atom’s major energy levels are called

principal energy level
.
sublevels
3. Principal energy levels contain .
sublevels
4. The number of in a principal
increases
energy level as n increases.
Get It? Explain the relationship between energy levels and sublevels.

As n increases the energy sublevels in the energy levels increase.
Get It? Describe the shapes of s and p orbitals.

the s orbitals are spherical, while the p orbitals are dumbbell.
SUMMARIZE
Compare and contrast the Bohr and quantum mechanical models of the atom.
Bohr's model of the atom uses energy levels in order to describe the pathway of electrons. However, the
mechanical model of the atom doesn't use energy levels to describe the electron pathways because it is
wrong. Additionally, Bohr's atomic model highlights the location and position of the electrons around the
nucleus, while the mechanical model shows and highlights the probability of the electrons positions
according to Heiseinberg's principle that states thet it is impossible to state the location and velocity of
particles at the same time. However, both of these models limit the electrons energy to certain values. Thus,
the main difference is the way both models describe the position, location and behaviour of the electrons
around the nucleus of the atom.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

13. Explain the reason, according to Bohr’s atomic model, why atomic emission
spectra contain only certain frequencies of light.
The model explained that the distance between the energy levels is not even, meaning when
electrons move from their ground state to a higher enery level when they return to their original energy
levels they would emit specific light that contains specific amount of energy (Frequencies).

69
14. Differentiate between the wavelength of visible light and the wavelength of a
moving soccer ball.
The wavlegth of a moving soccer ball is much smaller than the wavlength of visible light because the
moving soccer ball has more kinetic energy ( frequency) than visible light, which means it has a smaller
wavelength than visible light.
15. Explain why the location of an electron in an atom is uncertain using the
Heisenberg uncertainty principle. How is the location of electrons in atoms
defined?
The location of an electron in an atom is uncertain because electrons are really fast, making it hard to
find the electrons velocity, without the velocity the electrons position cannot be detedcted. The position
and location of the electrons in an atom are simply defined by probabilities, where the values of the
position and speed of the electrons are simple predictions and probabilities around the nucleus of the
atom.
16. Compare and contrast Bohr’s model and the quantum mechanical model of the
atom.
Bohr's model of the atom uses energy levels in order to describe the pathway of electrons. However,
the mechanical model of the atom doesn't use energy levels to describe the electron pathways
because it is wrong. Additionally, Bohr's atomic model highlights the location and position of the
electrons around the nucleus, while the mechanical model shows and highlights the probability of the
electrons positions according to Heiseinberg's principle that states thet it is impossible to state the
location and velocity of particles at the same time. Both limit the energy of electrons to certain values.
17. Enumerate the sublevels contained in the hydrogen atom’s first four energy levels.
What orbitals are related to each s sublevel and each p sublevel?
The no. of the sublevels in the first orbital is 1 (s), the no. of sublevels in the second orbital is 2 (s, p),

the no. of sublevels in the third orbital is 3 (s, p and d), the no. of sublevels in the fourth energy level is
4 (s, p, d and f). N1: s1 | N2: s1 p3 | N3: s1 p3 | s1 p3.
18. Calculate Use the information in Table 1 to calculate how many times larger the
hydrogen atom’s seventh Bohr radius is than its first Bohr radius.
Seventh hydrogen energy level radius/ First hydrogen energy level radius
2.59/0.0529
= 49
The radius of the seventh hydrogen atom energy level is 49 times larger than the radius of the first
hydrogen energy level.

70
Electrons in Atoms
3 Electron Configuration
VOCABULARY Negatively charged, very small and fast subatomic particle that
electron
electron
is found around the nucleus of the atom. The exact location and velocity of
the electrons is impossible to find out according to Heisenberg's principle.

electron configuration
electron configuration The arrangment of electrons in the atom.
aufbau principle
Pauli exclusion principle
states that each electron occupies the lowest energy
aufbau principle
Hund’s rule
orbital available (The lowest energy orbitals are occupied first).
valence electron
electron-dot structure Pauli exclusion principle states that only two electrons can occupy a
single orbital, but only if they have opposite spins.
States that single electrons with the same spin must

Hund’s rule
each occupy equal energy orbitals before additional electrons with
opposite spins can occupy the same orbital.
valence electron Electrons found in the loutermost level of the atom.
electron-dot structure A shorthand method that is used in order to

represent the number of valence elecrons of an atom. This structure is

made from the elements symbol and dots surrounding the element symbol,
which represent the electrons.
Get It? State the three rules that define how electrons are arranged
in atoms.
Aufbau Principle: Each electron occupies the lowest energy orbital

available.
Pauli Exclusion Principle: A maximum of two electrons can occupy an

atomic orbital, only if they have opposite spins.
Hund’s Rule: Single electrons with the same spin must occupy each
equal energy orbital before additional electrons with opposite spins can
occupy the same orbitals.

71
3 Electron Configuration (continued)
Organize information about electron configurations by completing the
following outline.
the arrangment of electrons in an atom
Electron configuration is .
1. Ground–state electron configurations
A. Three rules define how electrons can be arranged in an
atom’s orbitals:
The lowest energy orbitals are occupied first.
1.
2. Only 2 electrons with opposite spin can occupy an orbital.
3. Electrons with same spin must occupy orbitals with = energy.
two
B. The methods for representing an
atom’s electron configuration
1. Orbital diagrams
atomic orbital
a. An empty box represents an .
b. A box containing a single up arrow represents an
orbital with electron spining up .
c. A box containing both up and down arrows represents a
filled orbital | opp spin .
d. Each box is labeled with the principal quantum number

and sublevel associated with the orbital.
Get It? Explain how to write the noble-gas notation for an element.

What is the noble-gas notation for calcium?

The noble gas notation is a method to shorten the electron configuration
of. a certain element by bracketing the noble gas symbol closest to this
elemenent. The NG notation of Calcium is [Ar] 4s^2
Get It? Cite Evidence How do the properties of electrons influence

the properties of elements?
The properties of electrons affect the properties of elements, where the

properties of valence electrons in an atom determine the properties and
chemical behaviours of the element.

72
Solve Read Example Problem 3 in your text.
YOU TRY IT
Problem
Ruthenium (Ru) is commonly used in the manufacture of platinum
alloys. What is the ground-state electron configuration for an atom of
ruthenium?
1. Analyze the Problem

Ruthenium has 44 protons & electrons | Kr is closest
Known:
The ground state electron configuration of ruthenium.
Unknown:
Determine the number of additional electrons a ruthenium atom has

compared to the nearest preceding noble gas, and then write out
ruthenium’s electron configuration.
2. Solve for the Unknown

From the periodic table, ruthenium’s atomic number is determined to
be 44 . Thus a ruthenium atom contains 44 electrons. The noble gas
preceding ruthenium is krypton (Kr), which has an atomic number of
36. Represent ruthenium’s first 36 electrons using the chemical
The ground state
symbol for krypton written inside brackets. electron configuration
of ruthenium.
The first 36 electrons have filled out the 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d and 4p
sublevels. The remaining 9 electrons of ruthenium’s configuration
need to be written out. Thus, the remaining 9 electrons fill the
4d^7 5s^1
orbitals.
Using the maximum number of electrons that can fill each orbital,
[Kr] 4d^7 5s^1
write out the electron configuration.
3. Evaluate the Answer

All 44 electrons in a ruthenium atom have been accounted for. The
Krypton
correct preceding noble gas has been used in the
atom
notation, and the order of orbital filling for the is
correct.

73
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
27. Apply the Pauli exclusion principle, the aufbau principle, and Hund’s rule to write
out the electron configuration and draw the orbital diagram for each of the
following elements.

a. silicon b. fluorine c. calcium d. krypton
Silicon: (14 protons/up + down | up + down | up + down | up + down | up + down | up + down | up |

up/1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^2 3p^2)Fluorine: (9 protons/up + down | up + down | up + down | up +
down | up/1s^2 2s^2 2p^5).Calcium: (20 protons/up + down | up + down | up + down | up + down |
up + down | up + down | up + down | up + down | up + down | up + down |/1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^2
3p^6 4s^2).Krypton: (44 protons/ 18*(up + down)/ 1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^2 3p^6 4s^2 3d^10 4p^6).
28. Define valence electron.
Electrons fonud in outermost energy level.
29. Illustrate and describe the sequence in which ten electrons occupy the five
orbitals related to an atom’s d sublevel.
First of all, the lower energy orbitals are occupied, meaning the lower orbitals will be single
occupied before the others can be singly occupied.
Second of all, only elecrons with opposite spins can doubly occupy an energy orbital, meaning
these ten electrons will be divided among the five orbitals, two in each.
Lastly, electrons with the same spin all occupy the five orbitals of the d subenergy single. After
that, the other five electrons with opposite spins of the first set of electrons occupy the orbitals.

30. Extend the aufbau sequence through an element that has not yet been identified,
but whose atoms would completely fill 7p orbitals. How many electrons would such
an atom have? Write its electron configuration using noble-gas notation for the
previous noble gas, radon.
18 electrons. [Xe] 4f^1 5d^10 6s^2 6p^6
31. Interpret Scientific Illustrations Which is the correct electron-dot structure for an

atom of selenium? Explain.

a. Se b.
Se SeSe SeS c.
Se Se Se SSe Se d.
Se S Se S
The correct dot diagram for the element Selenium is option C. A and B are wrong because they show
that selenium has seven valence electrons. However, it only has six. Additionally, D is wrong because
C05-22C-828378-08
S is not theC05-22C-828378-08
C05-22C-828378-08
element symbol C05-22C-828378-08
for Selenium.

74

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4 Electrons in Atoms

ENCOUNTER THE PHENOMENON

How do we know what stars are made of?

stars emmit visibile light in a How are stars created? Quantumn

Science Notebook • Electrons in Atoms

NEW VOCABULARY Define each New Vocabulary term.

photoelectric effect Includes all electromagentic radiations.

A massless particle that holds a quanta of light.

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

Science Notebook • Electrons in Atoms

2. Doesn't explain the arrangement of electrons.

3. Didn't explain why electrons were not pulled in by the positive

Science Notebook • Electrons in Atoms

Solve Read Example Problem 1 in your text.

1. Analyze the Problem

2. Solve for the Unknown

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

Substitute c and the frequency of the radio wave, ν, into the

Divide the values to determine wavelength, λ and cancel units as

Science Notebook • Electrons in Atoms

The answer is correctly expressed in a unit of meters .

Both of the known values in the problem are expressed with 3

significant figures, so the answer must have 3 significant

Identify two facts the wave model of light failed to explain.

1. Why some metals emitted electrons when light at certain frequencies

2. why heated objects emitted only certain frequencies of light at a given

Describe Planck’s quantum concept by completing the following

only in small, specific amounts called quanta . A quantum is the

Get It? Describe the photoelectric effect.

Science Notebook • Electrons in Atoms

radiation. Einstein went further by explaining that, in addition to its

wavelike characteristics, a beam of light can be thought of as a stream of

Contrast the continuous electromagnetic spectra and the atomic

Continous spectrum has all types of wavelengths with no gaps between

Get It? Explain how an emission spectrum is produced.

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

Science Notebook • Electrons in Atoms

9. Compare and contrast continuous spectrum and emission spectrum.

11. Calculate Heating 235 g of water from 22.6°C to 94.4°C in a microwave oven

12. Interpret Scientific Illustrations Use Figure 5 and your knowledge of

Science Notebook • Electrons in Atoms

NEW VOCABULARY Define each New Vocabulary term.

quantum number The number of the atom orbitals.

principal energy level

relative size and energy of atomic orbitals.

principal energy level Atom's major energy levels.

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education

Science Notebook • Electrons in Atoms

Balmer Paschen Lyman

2. Electrons: N2 --> 2. Electrons: N3 —> 2. Electrons:

Get It? Explain why different colors of light result from electron

Sequence de Broglie’s process in developing his equation by

completing the following sentences.

Science Notebook • Electrons in Atoms

Discuss how Heisenberg’s principle influenced Schrödinger to

Heisenberg’s saidthat it is fundamentally impossible to find the the exact

Get It? Identify the only quantity of an electron’s orbit that can be

The only quantity of an electron orbit that can be determined is the

d. Each box is labeled with the principal quantum number