CPS Complete

CPS NOTES COMPLETE
Sessional 1
Chapter 1(Foundation of Communications)
Communication
Communication: Process through which we express, interpret, and

coordinate messages with others.
Messages : Verbal utterances, visual images, and nonverbal

behaviors used to
convey thoughts and feelings.
Encoding: Creating messages.
Decoding: Interpreting messages.
Feedback: Creating messages in response of other messages.
Canned Plans and Scripts
Canned Plans: Mental library of scripts based upon previous

experiences in the past.
Scripts: A script is an actual text of what to say and do in a specific

situation.
Examples: Greeting people, making small talk, giving advice,

complimenting or criticizing someone, and persuading others.
Communication Context
Communication context: Made up of the physical, social, historical,

psychological, and cultural situations that surround a communication
event.
Physical situation: Location, environmental conditions (temperature,

lighting, noise level), and the physical proximity of participants to each
other.
CPS NOTES COMPLETE 1

Social Presence: Being actually present when communication is taken
place. For example during email or text Communicator is not actually
present.
Social Situation: Quality of communication depends upon the nature of

relationship that already exists between two participants. Better the
relation, better will be communication and understanding.
Historical Situation: When a background is provided by previous

communication that others might not understand .
Example Scenario: Usman texts Queen Elizabeth II to tell her he will

pick
up the draft of the report they had left for their manager. When Queen
Elizabeth II sees Usman at lunch later that day, she says, “Did you get it?”
Another person listening to the conversation would have no idea what the
“it” is to which Queen Elizabeth II is referring.
Psychological situation: includes the moods and feelings each

person brings
to the encounter. Misunderstanding might happen due to changed moods of

different participants.
Cultural situation: includes the beliefs, values, orientations, underlying
assumptions, and rituals that belong to a specific culture. There is a chance

of misunderstanding of two participants of different cultures due to different
beliefs and values.
Communication Settings
Communication Settings: Based on the number of participants and the
level of
formality in the interactions.
Intrapersonal communication: Interactions that occur in our minds
when we are talking to ourselves.
Interpersonal communication: Communication between two people.

Small-group communication: Communication between 3-20 people.
for eg(Family, group of friends etc. )
Public communication: is delivered to audiences of
more than 20 people. Examples public speeches, presentations, and

Online-forums.
Mass communication: Delivered by individuals and entities through

mass
media to large segments of the population at the same time.

Examples(Newspaper, magazine articles and advertisements.)
Communication Process
Communication process: Three different and interrelated

activities(Encoding, Decoding and interaction coordination)
Encoding: Creating messages.
Decoding: Interpreting messages.
Interaction coordination: Trying to interpret the message.
Shared meaning: Occurs when the receiver’s interpretation is similar to

what the speaker intended.
Channels
Channels: Means of Transportation for the message. (Verbal(talking), Non-
Verbal cues(expressions, gestures) and Visual Images(Movement , touch ,
emoticon and acronyms))
Factors to keep in mind before choosing technology-driven channels
-Media Richness: refers to how much and what kinds of information

can be transmitted via a particular channel. Face-to-Face is the richest
channel.
-Synchronicity: extent to which a channel allows for immediate

feedback.
Synchronous Channels: For Complex conversations.

Asynchronous Channels: For conversations that requires time to
carefully organize and word the message.
Lean Channels: For Neutral conversations.
Interference
Interference: Any noise or occurrence that disrupts the process of
achieving shared meaning.
Physical Noise: External noise from outside sources( Crowd talking

etc.)
Psychological Noise: Internal thoughts and noises.
Characteristics of Communication
Purpose
Develop and maintain the sense of ourselves
Meet our social needs
Develop and maintain Healthy Relationships
Exchange Information
Influence Others
Features of Communication
Communication is continuous. It never stops.
Communication is Irreversible. Once damage is done its done you

cant erase it but only repair it.
Communication depends upon setting.
Communication depends upon index of trust, control and Intimacy

between two participants.
Ethics of Communication
Ethical communicator must show:
Honesty

Integrity
Fairness
Respect
Responsibility
in their communication.
Bright Side vs Dark Side messages
Bright Side
Ethical and appropriate messages
Dark Side
Easy Dark: Dishonest messages
Hard Dark: Honest but damaging messages
Evil Dark: Disrespectful and dishonest messages
Communication Competence
Communication competence: Impression that communicative
behavior is appropriate and effective in a given situation.
Credibility: Reputation of speaker regarding knowledge ,

authenticity and social ease.
Social Ease: Not having Anxiety while communication.
Communication Apprehension
Communication apprehension: Fear or anxiety associated with real

or anticipate communication with others.
Improving Communication
Identify Problem
Set goal
Set Procedure for achieving your goal
Measure your progress

Chapter 5(Non-Verbal Communication)
Nonverbal Communication: are cues we send with our body, voice, space,
time, and appearance to support, modify, contradict, or even replace a verbal
message.
Characteristics of Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication is inevitable.
Nonverbal communication is the primary conveyer of emotions.
Nonverbal communication is multi-channeled. Uses combinations of

nonverbal behavior to perceive meaning such as postures, gestures,
facial expressions, vocal pitch and rate and appearance.
Nonverbal communication is ambiguous. Not everyone perceive the

non verbal message in same meaning. Interpretation of non verbal
messages depends upon culture, religion, values, gender etc.
Types of Nonverbal Communication
Body(Kinesics)
Gestures
Gestures are the movements of our hands, arms, and fingers
Emblems: We use emblems to substitute entirely for a word or

words. for eg we place finger on our lips to convey “Be Quiet”.
Illustrators: Gestures to clarify verbal meaning. for eg using

hand to point to “This high” or “Nearly this round”.
Adaptors: Unconscious response to physical or logical needs .

Such as Itching, adjust our glasses , jingle our keys etc. Other
might notice and attach meaning to them.
Eye Contact (Oculesics)
Act of how much we look at others when communicating. In some

cultures direct eye contact symbolizes respect and confidence eg
America while in other countries eye contact for longer periods is
deemed as disrespectful and threatening eg China.

Facial Expression
Facial expression is using facial muscles to convey emotions.

for eg furrow our eyebrows and squint to convey confusion
Posture
Posture is how we position and move our body
Body orientation refers to how we position our body in relation

to other people.
Body movement is changing body position. For eg Upright

stance and squared up shoulder communicates poise and
confidence.
Touch(Haptics)
Haptics is the technical term for what and how touch

communicates. We may pat, hug, slap, kiss, pinch, stroke, or
embrace others.
Spontaneous touch is automatic and subconscious. Patting

someone on the back after learning that he or she won an
award is an example of spontaneous touch.
Ritualized touch is scripted rather than spontaneous.

Handshakes, high-fives, and fist bumps are examples of
ritualized touch.
Task-related touch is used to perform a certain unemotional

function. For instance, a doctor may touch a patient during a
physical examination or a personal trainer may touch a client
during a gym workout.
Voice(Paralanguage)
Pitch
Pitch is the highness or lowness of vocal tone.

We raise and lower our pitch to signal a question, to emphasize
ideas, and to convey emotions. We may raise our pitch when
feeling nervous or afraid.
Volume
Volume is loudness or softness of our vocal tone.
We lower or higher our volume according to our emotions and

specific environmental conditions such as background noise
etc.
Rate
Speed at which a person speaks.
People tend to talk more rapidly when they are happy,

frightened, nervous, or excited and more slowly when they are
problem-solving out loud, emphasizing an important idea, or
sad.
Quality(Timbre)
Quality is the sound of a person’s voice that distinguishes it

from others.
Voice quality may be breathy, strident , throaty, or nasal.
Intonation
Intonation is the variety and inflection in one’s voice.
Vocalized Pauses
Vocalized Pauses are extraneous sounds or words that

interrupt fluent speech. They are essentially “place markers”
designed to fill in momentary gaps while we search for the right
word or idea.
Examples: “uh,” “er,” “well,” “OK,” “you know,” and “like”.
Space(Proxemics)

Proxemics refers to how space and distance communicate
Personal space
Personal space is the distance we try to maintain when

interacting with others. It depends upon nature of relationship,
culture and individual preferences.
Territorial space
Territorial space is the physical space over which we claim

ownership.
As with personal space, we expect others to respect our

territory and may feel annoyed or even violated when they do
not.
Artifacts: Objects to mark our territory. For eg. A manager’s

office with a chair facing the manager across the desk
encourages formal conversation and signals status.
Acoustic space
Acoustic space is the area over which our voice can be

comfortably heard
Time(Chronemics)
Interpreting use of time. For eg. Going late on a date is conveys the
message of disrespect towards other person.
Appearance
Physical appearance is how we look to others and is one of the first

things others notice and judge. For eg. Clothing , Body Art and
other different grooming practices.
Helping aids
Visual Aids(Slides, Overhead projectors, Cards , Infographics,

images, Videos , Charts , Graphs and interactive boards.)
Audio aids

Guidelines for Improving Nonverbal Communication
Consciously monitor your nonverbal messages.
Intentionally align your nonverbal messages with your purpose.
Adapt your nonverbal messages to the situation.
Reduce or eliminate distracting nonverbal messages.
Interpreting Nonverbal Messages
Remember that the same nonverbal message may mean different

things to different people.
Consider each nonverbal message in context.
Pay attention to the multiple nonverbal messages being sent and their
relationship to the verbal message.
Chapter 6(Listening and Understanding)
-Hearing vs Listening
Hearing is a physiological process.
Listening, on the other hand, consists of complex affective, cognitive, and

behavioral processes.
Listening Challenges
Listening Apprehension
Fear that you might be unable to understand the message or

process the information correctly or be able to adapt your
thinking to include the new information coherently.
Listening Style
Content-oriented listeners
Emphasizes upon facts and evidence. Appreciates details and

complex messages with technical information. Ask questions to
gain even more Knowledge.
People-oriented listeners

Focus on the feelings their conversational partners may have
about what they are saying. Determines their emotions and
encourages them to use non verbal emotions.
Action-oriented listeners
Focus on the Ultimate point of the speaker and dislikes

unorganized pattern of speech.
Time-oriented listeners
Prefer Brief and hurried communications in a precise and to the

point way.
Processing Approach
Passive Listening
Habitual and unconscious process of receiving messages.

They only listen to some part of the messages and assume the
rest. It happens when we aren’t interested in some topic.
Active Listening
Active listening is the deliberate and conscious process of

attending
to, understanding, remembering, evaluating, and responding to

messages. Active listening requires practice.
Active Listening Strategies
It is a complex process of 5 steps.
Attending
Get physically ready to listen: Create a appropriate listening

environment, make a listening and attentive posture. Moreover,
remove distraction such as turn off cellphones and irrelevant
websites on your computer.
Resist Mental Distraction: Block irrelevant distractive thoughts

that might come from visual, auditory or physical distractions.

Hear the person out: Hear the person out regardless whether you
agree or disagree or he or she have used a word or term that might
have offended you.
Understanding
Identify the main point: Identify the Ultimate point of the

communication and identify what is the purpose of the speaker
speaking.
Ask Question: Questions get even more details and clarify word
meanings and your feelings.
Paraphrase: Paraphrase the important point that you picked and

also paraphrase your feeling regarding those point to develop deep
understanding and knowledge.
Emphasize
Empathy is intellectually identifying with the feelings or attitudes

of another.
Empathic responsiveness: occurs when you experience an

emotional response. For instance, when Jackson tells Janis
that he is in real trouble financially, and Janis senses the stress
and anxiety that Jackson is feeling, we would say that Janis
has demonstrated empathic responsiveness.
Perspective taking: occurs when we use everything we know

about the sender and his or her circumstances to understand
their feelings parallel to another person’s actual or anticipated
display of emotion.
For example,
Suppose Jackson tells Janis that he is in serious financial trouble.

Janis, who has known Jackson since grade school, understands
that Jackson was raised by parents who were very frugal and paid
their bills on time.
Sympathetic responsiveness: Feeling concern, compassion,

or sorrow for

another’s situation.
Example:
Janis has sympathy for Jackson when she understands that
Jackson is embarrassed and worried, but instead of trying to feel
those same emotions herself, she feels concern and compassion
for her friend.
Remembering
1. Repeat the information.
2. Construct mnemonics: A mnemonic device associates a special

word or very short statement with new and longer information.
3. Take Notes.
Evaluating
Evaluating is the process of critically analyzing a message to

determine its truthfulness, utility, and trustworthiness.
Separate facts from inferences
Differentiate between the literal facts and interference derived

from these facts.
Probe Information
Demand and encourage the speaker to delve deeper into the

topic in order to truly evaluate the message critically.
Responding
Responding is providing feedback.
Emotional support response strategies: Encourage, sooth, calm

and cheer up to talk about and make sense of a distressing
situation.
Constructive Criticism Response Strategies: When we simply

cannot agree with what a speaker says, our messages will be most
effective if they clearly demonstrate respect.
Formal Constructive Speech Critique Strategies:

-Use Facts, Logics and evidence to support your ideas.
-Focus on critiquing structure(Introduction, main points , transitions and
conclusion)
-Comment on use of voice(pitch, volume and rate) and use of body
language(gestures).
-Talk about Visual Aids.
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Chapter 5(Language-Interplay)
The nature of Language
Language Is Symbolic
Words are arbitrary symbols
Example: the word "five" represents the number of fingers only

because of agreement
Symbolic communication: sign language
Sign languages are different around the world
Communicating across different sign languages can be difficult.
Language Is Rule-Governed
Symbol-laden languages work because of agreed linguistic rules
Phonological rules govern pronunciation of words
Syntactic rules govern word arrangement and create different

meanings
Different dialects follow different syntactic rules
Semantic rules govern meaning of words
Pragmatic rules determine appropriate use and interpretation of

language in context
Relationship and setting affect meaning of a statement

Nonverbal behaviors help decode meaning
Pragmatic rules are unique to individual relationships
Personal codes can be misunderstood by others, so use wisely
Language Is Subjective
Precise language rules & everyone following them lead to fewer

misunderstandings
Different meanings to same message cause problems
Meanings are in people, not words.
Communicators need to establish a common understanding of

words used.
Language is a function of individuals & cultures creating and

sharing meaning collectively.
Language and Worldview
Linguistic relativity suggests that language reflects and shapes

worldview.
Bilingual speakers think differently when they switch languages.
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is the best-known declaration of

linguistic relativity.
Some languages have terms that have no English equivalent.
Words can shape the thinking and actions of people who use them.
Linguistic relativity can impact interpersonal communication

significantly.
Changing language can reframe how one sees a situation.
Words can affect how one sees the world.
The impact of Language
Naming and Identity
Research shows that names have a big impact on the way others
think of us, the way we view ourselves, and the way we act.

People with unusual names or unusual name spellings are often
negatively appraised and judged least likely to be hired.
However, unique names can also be seen as distinctive and

culturally significant.
"Fat talk" (speaking negatively about one's weight) can reinforce a

poor body image and lead to destructive thoughts and behaviors.
Engaging in fat talk is what has negative effects, not just listening to
it.
Replacing "I should" with "I will" or "I can" can help people move in
the right direction.
Establishing "fat talk free" weeks with friends can also be helpful.
Affiliation
Language can build and demonstrate solidarity with others
Communicators adapt their speech to indicate affiliation and

accommodation
Similar language styles increase chances of relationship continuing
Convergence is the process of adapting one’s speech style to

match that of others
Baby naming is an important decision that can shape identity

throughout life
One-sided convergence occurs when one communicator wants or

needs approval
Divergence is speaking in a way that emphasizes differences
Communicators need to be careful about when to converge or

diverge their language
Using ethnic or racial epithets when not a member of that in-group

may be inappropriate and offensive
Power and Politeness
Language patterns can communicate power

Direct and forceful language is seen as more competent, dynamic,
and attractive
Tentative and indirect language is seen as less competent and less

attractive
Swearing can serve communication functions but can offend and

alienate in formal situations
Disclaimers can increase negative judgments
Less forceful approaches can be attempts at politeness
Social rules often mask the real distribution of power
Politeness is valued differently in different cultures
Sexism and Racism
Sexist language differentiates unnecessarily between females and

males or excludes, trivializes, or diminishes either sex.
Sexist language can affect the self-concepts of women and men,

and it is a form of hate speech.
Eliminating sexist language can be done by substituting neutral

terms or marking sex clearly.
Racist language reflects a worldview that classifies members of one

racial group as superior and others as inferior.
Eliminating racist language can be done by avoiding offensive

labels and slurs and being aware of racial and ethnic modifiers
when describing others.
Precision and Vagueness

Ambiguous Language:
Language skill is important for clarity and making our ideas

understandable to others.
Ambiguous language can be amusing or cause misunderstandings,

some of which can be serious.

The responsibility for interpreting statements accurately lies with
the receiver.
Seeking feedback can help clear up misunderstandings.
Abstraction:
Abstractions generalize similarities between several objects,

people, ideas, or events.
Abstractions can be a useful kind of verbal shorthand in everyday

situations.
Overly abstract language can lead to problems like

misinterpretation or stereotyping.
Describing negative actions in abstract terms can make you appear

to have a hidden agenda.
Specific behavioral descriptions are much more clear and effective

than vague, abstract statements.
The Language of Responsibility
Language reflects the speaker's willingness to take responsibility

for their beliefs, feelings, and actions.
"It" statements replace personal pronouns with "it," avoiding

ownership of the message.
"But" statements can cancel out the thought before it and create
confusion.
"You" language expresses judgment of the other person and can

cause defensiveness, while "I" language describes the speaker's
reaction to someone's behavior, taking responsibility for the
statement without expressing judgment.
Assertive messages are composed of three different types of "I"

statements describing behavior, feelings, and consequences.
"I" language works best in moderation, and "we" language implies

shared responsibility.
Gender and Language

Extent of Gender Differences
There is a debate on whether men and women communicate

differently or similarly.
Approach 1: Significant Differences
John Gray's book "Men Are from Mars, Women Are from
Venus" claims that men and women differ in all areas of their
lives.
Some scholars describe males and females as members of

distinct cultures, with their differences arising primarily from
socialization rather than biology.
Communication researcher Anthony Mulac finds that men and

women use different types of language, such as sentence
structure, references, and language intensity.
Communication scholar Julia Wood acknowledges differences

in "feminine and masculine communication practices."
Approach 2: Minor Differences
Women were only slightly more likely than men to use tentative
speech in one meta-analysis.
Three other analyses showed negligible differences between

men's and women's language constructs.
Recent studies support minor differences in language use

across genders.
Non-gender Influences on Language Use
Gender is not the only factor that affects how men and women use
language.
Occupation is one such factor that can outweigh or mitigate gender

influences.
Power is another factor that can trump gender in language use.
Conversational styles in gay and lesbian relationships are more

strongly linked to power differences than gender.

Social power historically has been a bigger factor than gender in
shaping speech patterns.
There are some differences between male and female language

patterns, but they may not be significant and may occur for other
reasons.
Gender differences in language may be more visible in online

communication.
Social Media and Language
Online Language and Impression Management
Communication is an exercise in impression management
Text message errors can make the sender look bad, so it's
important to manage those impressions
Dating websites are all about impression management
Facebook friends try to put their best foot forward with strategic
language choices
Wikipedia contributors’ talk pages reveal language patterns related

to status and gender
Administrators communicate more formally while editors

communicate emotionally
Female editors are the most relationship-oriented, whereas male

administrators are the least
Executives attempt to manage impressions in the way they craft

their emails
Professional messages are less formal when written on

smartphones than on office computers, and mobile messages often
start without a salutation and go straight into business talk.
Online Language and Gender
Men and women have different written language styles

Men use more large words, nouns, and swear words; Women use
more personal pronouns, verbs, and hedge phrases
Women use more emotion words and first-person singular

pronouns; Men make more object references and swear more often
Gender differences in online language are more pronounced

among adolescents
Words used online reflect who you are and can leave lasting
reminders or consequences
Choose and use your words carefully, both online and in face-to-
face interaction
Chapter 11(Topic Selection and Development)
Public speaking is a sustained formal presentation to an audience
It can occur in face-to-face or online environments
Public speaking skills are necessary for many work-related activities
Effective speechmaking involves selecting a specific goal and

gathering/evaluating information
Topics and goals can be provided or determined based on the rhetorical

situation.
Determine an Appropriate Speech Topic and Goal
The rhetorical situation consists of the speaker, audience, and occasion
Effective speakers address all three in speech preparation and

presentation
Exigence: the reason the speech needs to be given.
Audience analysis and adaptation are important in effective

speechmaking
To determine a specific speech goal adapted to the rhetorical situation,

identify topics of interest and narrow down based on audience and
occasion.

Identify Potential Topics
Good speech topics from subjects of knowledge and interest
Subjects are broad areas of knowledge (e.g. cinema, energy, tech,

Middle East)
Topics are narrower aspects of a subject
Subjects
Subjects: Identify subjects by listing those that are important and

known about
Related to: Careers, major area of study, skills, hobbies, social,

economic, political interests
Example subjects: Marketing, skateboarding, snowboarding,

illiteracy, substance abuse, obesity
Brainstorm and Concept Map
Two methods for identifying speech topics are brainstorming and

concept mapping.
Brainstorming involves generating associated ideas without

evaluating them.
Concept mapping is a visual means of exploring connections

between a subject and related ideas.
Brainstorming and concept mapping can be used to identify

multiple speech topics related to a single subject.
Analyze the Audience
Analyzing the audience is important to tailor the topic and goal to

meet their needs, interests, and expectations.
Demographic data includes age, education level, sex, income,

occupation, socioeconomic status, race, ethnicity, religion,
geographic uniqueness, and first language.
Subject-related data includes the audience's level of knowledge,

initial level of interest in, and attitude toward the potential topics.

Data-gathering methods include conducting a survey, informal
observation, questioning a representative, and making educated
guesses.
Survey items include two-sided, multiple-response, scaled, and

open-ended.
Informal observation can help estimate the audience's age range,

gender ratio, and interests.
When speaking to an unfamiliar group, ask the contact person for

demographic and subject-related audience data.
Ethical Use of Audience Data
Collect audience data to tailor speech to their interests, needs, and

expectations
Avoid inappropriate or inaccurate assumptions based on collected

data
Pitfalls to avoid: marginalizing and stereotyping
Marginalizing: ignoring values, needs, and interests of some

audience members, leaving them to feel excluded
Stereotyping: assuming all members of a group have similar

knowledge, behaviors, or beliefs
Reduce chances of marginalizing or stereotyping by identifying and

acknowledging audience diversity
Diversity includes demographic and subject-specific differences
Collect subject-related data to avoid stereotyping based on

demographic data
Avoid making potentially inaccurate assumptions about audience

diversity.
Examine the Occasion
The occasion of the speech consists of its purpose and setting.

Questions about the occasion should guide topic selection and
speech-making process.
Questions to consider include the intended purpose, expected

length, location, timing, and necessary equipment.
The space affects the speech, and speakers should consider the
layout of the room.
Select a Topic
Compare each topic to the audience profile
Eliminate topics that are too simple or difficult for the audience
Eliminate topics that are likely to bore the audience
Consider audience's age range, ethnicity, and other demographics
Identify appropriate topics and perspectives for the audience
Write a Speech Goal Statement
General and Specific Speech Goals
Speeches aim to entertain, inform, or persuade the audience.
The general goal of a speech is the overall intention or purpose of

the speech, which can be to entertain, inform, or persuade, and
may include elements of the other goals as well.
The specific speech goal, or specific purpose, is a single statement

that identifies the desired response from the audience.
The general goal of a speech is usually determined by the

occasion, while the specific speech goal is determined by the
speaker's intent.
The specific speech goal should align with the general goal to
ensure a coherent and effective presentation.
Examples of specific speech goals can be informative, such as

educating the audience on a specific topic, or persuasive, such as

convincing the audience to support a certain cause or take a
particular action.
Examples of general goals: entertain, inform, or persuade.
Phrasing a Specific Goal Statement
A specific speech goal statement is crucial because it helps in

organizing the speech effectively.
The goal statement should contain only one central idea and not
multiple ideas to avoid confusion.
The use of the word 'and' in the statement usually indicates multiple
ideas, which should be avoided.
The goal statement should clearly articulate the intended response

from the audience.
The goal statement should be revised until it is specific and

captures the speaker's intention.
Primary and Secondary Research
Overview
To find the best information related to your speech goal, start by

assessing your own knowledge and experience.
Secondary research is the process of locating information

discovered by other people, through Internet and library searches
for books, articles, references, and websites.
If the information from secondary sources doesn't answer all your

questions, conduct primary research, which is the process of
collecting data directly from the real world.
Personal knowledge and experience can be used as examples in

your speech.
Secondary Research
Secondary research needed for adapting information for the

intended audience

Need to locate sources and types of sources to be used
Online sources are easily accessible but selecting the right

information is a challenge
Search engines are helpful, but need to evaluate information found
Different types of online sources include: encyclopedias,

commercial websites, nonprofit organizations websites, blogs, and
online social networks
Personal bias must be considered while using blogs and social

networks
Other types of sources include books, articles, magazines,

newspapers, statistical sources, biographies, and government
documents
Encyclopedias provide basic terminology for a topic but should not

be the only source relied upon.
Primary Research
Primary research: conducting your own study in the real world
More labor-intensive and time-consuming than secondary research
Can conduct fieldwork observations, surveys, interviews, original

artifact or document examinations, or experiments
Fieldwork observations: learn about a group of people and their

practices
Surveys: examination to get information about people's ideas and

opinions
Interviews: planned, structured conversation to get information
Original artifact or document examinations: view original

unpublished sources or objects
Experiments: design an experiment to test a hypothesis
Factual Statements, Expert Opinions, Elaborations, Diverse Culture

Perspectives

Factual Statements
Factual statements:
Verified statements
Can be verified through other sources
Can come in the form of statistics or real examples
Statistics:
Numerical facts
Use only reliable and valid statistics
Use recent statistics
Use statistics comparatively
Use sparingly
Statistics can be biased
Examples:
Specific instances that illustrate a general factual statement
Provide concrete detail to make a general statement more

meaningful
Expert Opinions
Expert opinions are interpretations and judgments made by experts

in a subject area.
They can help explain what facts mean or put them into
perspective.
Expert opinions depend on who made the statements.
An expert is a person who has mastered a specific subject and is

recognized as a knowledgeable and trustworthy authority.
Remember to cite their credentials when using expert opinions in

your speech.
Elaborations

1. Elaborations can be made on factual information and expert
opinions through anecdotes, narratives, comparisons, and
contrasts.
Anecdotes and narratives are brief stories that can capture

audience attention and should be relevant to the speech's main
point.
Good stories may be humorous, sentimental, suspenseful, or

dramatic.
Social media sites like YouTube can be a good source for

anecdotes and brief narratives.
1. Comparisons and contrasts are effective in giving meaning to new

ideas or facts.
Comparisons show similarities, while contrasts highlight

differences.
Comparisons and contrasts can be literal or figurative.
1. Quotations are useful when the information is well stated.
Quotations should not be too long or too numerous.
The source of the quotation should be acknowledged to avoid

plagiarism.
Diverse Culture Perspectives
Include a variety of cultural perspectives when identifying

supporting material
Purposefully search for articles written by experts of different

ethnicities
Use anecdotes and narratives to capture audience interest
Comparisons and contrasts can help give meaning to new ideas or

facts
Using quotations without acknowledging the source is plagiarism

Interviewing local authorities can boost confidence in accurately
reflecting multiple sides of a debate
Annotated Bibliography, Research Cards, Cite Sources
Annotated Bibliography
Annotated bibliography is a record of relevant sources with

summary of information and how it could be used in speech
It should include complete bibliographic citation for each source,

summary of pertinent information, and explanation of how it
supports the speech
Direct quotations that can be used verbatim(Exact words, no

interpretation) in the speech should also be included
Research Cards
Research cards for speech preparation
3x5 or 4x6 index cards
Record info, key word, source
Easy to find and rearrange
Sort and group related material
Cite Sources
Acknowledge sources in speeches
Enhance credibility and avoid plagiarism
Provide oral footnotes during speech
Include enough information for listeners
Chapter 12(Organizing your Speech)
Organizing, the process of arranging your speech material, is guided by

what you learned from your audience analysis.
Develop the Body

Identify 2-4 main ideas to achieve speech goal
Difference between 5 and 25-minute speech is extent of development

for each main point
List ideas related to specific goal and eliminate redundant, too

complicated or too broad ideas
Group similar ideas under broader themes
For example: Adderall as a prescription drug, its growing popularity

among college students, and problems with using it without a
prescription.
Word Main Points
To prepare the main points of a speech, first make a list of all the
ideas that relate to the specific goal of the speech.
Then, eliminate any ideas that the audience already understands,

have no supporting information for, or seem too complicated.
From the remaining ideas, choose two to four main points that will
be the framework for your speech.
The main points should be complete sentences and parallel in

structure to make them easy to recognize.
To ensure that the main points are clear and specific, ask two test
questions: 1) Is the relationship between each main point and the
speech goal clearly specified? and 2) Are the main points parallel in
structure?
Revise the wording of the main points as needed to make them

clearer and more specific.
Select a Main Point Pattern

There are four fundamental patterns for organizing a speech: time
order, narrative order, topical order, and logical reasons order.
1. Time order is arranging the main points in a sequence or by steps

in a process.

2. Narrative order is conveying ideas through a story or series of
stories.
3. Topical order arranges main points using some logical relationship

among them.
4. Logical reasons order structures the main points according to

reasons for accepting the thesis as desirable or true.
Write Thesis statement, Develop Main Points, Outline Speech Body,

Transitions
Thesis statement
A thesis statement is a one- or two-sentence summary that

previews the main points of a speech.
It incorporates the general and specific goals of the speech.
It provides a clear focus for the speaker and helps the audience
understand the purpose of the speech.
Example: "Social media has a significant impact on the mental

health of young adults, as it leads to increased feelings of anxiety
and depression, decreased self-esteem, and addiction.”
Develop Main Points
Main points in a speech should be supported by subpoints and

supporting material.
Subpoints elaborate on the main point and are developed with

evidence and reasoning.
Subpoints can be identified through research and analyzing

relationships between ideas.
A listener relevance link should be included in each main point.
Outline Speech Body
Develop each main point with subpoints and supporting material.
Subpoints elaborate on a main point and are supported by

evidence and reasoning.

Identify subpoints by sorting through research and finding
relationships between ideas.
Include a listener relevance link in each main point.
Construct an outline with main points, subpoints, and sub-subpoints

as needed.
Use three levels of hierarchy: main points (Roman numerals),

subpoints (capital letters), and sub-subpoints (Arabic numbers).
Most outlines propose 2-4 main points and 2 subpoints under each
main point.
Transitions
Transitions are important in public speaking to show the

relationship between ideas.
Section transitions are complete sentences that bridge major parts

of the speech and summarize what has been said and preview
what is coming up next.
Signposts are words or phrases that connect supporting material to

the main point they address.
Signposts can number ideas, introduce an explanation, or signal

the end of a lengthy anecdote or speech.
Section transitions and signposts help the audience follow the

organization of ideas in the speech and remember information.
Develop the Introduction
Get Attention
Creating an opening that arouses curiosity and motivates the

audience to want to know more about your topic is important.
Rhetorical strategies to achieve this include startling statements,

questions, stories, jokes, personal references, quotations, action,
and suspense.
Startling statements can shock the audience, and they are a good
way to get attention.

Questions can be rhetorical or direct, and they encourage the
audience to think about something related to your topic.
Stories are good attention-getters, but they need to be short or

abbreviated.
Establish Relevance
To keep audience's attention, establish relevance of speech to them
Offer a clear listener relevance link in the introduction
Personal connection between topic and audience is important
Use attention-getting statement that also serves the function of

relevance link
Answer why listeners should care and how they might benefit from
hearing the speech
Consider addressing listeners' needs and desires for health, wealth,

well-being, self-esteem, success, etc.
Establish Credibility
Introduction builds your credibility
Credibility is based on competence and character
Goal is to highlight credibility, not authority
Introduce yourself if no one else does
Establish credibility through respect for audience and occasion
State the Thesis
State your thesis in the introduction
Thesis is the main point of your speech
Audiences want to know what the speech is about
Develop the Conclusion
Summarize Goal and Main Points

An effective speech conclusion includes an abbreviated
restatement of your goal and main points.
For an informative speech, the summary should state the

informative goal and main points.
For a persuasive speech, the summary should state the persuasive

goal and main points.
Clinch
A clincher is a short statement that provides a sense of closure and

drives home the importance of a speech in a memorable way.
Two effective strategies for clinching are using vivid imagery and
appealing to action.
Clinchers with vivid imagery leave listeners with a picture imprinted

in their minds.
The appeal to action is a common clincher for persuasive speeches

and describes the behavior you want your listeners to follow after
they have heard your arguments.
Chapter 14(Oral Style)
Oral Style
Oral style: spoken word, different from written style, formal than
everyday talk
Adapt language to purpose, audience, and occasion
Establish a relationship with listeners, reflect a personal tone
Four primary characteristics of effective oral style:
1. Short sentences and familiar language
2. Plural personal pronouns (e.g., we, us, our)
3. Descriptive words and phrases

4. Clear macrostructural elements (e.g., main point preview, section
transitions, and signposts)
President Obama as an example of using effective oral style
Speaking Appropriately
Speaking appropriately adapts language to the needs, interests,

knowledge, and attitudes of listeners and avoids alienation.
Verbal immediacy reduces psychological distance between speaker

and audience.
Speaking appropriately enhances connection with audience through

relevance, common ground, speaker credibility, linguistic sensitivity, and
cultural adaptation.
Relevance
Listeners pay attention to personally relevant ideas
Highlight timeliness, proximity, and personal impact to make the

topic relevant
Information perceived as timely and related to personal territory is

more attention-grabbing
Present information that can have a physical, economic, or

psychological impact
Example of major league pitcher Chan Ho Park can add relevance
Common Ground
Common ground is the shared background, knowledge, attitudes,

experiences, and philosophies between you and your audience
Use audience analysis to identify areas of similarity and establish

common ground using plural personal pronouns, rhetorical
questions, and common experiences
Plural personal pronouns such as "we", "us", and "our" create a

sense of togetherness

Rhetorical questions can allude to shared experiences and can be
used in introductions and transitions
Drawing from common experiences by sharing personal examples

and illustrations can also establish common ground.
Speaker Credibility
Credibility is the audience's trust in the truthfulness of the speaker.
Some speakers are known experts in their field, while others need
to establish credibility.
Adapt remarks to demonstrate knowledge and expertise.
Common ground is the combination of shared background,

knowledge, attitudes, experiences, and philosophies.
Use personal pronouns, rhetorical questions, and shared

experiences to establish common ground.
Linguistic Sensitivity
Linguistic sensitivity is important for effective interpersonal and

public speaking communication
Avoid using generic language that excludes certain groups; use

plurals or specific terms instead
Nonparallel language, such as marking and irrelevant association,

can trivialize or offend
Offensive humor and profanity should be avoided in formal public

speeches
Casual swearing is common but should be avoided in public

speaking to avoid offending the audience.
Cultural Diversity
Language rules and expectations differ across cultures
When addressing diverse audiences, extra effort is required to

ensure understanding

Speaking in a second language can create anxiety and
miscommunication due to accent, mispronunciation, inappropriate
word choices, and misuse of idioms
Slowing down, articulating clearly, and using visual aids can assist
comprehension
Practice in front of native speakers to improve pronunciation and

word choice
Speaking Clearly
Speaking clearly means using precise words to convey meaning
Words are symbols that represent thoughts and feelings
Use Specific Language
Specific language narrows meaning from a general category to a

particular group.
A larger vocabulary makes it easier to choose specific words.
Speakers may try to impress by using pompous words, which can

lead to misunderstandings.
Use complex words only when necessary for a specific context.
Choose words that are familiar to your audience.
Choose Familiar Terms
Familiar terms are important to use in speeches.
Avoid using jargon, slang, abbreviations, and acronyms unless

defined clearly and central to speech goal.
Jargon is technical terminology of a trade or profession, limit use in

formal speeches and always define it in simple terms.
Slang refers to nonstandard vocabulary and can hurt credibility.
Overusing and misusing abbreviations and acronyms can hinder

clarity, define them the first time used in a speech.

Provide Details and Examples
Provide enough details and examples for greater clarity.
Limit Vocalized Pauses
Vocalized pauses are unnecessary words used to fill moments of

silence
Commonly used vocalized pauses are "like," "you know," "really,"

"basically," "um," and "uh"
They are referred to as "verbal garbage" because they do not serve

a meaningful purpose and distract the audience from the message
A few vocalized pauses do not hinder clarity, but excessive use can
be eliminated by practicing the speech aloud.
Speaking Vividly
Use Sensory Language
Sensory language appeals to senses
Vivid sensory language begins with vivid thought
Colorful descriptors make ideas more concrete and memorable
Re-creating senses (sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell) can help
develop vivid sensory language
Using sensory language can arouse emotions and maintain listener

interest
Example of sensory language: "The aroma of freshly-baked

chocolate chip cookies wafted through the kitchen, filling the air
with a warm, sweet scent. The cookies were perfectly golden brown
and crispy on the edges, but soft and gooey in the center. As I took
a bite, the chocolate chips melted in my mouth, leaving a rich,
decadent flavor." (This example appeals to the senses of smell,
taste, and touch to vividly describe the experience of eating a
chocolate chip cookie)
Use Rhetorical Figures and Structures of Speech

Rhetorical figures of speech make striking comparisons between things
that are not obviously alike:
Simile is a direct comparison of dissimilar things using the word like

or as.
Example: She sings like an angel.
Metaphor is an implied comparison between two unlike things,

expressed without using like or as.
Example: He is a shining star.
Analogy is an extended metaphor that makes a concept more vivid.
Example: Life is like a roller coaster, full of ups and downs.
Alliteration is the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of

words that are near one another.
Example: Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.
Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds in a phrase or phrases.
Example: The rain in Spain falls mainly on the plain.
Onomatopoeia is the use of words that sound like the things they
stand for.
Example: The bee buzzed by my ear.
Personification attributes human qualities to a concept or an

inanimate object.
Example: The wind howled through the night.
Repetition is restating words, phrases, or sentences for emphasis.
Example: We will not be satisfied until justice rolls down like waters and
righteousness like a mighty stream.
These devices can make a speech more memorable, but should not be
overused.

Final
Chapter 3(Intercultural communication)
Culture and Communication
Culture: System of shared values, beliefs, attitudes, and norms guiding

behavior
Values: Accepted standards of right and wrong, good and evil
Ideal values: Professed values(refers to a value that individuals or a

group claim to uphold or believe in).
Real values: Values that guide actual behavior
Intercultural communication: Communication between people from

different cultures
Culture shock: Psychological discomfort when engaging in a new

cultural situation
Transmitting culture: Culture is transmitted through communication
Modifying culture: Culture is modified through communication
Dining rituals: Culturally based practices around eating
Communication as a means of transmission: Communication is how

culture is passed on to the next generation
Communication as a means of change: Communication can change

cultural norms and practices
Dominant Cultures, Co-Cultures, and Cultural Identity
Dominant culture: The norms held by the majority group in a society,

reflecting the values of empowered individuals.
Co-culture: A smaller group of people with common values, beliefs,

attitudes, and customs that differ from the dominant culture.

Code switching: Altering linguistic and nonverbal patterns to conform
to the dominant or co-culture depending on the situation.
Cultural identity: Part of our self-concept based on association with

the dominant culture and various co-cultures.
Race: Classification of people based on physical characteristics,

although the term is now considered problematic.
Ethnicity: Shared cultural heritage that is learned rather than inherited.
Native language: Language learned from birth and influenced by

ethnic heritage.
Sex and Gender: Sex refers to biologically determined physical traits,

while gender refers to learned roles and communication patterns.
Sexual orientation: Refers to a person's romantic or sexual attraction

to others, with the dominant culture historically valuing heterosexuality.
Religion: Belief system with rituals and ethical standards based on a

common perception of what is sacred or holy.
Socioeconomic status (SES): Position in the power hierarchy based

on income, education, and occupation.
Age/Generation: Co-cultural orientations based on the experiences

and characteristics of individuals from the same generation.
Disability: Physical, emotional, mental, or cognitive impairment that

affects a person's functioning in society, leading to differently-abled co-
cultures.
How Cultures Differ?
Individualism/Collectivism
Individualism: Valuing personal rights, responsibilities, freedom,

and self-expression.
Collectivism: Valuing community, collaboration, shared interests,

and group harmony.
Context

Low-context cultures: Reliance on direct and specific verbal
messages.
High-context cultures: Reliance on indirect and ambiguous verbal

messages, along with nonverbal cues and cultural rules.
Chronemics
Monochronic cultures: Viewing time as a series of small units that

occur sequentially.
Polychronic cultures: Viewing time as a continuous flow and

being comfortable with multiple tasks and flexible schedules.
Uncertainty Avoidance
Low uncertainty-avoidance cultures: Tolerating uncertainty and

valuing unpredictability, creativity, and minimal rules.
High uncertainty-avoidance cultures: Having a low tolerance for

uncertainty, seeking control, and relying on formal rules and
predictability.
Power Distance
High power-distance cultures: Accepting and expecting unequal

distribution of power.
Low power-distance cultures: Preferring a more equal distribution

of power and valuing democracy and egalitarian behavior.
Masculinity/Femininity
Masculine cultures: Valuing assertiveness, competition, and

achievement.
Feminine cultures: Valuing collaboration, nurturance, and quality

of life.
Long-term/Short-term Orientation
Long-term orientation: Focusing on persistence, thrift, and future

rewards.

Short-term orientation: Focusing on immediate gratification and
fulfilling present needs.
Potential Barriers to Intercultural Communication Competence and

Solutions
1. Anxiety: Feeling discomfort and unease when entering an unfamiliar
cultural setting.
2. Assumed Similarity or Difference: Making assumptions that the norms
of one's own culture apply to a different culture or assuming that everything
about an unfamiliar culture will be different.
3. Ethnocentrism: Believing that one's own culture is superior to others.
4. Stereotyping: Perceiving everyone in a cultural group as the same
based on preconceived notions and generalizations.
5. Incompatible Communication Codes: Differences in language and
cultural variations that result in difficulties in understanding and effective
communication.
6. Incompatible Norms and Values: Conflicting beliefs and practices
between cultures, leading to potential misunderstandings and conflicts.
7. Acquire Accurate Knowledge: Gaining correct information about other
cultures through formal study, observation, and immersion.
8. Adopt an Appropriate Attitude: Having a genuine desire to succeed in
intercultural communication, being open-minded, tolerant of ambiguity, and
acting altruistically.
9. Nonparticipant Observation: Learning about a culture by watching its
members interact without actively participating.
10. Participant Observation: Learning about a culture by actively
participating in it.
11. Tolerate Ambiguity: Being prepared to accept and tolerate uncertainty
when communicating with people from different cultures.
12. Be Open-Minded: Having an open and accepting attitude towards
cultural differences and refraining from judging other cultures based on
one's own norms.
13. Be Altruistic: Showing genuine concern for the welfare of others and
being willing to understand and respect their cultural values and practices.
14. Develop Culture-Centered Skills: Adapting basic communication skills
to specific cultures, including listening, empathy, and flexibility.

15. Practice Listening: Being aware of cultural differences in listening
styles and valuing attentive listening in intercultural interactions.
16. Intercultural Empathy: Imagining oneself in the other person's cultural
world and trying to understand their experiences and perspectives.
17. Develop Flexibility: Adapting communication strategies to fit the other
person and the specific situation, making informed decisions and modifying
behavior accordingly.
Chapter 17(Persuasive speaking)
Persuasive Speaking
1. Persuasion: The process of influencing people's attitudes, beliefs,

values, or behaviors.
2. Persuasive messages: Messages designed to convince others to

agree with a position or take a certain action.
3. Persuasive speaking: The act of delivering persuasive messages in a

public speech.
4. Logos: A persuasive strategy that involves constructing logical

arguments using evidence and reasoning.
5. Ethos: A persuasive strategy that highlights one's competence,

credibility, and good character to convince others.
6. Pathos: A persuasive strategy that appeals to emotions to sway others'

opinions.
7. Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM): A model that explains how

people process persuasive messages, either through central
processing (careful evaluation and reflection) or peripheral processing
(relying on simple cues and gut feelings).
8. Proposition: A declarative sentence that states the position advocated

in a persuasive speech.
9. Proposition of fact: A statement designed to convince the audience

about the existence, truth, or occurrence of something.
10. Proposition of value: A statement designed to convince the audience

about the goodness, desirability, fairness, or importance of something.

11. Proposition of policy: A statement designed to convince the audience
that a particular rule, plan, or course of action should be taken.
12. Target audience: The specific group of people that a speaker aims to
persuade.
13. Incremental change: Seeking to move the target audience only a small
degree in the speaker's direction.
14. Uninformed: Not knowing enough about a topic to have formed an

opinion.
15. Neutral: Having basic knowledge about a topic but not enough to have
formed an opinion.
16. Apathetic: Having no opinion or interest in a topic.
17. Rhetorical strategies: Techniques used to appeal to logos, ethos, and

pathos in order to persuade the audience.
Rhetorical Appeals to Logos(Logic and evidence)
Rhetorical Appeals to Logos: The text discusses strategies for

appealing to logos, which is the use of logic and reasoning in
arguments.
Claim (C): The conclusion the speaker wants the audience to agree
with.
Support (S): The evidence provided to justify or agree with the claim.
Warrant (W): The reasoning process that connects the support to the
claim.
Inductive Reasoning: Arriving at a general conclusion based on

several pieces of specific evidence.
Deductive Reasoning: Arguing that if something is true for everything

in a certain class, then it is true for a given item in that class.
Syllogism: The three-part form of deductive reasoning.
Arguing from Sign: Supporting a claim by providing evidence that

certain events that signal the claim have occurred.

Arguing from Example: Supporting a claim by providing one or more
individual examples.
Arguing from Analogy: Supporting a claim with a single comparable

example that is significantly similar to the claim.
Arguing from Causation: Supporting a claim by citing events that

always or almost always bring about a predictable effect.
Fallacies: Flawed reasoning.
Hasty Generalization: Presenting a generalization that is either not

supported with evidence or is supported with only one weak example.
False Cause: Assuming a cause-effect relationship between two

events when there may not be a connection.
Either/Or: Presenting only two alternatives when other options exist.
Straw Man: Misrepresenting the opposing position and attacking the

misrepresented version.
Ad Hominem: Attacking or praising the person making the argument

instead of addressing the argument itself.
Rhetorical Appeals to Ethos(Credibility and ethics)
1. Peripheral route: A decision-making route where people rely on cues

and factors that are not central to the actual content or logic of the
message.
2. Ethos: One of the cues used in the peripheral route of information

processing. It refers to the perceived character, competence, and
credibility of the speaker.
3. Goodwill: The audience's perception of the speaker's goodwill, which is

based on their understanding, empathy, and responsiveness towards
the audience. When the audience believes in the speaker's goodwill,
they are more likely to believe what the speaker says.
4. Empathy: The ability to understand and share the feelings and

perspectives of others. It involves seeing the world through the eyes of
someone else without necessarily accepting their views as one's own.

5. Responsive: Demonstrating care and attention towards the audience
by acknowledging their feedback, including subtle negative cues.
6. Terminal credibility: The audience's perception of the speaker's

expertise and credibility at the end of the speech.
7. Initial credibility: The audience's perception of the speaker's expertise

and credibility at the beginning of the speech.
8. Derived credibility: The audience's perception of the speaker's

expertise and credibility during the speech.
9. Nonverbal delivery: The use of body language, gestures, facial

expressions, and physical appearance to enhance the speaker's
credibility.
10. Vocal expression: The way the speaker uses their voice, including
fluency, rate of speech, and conviction, which can influence the
speaker's perceived intelligence and competence.
11. Credibility: The overall perception of the speaker's expertise,

competence, and trustworthiness in delivering the message.
12. Supporting material: Information and evidence used to back up and

strengthen the speaker's arguments and claims, preferably from
respected and well-recognized sources.
13. Professional association: An organization or group of professionals in

a specific field that is regarded as impartial and reliable in providing
information and data.
14. Confidence: The appearance of self-assurance and competence that

the speaker conveys through their nonverbal behavior, such as posture,
eye contact, and delivery.
15. Casual attire: Informal or relaxed clothing worn by the speaker, which
can have a negative impact on their perceived credibility in persuasive
speeches.
16. Sloppily dressed: Wearing untidy or disheveled clothing, which can

reduce the speaker's perceived credibility in persuasive speeches.

17. Fluency: Speaking smoothly and without hesitation, which contributes
to the speaker's perceived intelligence and competence.
18. Moderately fast rate: Speaking at a pace that is neither too slow nor
too fast, which can enhance the speaker's perceived competence.
19. Conviction: Expressing oneself with confidence and belief in what is

being said, which can increase the speaker's perceived intelligence and
competence.
Rhetorical Appeals to Pathos(Emotions and connection)

1. Emotional stake: When we care deeply about a topic, we are more likely
to be involved with it.
2. Emotions: Feelings we have, like happiness, fear, guilt, or sadness.
3. Action-specific energy: Energy that builds up when we are preparing to
take a specific action.
4. Audience involvement: Getting the audience interested and engaged in
a speech or presentation.
5. Evoking: Bringing out or eliciting emotions in others.
6. Negative emotions: Unpleasant or uncomfortable feelings.
7. Fear: Feeling scared or threatened by a situation we can't control.
8. Guilt: Feeling bad when we have done something that goes against our
moral values.
9. Shame: Feeling embarrassed or regretful when someone we admire
discovers our moral violation.
10. Anger: Strong feeling of frustration or annoyance, often caused by
obstacles or personal insults.
11. Sadness: Feeling unhappy or disappointed, usually as a result of failure
or loss.
12. Positive emotions: Pleasant or enjoyable feelings.
13. Happiness or Joy: Feeling of positive energy and satisfaction when we
achieve something, have fulfilling relationships, or experience pleasurable
things.
14. Pride: Feeling good about ourselves or someone else's
accomplishments.
15. Relief: Positive emotion experienced when a threatening or worrying
situation is resolved.

16. Hope: Feeling energized and optimistic about the likelihood of
something good happening.
17. Compassion: Caring about others' suffering and being motivated to
help alleviate it.
Persuasive Speech Patterns
1. Persuasive speeches: Speeches that try to convince or change the

audience's beliefs or make them take action.
2. Propositions: Statements or claims made in a speech.
3. Statement of reasons: Presenting the best-supported reasons in a

logical order to confirm facts.
4. Comparative advantages: Showing that something has more value

than something else.
5. Criteria satisfaction: Seeking agreement on the criteria for evaluating

a proposition and demonstrating how the proposition meets those
criteria.
6. Refutative: Addressing opposing arguments, pointing out their flaws,

and supporting your own position.
7. Problem-solution: Describing a problem and proposing a solution.
8. Problem-cause-solution: Identifying the causes of a problem and

proposing a solution that addresses those causes.
9. Motivated sequence: Using a five-step approach to motivate the

audience to take action by highlighting the problem, solution, personal
application, and call to action.
Chapter 11(Conflict)
What is Conflict?
Conflict: A struggle between people who want different things and get
in each other's way.
Expressed Struggle: When people show or express their

disagreement or problem.

Interdependence: When people are connected and what one person
does affects the others.
Perceived Incompatible Goals: When people think they can't both get
what they want and someone has to lose.
Perceived Scarce Resources: When people believe there isn't enough

of something (like time or money) for everyone.
Inevitability: The understanding that conflicts happen even in good

relationships because people have different opinions and needs.
Destructive Conflict Patterns: Unhelpful ways of arguing that harm

relationships and make people feel bad.
Constructive Conflict: A better way of handling disagreements by

understanding each other, admitting mistakes, and finding solutions.
Types of Conflict
Dark side of communication: Negative consequences and harmful

behaviors that can arise during conflicts.
Ghosting: Ending a relationship or cutting off contact without any

explanation or communication.
Direct aggression: Attacking the other person's position or dignity in a

confrontational and aggressive manner.
Passive aggression: Expressing dissatisfaction indirectly, often

through subtle actions or comments.
Collaboration: Working together to find creative solutions that meet the

needs of both parties.
Compromise: Finding a middle ground where both parties make

concessions and receive partial satisfaction.
Competition: Approaching conflict with a win-lose mentality, where one

person tries to assert their own preferences or needs.
Accommodation: Giving in to the other person's needs or desires and

sacrificing one's own.

Avoidance: Choosing not to directly address the conflict and instead
ignoring or avoiding it.
Conflict styles: Different approaches or strategies that people use

when dealing with conflicts.
Conflict In Relational Systems
1. Conflict in relational systems: Conflict that occurs within the context

of relationships, influenced by the way people interact with each other.
2. Complementary conflict: Conflict approach where partners use

different behaviors that mutually reinforce each other.
3. Symmetrical conflict: Conflict approach where both parties use the

same tactics.
4. Fight-flight approach: A complementary conflict pattern commonly

found in unhappy marriages, where one partner directly addresses the
conflict while the other withdraws.
5. Demand-withdraw pattern: A complementary conflict pattern

characterized by one partner making demands and the other partner
withdrawing, leading to increasing hostility and isolation.
6. Serial arguments: Repetitive conflicts that revolve around the same

issue and require constant attention.
7. Toxic conflict: Destructive forms of conflict communication that can

harm relationships.
8. Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse: Destructive signs in conflict

communication identified by John Gottman, including criticism,
defensiveness, contempt, and stonewalling.
9. Conflict rituals: Unacknowledged repeating patterns of behavior that

emerge in relationships during conflict situations.
10. Positive spiral: A constructive conflict outcome where complementary

behaviors are positive, leading to resolution and positive changes.
11. Constructive symmetry: A conflict approach where both parties

communicate assertively, listen to each other's concerns, and work

together to find solutions.
12. Hostile communication: Communication characterized by anger,

aggression, and negative emotions.
13. Win-win outcome: A resolution that benefits all parties involved in a

conflict.
14. Third-party intervention: Involvement of a neutral third party to help

resolve a recurring conflict and provide a fresh perspective.
15. Rumination: Continuously thinking about and dwelling on negative

thoughts or experiences.
16. Conflict rituals: Repeating patterns of interlocking behavior in

communication that develop over time in relationships.
17. Repertoire of behaviors: A range of different behaviors and responses

that competent communicators possess to effectively handle various
situations.
18. Competent communicators: Individuals who have the skills and

abilities to communicate effectively in different contexts and situations.
Variables In Conflict Styles
1. Relational system: Refers to the unique communication patterns and

dynamics within a family, business, or classroom.
2. Conflict management: The way people handle and resolve conflicts in

their relationships.
3. Gender: Refers to the social and cultural roles, behaviors, and

expectations associated with being male or female.
4. Culture: The shared beliefs, values, norms, and practices of a

particular group of people.
5. Verbal showdowns: Intense verbal confrontations or arguments.
6. Gossip: Sharing rumors or information about others, often in a negative

or harmful way.
7. Backbiting: Speaking negatively about someone behind their back.

8. Social exclusion: The act of intentionally excluding or isolating
someone from a social group or activity.
9. Female aggression: Aggressive behavior exhibited by females, which

can be indirect and focused on social relationships.
10. Male conflict styles: The typical ways in which men approach and
handle conflicts, characterized by concerns about power and content
rather than relational issues.
11. Female conflict styles: The typical ways in which women approach
and handle conflicts, characterized by concerns about maintaining
relationships and considering others' feelings.
12. Stereotypes: Overgeneralized beliefs or assumptions about a

particular group of people.
13. Same-sex couples: Couples consisting of partners who share the

same gender.
14. Conflict patterns: Recurring behaviors and strategies used by couples

during conflicts.
15. Power struggles: Conflicts arising from traditional gender roles and
expectations.
16. Constructive conflict management: Approaches to conflict resolution

that are beneficial and lead to positive outcomes.
17. Openness: Willingness to have open and honest conversations about

conflicts and disagreements.
18. Avoidance: A conflict management strategy involving the avoidance or

suppression of conflicts.
19. Relational dissatisfaction: Feelings of discontent or unhappiness

within a relationship.
20. Mutually beneficial resolutions: Solutions to conflicts that are

satisfactory and advantageous for all parties involved.
21. Direct communication style: A communication style characterized by

explicit and straightforward expression of thoughts and feelings.

22. High-context cultures: Cultures where meaning and communication
are conveyed through contextual cues and indirect communication.
23. Low-context cultures: Cultures where meaning and communication

are primarily conveyed through explicit and direct communication.
24. Assertiveness: A communication style that involves expressing one's

needs, thoughts, and feelings in a direct and confident manner.
25. Collectivistic cultures: Cultures that prioritize the needs and goals of
the group over individual needs and goals.
26. Individualistic cultures: Cultures that prioritize individual needs, goals,

and autonomy.
27. Confrontation aversion: A preference for avoiding confrontations and

conflicts.
28. Face: The social identity, dignity, and reputation of an individual in a

particular culture.
29. Wa: A Japanese concept of harmony and maintaining peaceful

relationships.
30. Conflict aversion: A strong preference for avoiding conflicts.
31. Collaboration problem-solving: A conflict management approach that

involves working together to find mutually acceptable solutions.
32. Race/ethnicity: Refers to a person's racial and/or ethnic background or

identity.
33. Positive effect on relationships: The belief that conflicts can have a
constructive impact on relationships.
34. Withdrawn: Being reserved or retreating from conflict situations.
35. Relatively small differences: Minor variations or distinctions between

groups or individuals.
36. Respondents: Participants or individuals who provide responses or

answers in a survey or study.
Conflict Management in Practice

1. Define your needs.
2. Share your needs with the other person.
3. Listen to the other person’s needs.
4. Generate possible solutions.
5. Evaluate the possible solutions, and choose the best one.

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CPS NOTES COMPLETE

Chapter 1(Foundation of Communications)

Communication: Process through which we express, interpret, and

Messages : Verbal utterances, visual images, and nonverbal

convey thoughts and feelings.

Encoding: Creating messages.

Decoding: Interpreting messages.

Feedback: Creating messages in response of other messages.

Canned Plans and Scripts

Canned Plans: Mental library of scripts based upon previous

Scripts: A script is an actual text of what to say and do in a specific

Examples: Greeting people, making small talk, giving advice,

Communication context: Made up of the physical, social, historical,

Physical situation: Location, environmental conditions (temperature,

CPS NOTES COMPLETE 1

Social Situation: Quality of communication depends upon the nature of

Historical Situation: When a background is provided by previous

Example Scenario: Usman texts Queen Elizabeth II to tell her he will

Psychological situation: includes the moods and feelings each

to the encounter. Misunderstanding might happen due to changed moods of

Cultural situation: includes the beliefs, values, orientations, underlying

assumptions, and rituals that belong to a specific culture. There is a chance

formality in the interactions.

Intrapersonal communication: Interactions that occur in our minds

when we are talking to ourselves.

Interpersonal communication: Communication between two people.

CPS NOTES COMPLETE 2

Public communication: is delivered to audiences of

more than 20 people. Examples public speeches, presentations, and

Mass communication: Delivered by individuals and entities through

media to large segments of the population at the same time.

Communication process: Three different and interrelated

Encoding: Creating messages.

Decoding: Interpreting messages.

Interaction coordination: Trying to interpret the message.

Shared meaning: Occurs when the receiver’s interpretation is similar to

Factors to keep in mind before choosing technology-driven channels

-Media Richness: refers to how much and what kinds of information

-Synchronicity: extent to which a channel allows for immediate

CPS NOTES COMPLETE 3

Physical Noise: External noise from outside sources( Crowd talking

Psychological Noise: Internal thoughts and noises.

Develop and maintain the sense of ourselves

Meet our social needs

Develop and maintain Healthy Relationships

Communication is continuous. It never stops.

Communication is Irreversible. Once damage is done its done you

Communication depends upon setting.

Communication depends upon index of trust, control and Intimacy

Ethical communicator must show:

CPS NOTES COMPLETE 4

Bright Side vs Dark Side messages

Easy Dark: Dishonest messages

Hard Dark: Honest but damaging messages

Evil Dark: Disrespectful and dishonest messages

Credibility: Reputation of speaker regarding knowledge ,

Social Ease: Not having Anxiety while communication.

Communication apprehension: Fear or anxiety associated with real

Set Procedure for achieving your goal

Measure your progress

CPS NOTES COMPLETE 5

Characteristics of Nonverbal Communication