1

Introduction

• During the process of transforming traction energy to

kinetic energy, some loss is dissipated.
• Traction loss is the energy dissipated in on-board
electronic convertors and motors as heat.
• Traction energy subtracted by traction loss becomes
mechanical energy exported from motors.
• The parts of mechanical energy used for overcoming
friction and gravitational forces are defined as
motion loss and potential loss, respectively.
• Finally, the train obtains a speed and kinetic energy.

2
Principles of train kinematics

• Figure above indicates the forces on a traction vehicle located

on an uphill section of track.
• The tractive effort (F) applied to a vehicle is used for moving the
train against the friction force (R) and gravitational force (Mg
sinα) in moving the mass of the train uphill.

3
Principles of train
kinematics

• When the vehicle is braking, a braking effort is

applied to the vehicle, rather than the tractive effort.
• The direction of the braking effort is opposite to the
train movement direction.
• The train movement can be determined by standard
Newtonian equations of motion.
• In the longitudinal direction, the motion of the vehicle is
governed by the tractive effort, the gradient and the
vehicle resistance known as Lomonossoff’s equation.

Me = effective mass 4
Principles of train
kinematics
• The vehicle mass is the sum of the tare mass (empty
vehicle) and payload.

• When the train is accelerated linearly, the rotating parts

are also accelerated in a rotational sense.
• The rotational effect of wheels and motors should be
added into the linear train motion by increasing the
effective train mass.
• This rotational inertia is called rotary allowance and it is
expressed as a friction of the tare weight of the train

• The rotary allowance varies from 5%~15%, which is less

for a heavy body with a small number of motored axles.
5
Principles of train
kinematics

• The effective mass can be calculated as follows:

Me = effective mass
Mt = tare mass
Ml = payload
w = rotational inertia

6
 • A railway vehicle is supported by bogies, which in turn are
supported by wheelsets.
Principles of • The rigidity and damping properties of the spring systems
train kinematics provided at these points of support can significantly affect
the running performance of train.

7
Principles of train kinematics

8
Principles of train
kinematics

• The train moves in the opposite direction to friction

and aerodynamic drag.
• Train resistance consists of rolling resistance and
track curvature resistance.
• The rolling resistance is related to the train mass,
shape and aerodynamic characteristics, which is
known as Davis Equation.
• The Davis constant coefficients A, B and C are usually
determined by run-down experiments

𝑅 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑣 + 𝐶𝑣 2 9
 Davis Equation

𝑅 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑣 + 𝐶𝑣 2

• A is related to the axle load.

• B takes into account the quality of the track and the
stability of the train.
• C accounts for the aerodynamic resistance.
• A+Bv is generally referred to as the rolling resistance.
• Cv2 is the aerodynamic resistance.

10
Example – MRT2 train resistance
• Tunnel area resistance,
• Rt = (18.308+0.352V+0.00731V2)*W [N]
• Open area resistance,
• R0 = (16.181+0.2354V)Wm + (7.6492 + 0.02746V)Wt +
(0.27459 + 0.076492(n-1))V2 [N]

11
Example
Determine the tunnel resistance and open area resistance for the
train parameters as follows:
V = 100 km/h
W = 229.73 metric ton
Wm = 124.5
Wt = 105.3
n = 4 cars

12
Solution

Firstly, we simplified the equation into A+Bv+Cv2

Rt = 18.308(229.73)+0.352(229.73)v+0.00731(229.73)v2
= 4206 + 80.9v + 1.68 v2
Rt = 29.1 kN
Ro = 16.18(124.5)+0.235(124.5)v + 7.65(105.3)+0.02746(105.3)v +
(0.2746+0.0765(4-1))v2
= 4944+10.94v + 0.504v2
= 11.1 kN

13
Tractive Effort (TE), Rt, and Ro vs speed
Constant Constant Reduced
torque power power

14
Tractive force

• Zone 1 is characterized by
constant torque operation.
• The tractive effort (TE) is
maintained until the
vehicle reaches base
speed v1.
• The vehicle also reaches
the max power at v1.

15
Tractive effort

• Due to the power limitation in onboard system, the TE

decreases at a rate of 1/v in zone 2.
• This is constant power operation.
• At higher speed, there is a further reduction of TE at a
rate of 1/v2.
• This is caused by the motor limitation.
• The power decreases from the max power in zone 3,
which can be called reduced power operation.

16
Tractive effort

17
Train driving styles
• Train driving control can be generally categorized into 4 modes:
• Motoring, cruising, coasting and braking.

18
Motoring
mode

• In this mode, the vehicle is speeding up.

• The tractive effort is normally higher than the sum of
the effort by gradient and the resistance.

Me = effective mass of the train (kg)

M = The vehicle mass is the sum of the tare mass (empty
vehicle) and payload 19
Cruising mode

• In this mode, the speed is maintained, and the

acceleration is zero.
• The tractive effort is equal to the sum of the effort by
gradient and resistance.

20
Coasting mode

• In this mode, no traction power is required by the train.

• This is an energy-efficient driving style.
• The tractive effort is equal to zero.
• The acceleration is determined by the balance of the
forces produced by the gradient and resistance.

21
Braking mode

• In this mode, brake is applied to stop the vehicle.

• Both the tractive effort and acceleration are negative.

22
Motion simulation design
• A single-train movement can be modelled based on the vehicle
characteristic and route data.
• The route data includes gradient, speed limits and station
positions along the route.

23
Relationship between
distance, speed and time

• The tractive effort is assumed as a constant during

each time interval.
• The state of the vehicle including acceleration, speed,
position, and power at step i can be calculated as
follows:

24
Relationship between
distance, speed and time

The mechanical power required by the train is:

25
Electrical power
• The electrical power requirements can be transformed from the
mechanical power results as follows:

• The efficiency () refers to the whole traction chain from the
current collector to the wheel, which is around 85%.
• The negative mechanical power is the braking power.

26
Rolling stock and Overhead
Catenary Line (OCL)
for electrified railways
27
Rolling stock
• Rolling stock refers to railway
vehicles, including both
powered and unpowered
vehicles. In layman terms, it is
a train.
• For example, locomotives,
railroad cars, coaches and
wagons.

28
 • A bogie is a chassis or framework that carries a wheelset.
• Functions:
• support of the rail vehicle body
Boggie • Stability on both straight and curved track
• Minimizing generation of track irregularities and rail
abrasion.

29
Power systems
• There are 2 sources of power for trains: Onboard
or External.
• The onboard system requires the train to carry its
own fuel. E.g. diesel locomotive.
• The external power source system is electric. The
train collects current from the contact system that
can be provided in a few ways.

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 1. Overhead Catenary Lines

2. Third Rail
Contact
System
3. Fourth Rail

4. Maglev

31
Overhead Catenary Line (OCL)
• Overhead catenary line (OCL) also known as
overhead catenary system (OCS) or overhead line
equipment (OLE).
• OCL is a system used to deliver continuous
electrical energy to a stationary or moving train,
by mean of a sliding contact between on-roof
current collection equipment and a fixed
overhead supply conductor.

32
Overhead Catenary Line (OCL)
• The key requirement for any OCL system is to
provide continuous power to the train.
• For this to happen there must be continuous
contact between OCL and the pantograph.
• Loss of contact leads to degradation of energy
transfer and unwelcome damage to the contact
wire and pantograph due to arcing.

33
 Overhead Catenary Line
Common System

• 25 kV AC
• 50 kV AC Autotransformer scheme
• 1500 V DC
• 3000V DC

Advantage

• Reducing cost of power supply equipment

• Improved efficiency
• Easier to implement regenerative braking

Disadvantage

• More prone to failure

• Potential for EMI
• Expensive tunnel construction
• On-board transformer – larger weight

34
 Higher acceleration, meaning greater capacity on routes
with frequent stops

Lower rolling stock capital cost

Advantages of
OCL over Lower rolling stock maintenance cost
diesel traction
Greater reliability, due to smaller number of moving
parts

Smaller fleet requirements due to increased reliability,

since fewer trains are out of service for maintenance
 Reduced carbon emissions and pollutions

Lower energy usage through regenerative braking

Advantages of
OCLover diesel Flexibility of energy source (energy from national
traction grid)

Reduced noise and vibration, improving

passenger comfort levels

Lower track maintenance costs, driven by lower

track forces from lighter power units
Disadvantages of OCL
• High capital cost of installation
• Lack of redundancy in the contact wire
• Management of safety risk from high voltages

37
 6.7 kV AC twin
catenary simple
OCL on the
London, 1910

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39
Third Rail
Common System

• DC system lower than 1500V

Advantage:

• No impact of EMI
• Reduced maintenance cost
• Third rail has higher life expectancy
• Higher reliability

Disadvantage:

• Limited speed
• Shorter distance between substations

Video: Third rail

40
 Fourth Rail
Similar to third rail, except:
• Returning current does not flow in
running rail
• To reduce stray current flowing to
iron tunnels linings
Third Rail Voltage +420 V DC
Fourth Rail Voltage -210 V DC
Combined Traction Voltage 630 V DC

Examples:
1. London Underground
2. LRT2 (Kelana Jaya Line), Malaysia: 750 V DC
41
Non-contact System:
Magnetic Levitation
(Maglev)
• Two set of magnets: one to levitate the train,
one to accelerate the train.
• Maximum speed up to 600 km/h

• Some example of system in operation:

1. Shanghai Maglev, China
2. Linimo (Tobu Kyuryo Line), Japan
3. Incheon Airport Maglev, Korea

Video: Maglev
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43
Onboard equipment
• Compressed air – uses for braking, raising pantographs,
and powering automatic doors.
• Batteries – back up supply
• Traction motors – to power the train and regenerate
energy from braking
• Onboard transformer – step down the Medium Voltage
to Low Voltage
• Converter – to convert AC into DC or vise versa
according to the local requirements on the train
• Lighting and air conditioning
• Braking system – to brake the train

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Onboard equipment

45
Heat, ventilation, and air conditioning system onboard

46
 • When a braking force is applied to a train, the force must be transmitted
Braking to something such as rails.
• The braking force can be transmitted either through adhesion, which
mechanisms make use of friction at the point where the wheels touch the rails, or
through ways that do not involve adhesion.

47
Mechanical braking • 3 types of mechanical braking system: wheel-tread brakes, axle-
system mounted disc brakes, and wheel-mounted disc brakes.

48
Electric brake system
• Electrical dynamic braking converts the mechanical
energy into electrical energy via alternating the electric
motor into generator.
• The regenerative braking energy in electricity form will
then be either used directly onboard or being
transferred to the contact system.

49
Non-adhesion brakes –
aerodynamic braking

• Aerodynamic braking is a new approach

for highspeed train to brake efficiently.
• In aerodynamic braking, the surface area
of the brake plate is increased to increase
the operating resistance of the highspeed
train during the braking.
• The kinetic energy of the train is
propagated to the surrounding
atmosphere by friction effect.

50
Track

The track on a railway is

the structure consisting
of the rails, fasteners,
sleepers, and ballast.

New railway track on bed made of concrete

51
Track

• Track plays an important role as the

electrical interface with the traction
circuit, the signaling, and the ground.
• The signaling circuit uses the track as
part of the transmitter-receiver circuit
and the inductance of the track is
included in the calculation of the
resonance frequency of the tuned
circuits .

52
 Sleepers

• Sleepers are the transverse ties that are

laid to support the rails.
• They have an important role in the track
as they transmit the wheel load from
the rails to the ballast.

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Sleeper type

Short life rigid Less resistance

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 Track ballast
• Track ballast forms the track bed upon which railroad ties
(sleepers) are laid. It is packed between, below, and
around the ties.
• It is used to bear the load from the railroad ties, to
facilitate drainage of water, and to keep down vegetation
that might interfere with the track structure.
• Ballast also holds the track in place as the trains roll over
it. It typically consists of crushed stone, although other,
less suitable, materials have sometimes been used such
as burnt clay.

55
Quiz
Which of the following is NOT the contact system for railway?
A. Third rail
B. Fourth rail
C. Fifth rail
D. Maglev

56
Quiz
Which of the followings are the onboard equipment?
A. MV to LV transformer
B. Traction motor
C. Braking system
D. Way-side energy storage system

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 There are 5 broad categories of OLE systems:
1. Tram Systems.
2. Trolley systems
Categories of 3. Light rail systems
OLE system 4. Mainline systems
5. High speed systems

58
Tram systems

• Tram are mass transit systems, used to move large volumes of

people over relatively short distances at relatively low speed (up to
80km/h).
• These systems feature on-street running, tight radius curves, steep
gradients, short headways between trams and line of sight driving
(no signaling except at highways interfaces).

59
Tram systems

• Tram OLE system design is driven by the

need to ensure the safety of the public.
• The systems are low voltage (750V DC).

60
Trolley systems
• Trolley buses also provide mass transit to provide low-pollution electrified public
transport without the high cost and disruption of laying rails in city center.
• The system consists of an unguided trolley bus controlled and steered by a driver in
the same way as a conventional bus but powered via OLE which is usually suspended
from adjacent buildings.
• The lack of running rails means that traction current cannot return to the supply
point using the rail
• Therefore the OLE is a double pole system, with “outward” and “return circuit legs”,
and a pair of pickup poles on top of the trolley bus collect and return traction current.
• The double pole arrangement leads to additional insulation complexity wherever
routes converge or diverge.

61
62
Light rail systems

• Light rail systems are a step up from trams.

• They are also mass transit systems, situated in an around urban centers, but
they do not run on streets.
• The speed of the train are usually below 120 km/h.
• The train can be powered by overhead catenary line, third rail or fourth rail.

63
Mainline systems

• Mainline systems form the bulk of the OLE railway route mileage worldwide.
• These systems are mainstream traditional railways.
• The speed of the train can go up to 200 km/h.
• The traffic may be heavy and frequent, with a mix of passenger and freight.
• Standard supply voltages are 1.5 kV or 3 kV DC and 15 kV or 25 kV AC.

64
65
High speed systems

• Mixing passenger services with slower moving freight at speed above 200
km/h is not practical and safe.
• For this reason, high speed systems are usually dedicated to passenger
services.
• The service speeds are typically 300 to 350 km/h.
• The standard supply voltage is 25 kV.

66
China high speed rail

67
 • A pantograph (or pan) is an apparatus mounted on the
roof of a rolling stock to collect power through contact
Pantograph with an overhead line.

68
Pantograph

69
 Video: Railway Elec Part 2

Pantograph

• The head itself typically supports

one or more row of carbon strips
to interface with the contact line.
• Carbon is used because it has
good electrical and thermal
conductivity, it is self-
lubricating, and has a much
lower harness than the contact
wire.

70
 • This means that most of the frictional wear
is taken by the carbon strips rather the
overhead line electrification (OLE) system.
• In many high-speed pantographs, the
carbons are glued into an air channel, which
Pantograph is connected to a compressed air circuit. In
the event of loss of a carbon strip, air
pressure is lost, and the pan auto-drop
mechanism lowers the pan, thus reducing
the chances of damage to the OLE.

71
 Loss of contact and arcing caused by
hard spot from poorly adjusted dropper

72
Contact wire

The contact wire has 5 main requirements:

1. To transmit electrical energy along its length
2. To transfer electrical energy to the pantograph
3. To withstand the mechanical stresses placed on it by the tension,
environment and passage of trains
4. To withstand wear from the passage of trains
5. To facilitate connection for droppers, registration arms and electrical
connection.

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Contact wire

• Contact wire material selection is generally a balancing of the mechanical and

electrical requirements.
• The cross section must be kept as small as possible to keep weight down while
keeping the conductivity high
• However, materials with a higher conductivity usually have a lower tensile strength.
• Copper and copper alloy can meet these requirements.
• Copper will form a hard but conductive oxidizing layer when exposed to air.
• Alloy additives are added to copper to improve the mechanical performance.

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Contact wire

75
Conductor bar

• Sometimes it is not possible to

provide conventional OLE using
flexible contact wires.
• In these cases a rigid overhead
conductor bar is used.
• This takes the form of a grooved
bar designed to accept a
conventional contact wire.

76
Conductor bar

• Since the bar requires frequent support, it is more expensive

than conventional OLE.
• However, it has several advantages such as the lack of tension in
the system and the ease of contact wire renewal compared with
conventional systems.

77
Conductor bar – typical applications

• Tunnels where clearances are too small for conventional OLE supports and
conventional levels of uplift.
• Tunnels and stations where fire and public safety requirements are such that
a vulnerable tensioned system is not acceptable.
• Locations where OLE design is driven by aesthetic and architectural
considerations.

78
Catenary wire

• A catenary wire is used to

transmit electrical energy along
its length and to withstand the
mechanical stresses placed on it.
• For this reason, stranded cables
are used for catenary wire.

79
Catenary wire
80
Quiz
Which of the following is the function of sleeper?
A. As the electrical interface with the traction circuit, the
signaling, and the ground.
B. It is used to bear the load from the railroad ties, to
facilitate drainage of water, and to keep down vegetation
that might interfere with the track structure.
C. It is used to deliver continuous electrical energy to a
stationary or moving train.
D. Transmit the wheel load from the rails to the ballast.

81
Quiz
Which of the following is the function of track?
A. As the electrical interface with the traction circuit, the
signaling, and the ground.
B. It is used to bear the load from the railroad ties, to
facilitate drainage of water, and to keep down vegetation
that might interfere with the track structure.
C. It is used to deliver continuous electrical energy to a
stationary or moving train.
D. Transmit the wheel load from the rails to the ballast.

82
Quiz
Which of the following is NOT the advantages of Overhead
Line Equipment as compared to diesel traction?
A. Lower rolling stock capital costs
B. Lower capital cost of installation
C. Lower track maintenance costs
D. Lower rolling stock maintenance costs

83
Horizontal geometry of
pantograph
• The pantograph has a horizontal operating range.
• If the contact wire runs outside the limit, it could cause the
pan coming off the wire, and the pan will then rise without
restraint.
• The horizontal displacement of the contact wire from the
pantograph center line at registration points is known as
stagger.
• Stagger is required to ensure even pantograph carbon
wear and carry overhead line around a curve.

84
Contact wire (in red) staggered either side of track centerline on
tangent track

85
Damage to pantograph

• OLE is a very exposed system and vulnerable to climate, especially wind, snow and
ice.
• Hence, it must be capable of withstanding frequent electrical fault conditions
without degradation of performance.
• Due to the continuous contact requirement, the contact position is paramount.
• There is no redundancy in this part of the system.
• If the contact wire strays outside defined position limits, the pantograph will be
damaged.

86
Pantograph damage at 70 km/h

Video: Pantograph damage

87
Droppers
Droppers have two main
requirements:
• To hold the contact wire in
the correct position
• To withstand the unloading/
loading cycle created by the
passage of trains.

88
Droppers
• Traditionally droppers have
not had an electrical
function, but modern systems
use current carrying droppers
with suitable electrical
connections to improve
resilience to electrical
stresses.

89
Insulators

• Insulators are required to separate live parts of the system from earthed parts,
and to separate electrical sections.
• The insulators chosen for the system must meet the following requirements:
❑Sufficient electrical strength for electrical loads and faults
❑High lightning withstand insulation level
❑Sufficient mechanical strength for the location and use
❑Sufficient durability to withstand vandalism

90
 Shedded polymeric (plastic)
25 kV insulator

Insulator
91
Quiz
Which of the following are the categories of Overheat
Catenary Line system?

A. Tram Systems
B. Trolley systems
C. Light rail systems
D. Mass rail systems
E. Mainline systems
F. High speed systems

92
 • Various suspension systems have been developed
for the different performance requirements of OLE.
• The simplest OLE consists of a contact wire
suspended directly from support structures. This is
known as tramway or trolley OLE.
• Since there is no support to the contact wire
Suspension between structures, spans are typically limited to
40 m. For this reason, it is suited to only very low
arrangements speed (<30km/h) lines for tram networks.

93
 • The tram system can be improved by the addition
of a stitch.
• The support is transferred to the stitch wire, which
in turn suspends the contact wire. The stitch
creates some elasticity at the support and gives
good current collection up to 80km/h.
Suspension
arrangements

94
 • A simple catenary system has a wire suspended in
space describes a catenary curve under gravity.
• The contact wire is suspended from the catenary by
vertical droppers.
• This system gives better elasticity at the support
and is the simplest system adequate for mainline
railways.
Suspension • It gives good current collection up to 120 km/h.

arrangements

95
 • There are 3 options available for the speed of
more than 120 km/h.
• The first option modifies simple equipment to
use a pre-sagged contact wire.
• Rather than keeping the contact wire flat across
the span, a deliberate amount of sag is
introduced between the first and last droppers,
Pre-sagged typically of 1/1000 of the span length (the
distance between structures)
contact wire

96
Pre-sagged contact wire

• The purpose of the pre-sag is to compensate for the greater elasticity at

the midspan, since the uplifted contact wire position at midspan is closer
to the uplifted position at the support.
• This system has found favor in the UK and France.
• It works at all speeds, including the speed record holder of conventional
wheeled passenger train at 574 km/h by France’s TGV in 2007.

97
 • It is also possible to introduce a stitch wire into
simple catenary.
• the tension in the stitch can be set to reduce the
elasticity even further.
• This system is favored on high speed lines in
Germany, where it is used for speeds up to 300
Stitched km/h.

simple
catenary

98
 • A further development is the introduction of
a third-wire – the auxiliary catenary, also
called compound catenary system.
• This system is widely used in Japan, where
the high-speed Shinkansen lines make
extensive use of compound equipment at
Auxiliary speeds up to 300 km/h.
catenary

99
Tension arrangements

• OCL must be tensioned to maintain the contact wire height under gravity.
• Contact wire tensions run from 8 kN for slow speed systems, right up to
40kN.
• Typically, mainline systems run between 10 kN and 20 kN
• The tensioning arrangements must consider of the expansion and
contraction of the wires with varying temperature.
• A complete length of OCL will expand and contract as much as 1.5 meter
over 50oC temperature operating range.

100
Tension arrangements

101
Terminating
anchors

• Anchors are required

wherever a wire run is
terminated.
• They must be capable of
withstanding the
overturning moment
created by the tension in
the contact wire and
catenary.
• Balance weight maintain
a constant tension by
using a mechanical
spring.

102
Tension arrangements
103
Neutral sections
• An electrical break is required wherever different supply phases meet, or where
there is a change of system voltage as occurs at many European interfaces.
• At these locations, a neutral section is used.
• Neutral sections are found at feeder stations and midpoint sectioning locations.
The train must not draw power through the neutral section.
• For this reason, the train power is tripped off by a trackside Automatic Power
Controller (APC) magnet, which operates the train’s circuit breaker via a relay.
• When the train has cleared the neutral section, the breaker is closed by a second
APC magnet.

104
QUIZ
What is the main function of neutral sections?
A. To neutralize the metallic parts of the rail system
B. To isolate the contact system wherever the different
supply phases meet
C. To provide a common neutral connecting points for all
neutral lines
D. To terminate the neutral lines of the supply

105
Principle of a
neutral
section

106
107
APC magnet
 Neutral section
• A neutral section isolates
adjacent feeding sections in
such a way that they cannot be
bridged by the pantographs of
electric traction units.
• Some traction operators,
create neutral section units
with a coupling post (CP).

108
 • Single cantilver is the basic building block of most
OLE systems.
• it is designed to support one wire run over one
track.
• A single cantilever is cheap, easy to construct and
OCL adjust, and is the standard structure for use on a
two-track railway.
structure –
single
cantilever

109
 OCL structure –
double cantilever

• Double cantilever
provides support to two
wire runs over one track
at crossovers and
overlaps.
• The two cantilever arms
are separated along track
on horizontal spreader
channels to allow for
along-track movement
without equipment
clashing.

110
OCL structure – back-to-back cantilever

• Where there is sufficient

clearance, a back-to-back
cantilever may be used to
support wire runs over two
tracks.
• This installation requires less
materials than a pair of
single cantilevers.

111
Twin track cantilever

• If the foundation space is

only available on one side
of a two-track railway,
the twin track cantilever
is used to support several
equipment over two
tracks.

112
 • On heavy curves and complex junctions, it is sometimes
necessary to register the OCL without supporting it to
maintain horizontal geometry.
• These not supported structures are known as flying tail
structures.

Flying tail
structures

113
 • For railways with more than two tracks, it is not possible to
use single cantilever as there is insufficient space between
tracks.
• For this reason, the standard structure for a multi-track
railway is the portal.

Portals

114
 • An alternative to the portal in multi-track areas is the
headspan structure.
Headspans • This structure comprises two extended masts, with two
horizontal tensioned wires strung between them to locate
the OCL.

115
Quiz
Which of the following are correct about the neutral
sections?
A. Neutral sections is used as an electrical break wherever
different supply phases meet
B. Neutral sections are found at substations and midpoint
sectioning locations.
C. When passes by the neutral section, the train must not
draw power through the line.
D. The train power is tripped off by a trackside automatic
power controller magnet.

116
Signaling and train control
• Railway signaling is one of the most important
components in railway system. The main
purposes of railway signaling are:
❑To receive and dispatch trains at a station safely,
speedily and economically
❑To prevent conflict movement on trains
❑To increase line capacity for maximum utility

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Signaling and train control
• In the very early days of railways, there was no
fixed signaling.
• Drivers had to keep their eyes open for any sign
of a train in front so they could stop before
colliding it.
• However, practical experience proved that this
didn’t work because there was much difficult to
stop a train within the driver’s sighting distance.

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Time Interval System
• To increase the train driver’s stopping distance,
the time interval between trains was introduced.
• The time interval is also called “headway”.
• Signalmen were responsible for ensuring any
points were set correctly before allowing a train
to proceed.
• Red, yellow and green flags were used to show
drivers how to proceed.

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Time Interval System

• The time interval system created some serious

problems. Trains in those days were less
reliable and often broke down between
stations.
• The results was a series of nasty rear-end
collisions.
• Mistakes were made which led to accidents,
sometimes with fatalities.
• Other problems was the interval time was
reduced when they needed to run more trains.
• As a results, the number of accidents
increased.

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 • Mechanical signals –
Types of signals semaphore signal
• Electrical signals

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Groups of Signaling System

• Operating devices ➔ Mechanical (Levers), Electrical (rotary switches, push buttons,

etc)
• Operating equipment ➔ Mechanical (facing point locks, lock bars, level crossing gate
boom lock), Electrical (color light signals), Hybrid (electric motor driven semaphore
signals and color light signal are operated by levers connected through cables)

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Fixed signaling
• Fixed signaling was introduced to enhance the safety of the
train's operations.
• The basic rule was to divide the track into sections and
ensure that only one train was allowed in one section at
one time.
• Each section is protected by a fixed signal placed at its
entrance for display to the driver of an approaching train.
• If the section is clear, the signal will show a proceed
indication.

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Interlocking
• The concept of the interlocking of points, signals
and other appliances was introduced to improve
safety.
• This prevents a signalman from operating
appliances in an unsafe sequence, such as setting
a signal to 'clear' while one or more sets of points
in the route ahead of the signal are improperly
set.

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Interlocking
• Early interlocking systems used mechanical devices both to
operate the signaling appliances and to ensure their safe
operation.
• Beginning around the 1930s, electrical relay interlockings
were used.
• Since the late 1980s, new interlocking systems have tended
to be of the electronic variety.

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Block signaling
• Railways are provided with signalling primarily to ensure that there is
always enough space between trains to allow a following train to stop
before it hits the one in front.
• This is achieved by dividing each track into sections or "blocks“.

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The track circuit
• Nowadays for signalling purposes, trains
are monitored automatically by means of
"track circuits".
• Track circuits were first tried in the US in
the 1890s and soon afterwards appeared
in Britain.

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The track circuit
• Low voltage currents applied to the rails cause the signal,
via a series of relays (originally) or electronics (more
recently) to show a "proceed" aspect.
• The current flow will be interrupted by the presence of the
wheels of a train.
• Such interruption will cause the signal protecting that
section to show a "stop" command.
• Any other cause of current interruption will also cause a
"stop" signal to show.
• Such a system means that a failure gives a red aspect - a
stop signal.

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The track circuit
• The system is sometimes referred to as "fail safe" or "vital".
• A "proceed" signal will only be displayed if the current does
flow.
• Most European main lines with moderate or heavy traffic
flows are equipped with colour light signals operated
automatically or semi-automatically using track circuit train
detection.

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Track Circuit - Block Unoccupied
• A low voltage from a battery is applied to one of the running rails in the block and
returned via the other. A relay at the entrance to the section detects the voltage
and energizes to connect a separate supply to the green lamp of the signal.

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Track Circuit - Block Occupied
• When a train enters the block (right), the leading wheelset short circuits the
current, which causes the relay to de-energise and drop the contact so that the
signal lamp supply circuit now activates the red signal lamp. The system is "fail-
safe", or "vital" as it is sometimes called, because any break in the circuit will
cause a danger signal to be displayed.

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Equipment

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Equipment

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 134

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