Michelle A Cappetto Dissertation

THE IMPACT OF MINIMALISM ON HEALTH AND RELATIONAL
SATISFACTION: UNDERSTANDING MINIMALISM THROUGH A MEDICAL
FAMILY THERAPY LENS
A Dissertation
Presented to
The Graduate Faculty of The University of Akron
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirement for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
Michelle Cappetto
August 2020
THE IMPACT OF MINIMALISM ON HEALTH AND RELATIONAL
SATISFACTION: UNDERSTANDING MINIMALISM THROUGH A MEDICAL
FAMILY THERAPY LENS
Michelle Cappetto
Dissertation
Approved: Accepted:
_____________________ _________________________________
Advisor School of Counseling Director
Dr. Rikki Patton Dr. Varunee Faii Sangganjanavanich
______________________ ___________________________________
Committee Member Acting Dean, College of Health Professions
Dr. Heather Katafiasz Dr. Timothy McCarragher
_______________________ ___________________________________
Committee Member Acting Dean of the Graduate School
Dr. David Tefteller Dr. Marnie Saunders
________________________ __________________________________
Committee Member Date
Dr. Delila Owens
________________________
Committee Member
Dr. Ingrid Weigold
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my gratitude and appreciation to the MFT faculty for
admitting me as a student in 2017 and taking a chance on my research which was
uncharted territory for this field. Also, to my committee for looking at this project with a
sense of curiosity and interest. I’d also like to thank those who have supported me along
the way during this academic journey. To my friend and cohort member Eman. You have
showed me such kindness, support, and friendship over the past three years. It has been
an honor to learn and grow beside such an amazing person. To my parents Linda and
Mario for helping care for my dog during the long days where I was unable to be with
him. Your help with Petey during my graduate education, both times, made my success
possible. To my friend Jenny for her emotional support and spiritual guidance. You have
helped me in ways I cannot even express. To my friend Ariana for inspiring me to live a
sustainable and minimal life, ten years ago she introduced me to the work of Bea
Johnson. This sparked my interest in this lifestyle and led me to seek other perspectives
such as the work of Marie Kondo and The Minimalists.
This project would have not been possible without all of the generous people on
social media who were interested in my research and participated in my study. I was
overwhelmed by the amount of responses I received. Combining my love for marriage
and family therapy and minimalistic living in this research project has been a dream come
true. My collegiate education and doctoral research have sent me on a path of self-
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discovery and healing. I can say after almost ten years of education I now know the secret
to happiness and life satisfaction. Live simply, love authentically.
“Last but not least: I want to thank me. I want to thank me for believing in me, I
want to thank me for doing all this hard work. I want to thank me for having no days off.
I want to thank me for never quitting. I want to thank me for always being a giver, and
trying to give more than I receive. I want to thank me for trying to do more right than
wrong. I want to thank me for just being me at all times. -Snoop Dogg" -Michelle
Cappetto
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................................v
ABSTRACT......................................................................................................................x
SUBJECTIVITY STATEMENT......................................................................................xi
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................1
Minimalism: A Chosen Lifestyle............................................................................1
Overconsumption: A Materialistic Epidemic .........................................................4
Physical Health Effects................................................................................5
Mental/Emotional Health Effects.................................................................6
Hoarding......................................................................................................7
Happiness.....................................................................................................8
Anxiety and Depression...............................................................................9
Insecurity....................................................................................................11
Traumatic Stress........................................................................................11
Social Isolation .........................................................................................11
Relational Impacts.....................................................................................12
Materialism and Relational Satisfaction................................................................13
Significance for Marriage and Family Therapy and other Mental Health
Professions.............................................................................................................14
v
Medical Family Therapy............................................................................15
Research Questions................................................................................................17
Summary of Chapter 1...........................................................................................18
Definitions .............................................................................................................19
II. LITERATURE REVIEW..............................................................................................20
Minimalism: A lifestyle.........................................................................................20
Materialism................................................................................................23
Consumption .............................................................................................24
Stress..........................................................................................................25
Mental Health ...........................................................................................26
Relational Satisfaction...........................................................................................28
Conflict ......................................................................................................28
Physical Health..........................................................................................30
Happiness...................................................................................................31
Intersection of Materialism and Relational Satisfaction........................................33
Medical Family Therapy (MedFT)........................................................................36
III. METHODOLOGY......................................................................................................44
Research Questions ..............................................................................................44
Research Design....................................................................................................45
Participants.............................................................................................................46
Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria......................................................................46
Procedures..............................................................................................................46
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Measures................................................................................................................49
Demographics ...........................................................................................49
Demographic Survey.................................................................................50
Gender .......................................................................................................50
Race/ Ethnicity...........................................................................................50
Relationship Status.....................................................................................50
Relationship Length ..................................................................................51
Childhood Family Financial Status ..........................................................51
Current Financial Status...........................................................................51
Therapeutic Services .................................................................................51
Material Values Scale (MVS) Short Form ................................................52
Medial Outcomes Study 20- Item Short-Form Health Survey (SF-20) .....53
The Relationship Satisfaction Scale (RAS) ...............................................55
Data Analysis Plan.................................................................................................56
Missing Data .........................................................................................................57
Ethical Considerations...........................................................................................58
IV. RESULTS....................................................................................................................60
Data Cleaning and Screening.................................................................................60
Univariate Analysis....................................................................................62
Preliminary and Bivariate Analysis...........................................................63
Research Question 1..................................................................................65
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V. DISCUSSION...............................................................................................................70
Interpretation of Hypotheses..................................................................................70
Hypothesis 1...............................................................................................70
Hypothesis 2...............................................................................................71
Hypothesis 3...............................................................................................72
Clinical Implications..........................................................................................................73
Medical Family Therapy........................................................................................76
Mindfulness............................................................................................................78
Cultivating Change: Increasing Relational Satisfaction via Minimalism.............80
Limitations.........................................................................................................................84
Future Directions...............................................................................................................86
Conclusion.........................................................................................................................89
REFERENCES..................................................................................................................91
APPENDICES.................................................................................................................126
Appendix A Informed Consent ...........................................................................126
Appendix B Institutional Review Board Form ...................................................128
Appendix C Demographics Survey ....................................................................136
Appendix D Material Values Scale (MVS) Short Form......................................136
Appendix E Medical Outcomes Study (MOS) 20-Item Short-Form Health Survey
(SF-20) ................................................................................................................139
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Appendix F Relational Satisfaction Scale (RAS)................................................141
Appendix G Survey Debrief................................................................................142
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Descriptive Statistics......................................................................................................62
2. Frequencies of Covariates..............................................................................................62
3. Pearson Correlations between MVS and Dependent Variables.....................................64
4. Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Examining Association between MVS
and Relationship Satisfaction.............................................................................................66
and Physical Health............................................................................................................67
and Mental Health..............................................................................................................68
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ABSTRACT
Minimalism aids in the elimination life’s excess and allows for focus on the essentials,
happiness, fulfillment, and freedom. Benefits of a minimalistic lifestyle include
reclaiming time and the elimination of excess. Minimalism is a topic yet to be explored
by marriage and family therapists (MFTs). Medical family therapy (MedFT) is a
systemic, biopsychosocial model utilized to provide therapeutic services to patients and
their families who are experiencing or have experienced physical health problems. The
research question driving this study asks, how could benefits of minimalism be
understood from MedFT lens? Descriptives, frequencies, correlations, t-tests, ANOVAs,
and hierarchical multiple regressions were conducted to answer three research questions.
Results found that materialist values are a statistically significant predictor of relational
satisfaction and mental health. Additionally, results indicated that materialist values are
not a statistically significant predictor of physical health. Limitations of the study,
implications for clinical practice, and future directions are discussed.
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Subjectivity Statement
My name is Michelle Cappetto and I am a Ph.D. student in the Counselor
Education and Supervision: Marriage and Family Therapy program at The University of
Akron. I am a 31-year-old, white, heterosexual female from a middle-class family. My
main research interests are applying Medical Family Therapy to working with different
populations. Specifically, I am interested in clinical research, looking at what the research
can show us will be helpful within clinical practice. I am a Licensed Professional
Counselor and an Independent Marriage and Family Therapist. I utilize a narrative family
therapy approach in my clinical work. I have worked in different clinical settings such as
in home, school- based, hospital, clinical mental health, and private practice. I currently
own a private practice in Rocky River, OH, Healing Pathways Cleveland where I provide
therapeutic treatment to a variety of distinct individuals, couples, and families.
Although this a quantitative study where subjectivity statements are uncommon, I
believe my committee’s suggestion to include one is quite helpful and unique. The goal
of this subjectivity statement is to identify the importance of this study to me as well as
how reasons as to why this is an important topic to me may influence my work in
conducting this study. This is a lifestyle I subscribe to in my own personal life. Due to
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this, I believe since it is my preference to live such a lifestyle that I need to safeguard my
biases. To safeguard against my own biases that may come up during the process of
collecting and analyzing the data, my plan is to collaborate with my colleagues and my
dissertation chair, Dr. Patton. By discussing such biases and/or feelings, I will not only be
abiding by research ethics, but also be obtaining guidance on how to address my biases
within the different topics embedded into my dissertation.
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Minimalism: A Chosen Lifestyle
Minimalism is “a tool to eliminate life’s excess, focus on the essentials, and find
happiness, fulfillment, and freedom” (Millburn & Nicodemus, 2016, p. 26). If one
decides to trade the American Dream in for a minimalist lifestyle, it has been said that
you will get back your time, freedom, and overall life (Millburn & Nicodemus, 2015).
This lifestyle has been explained to stray away from a displeasing regime and on toward
a more authentic life of freedom (Uggla, 2019). Further, this lifestyle consists of valuing
voluntary simplicity (Uggla, 2019). Minimalism can have a plethora of effects on a
person’s life (Millburn & Nicodemus, 2016). A few of the benefits of this lifestyle
include: reclaiming time, the elimination of excess stuff, enjoying life, discovering
meaning, living in the moment, concentrating on what is important, pursing our passions,
finding happiness, doing anything we want to do, finding our missions, experiencing
freedom, and creating more by consuming less (Millburn & Nicodemus, 2016).
Furthermore, minimalism can be viewed as an individual tactic to coping with situations
of dissatisfaction (Uggla, 2019). The concept of minimalism has currently been a topic of
attractiveness in the media. Still, there are painstakingly few academic articles that
explore this topic (Uggla, 2019). The purpose of this dissertation is to add to the
extremely small pool of literature on minimalism, address the physical and mental factors
1
as well as relational satisfaction that impacts this type of lifestyle, and understand its
potential plethora of benefits through a relational lens.
Minimalism involves decluttering as well as owning fewer material items
(Millburn & Nicodemus, 2016). Owning less has been found to save money and time and
stand for a radical, anti-capitalist movement (Rodriguez, 2017; Uggla, 2019).
“Nonmaterialism refers to the lack of importance consumers place on material
possessions for defining their sense of self, success, or happiness (Richins & Dawson,
1992; Shrum et al., 2013), while voluntary simplicity refers to the behavioral limitation of
the ownership and acquisition of material goods out of one’s free will” (Etzioni, 1998;
Huneke, 2005; Peifer et al., 2019, p. 232; Shaw & Newholm, 2002). Through
decluttering, a person can focus on eradicating debt, changing habits, and formulating
better decisions with rarer resources (Millburn & Nicodemus, 2016). By removing things
that do not matter, people can allow for the most important aspects of life to be focused
on such as health, relationships, passion, growth, and contribution (Millburn &
Nicodemus, 2016).
“Voluntary simplicity is defined as the behavioral limitation of the ownership and
acquisition of material goods out of one’s free will (Etzioni, 1998; Huneke, 2005; Shaw
& Newholm, 2002) or what Cherrier, Black, and Lee (2011) refer to as intentional
nonconsumption” (Peifer et al., 2019, p. 234). Essentially, voluntary simplicity is a
choice people make to own less and contributes to minimalism. Nonmaterialism is an
example of an anticonsumption value whereas voluntary simplicity is an example of
anticonsumption behavior (Richins & Dawson, 1992). A minimalist lifestyle is a choice
which empowers a specific perspective on life (Rickly-Boyd, 2012).
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An ethnographic study discovered that existential authenticity in individuals is
consequential on traveling and related experiences (Rickly-Boyd, 2012). Thus, they
concluded that a minimalist lifestyle requires experiences to be placed value-wise above
items of any kind. Further, they concluded that this lifestyle as well as incessant travel
leads to autonomy (Rickly-Boyd, 2012). Another major concept of this lifestyle is that it
aids in the deciding of items that enhance value in people’s lives (Millburn &
Nicodemus, 2016). “Minimalist stories of lifestyle change present how the authors
narrate their lifestyle change by describing a previous unsatisfactory and stressful life, a
moment of awakening, and their new minimalist life, which is primarily characterized by
freedom and passion” (Uggla, 2019, p. 239). Furthermore, minimalism leads to positive
lifestyle changes for individuals who choose to make these changes.
The path towards a minimalist lifestyle can look very different. However, all
paths lead to the same place, which is a life with more time, more money, and more
freedom to live a more meaningful life (Millburn & Nicodemus, 2016). A study
explained that people pursue a higher income due to their hope of this false ideology that
it will increase their happiness (Kahneman et al., 2006). Millburn and Nicodemus (2015)
explained that individual’s needs, wishes, and technologies are always changing, thus, the
items that add value to our lives today, will likely not add value tomorrow. They go on to
say that this is the very reason people should be willing to let go of everything. This
notion of living minimalistically and being able to get rid of things is farthest from the
concepts of materialism and overconsumption. Minimalistic individuals may be
perceived to be executing practicality (Uggla, 2019). Practicality has a positive
connotation in the American society; however, it is also commonplace to overconsume
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materials. Thus, the contradiction certainly exists between living practically while also
being told to over purchase. Unlike minimalism, materialism holds vastly distinctive
views; the following section will discuss overconsumption and materialism.
Overconsumption: A Materialistic Epidemic
Materialistic values are central to American culture (Richins et al., 1982).
Materialism is theorized as a value that reflects the principle that possessions are
imperative in people’s lives (Richins, 2004). An article in The Wall Street Journal
(2011) stated that Americans spend $1.2 trillion annually on nonessential goods,
thus, all of this money is going to towards items they do not even need. The United
States (U.S.) spends a large amount of the world’s resources and numerous people have
advised the limitation of consumption is essential to avoid disastrous environmental
damage (Human Development Report, 1998). Further, 71% of American purchases are
expended on consumer goods and on average spend more on shoes, jewelry, and watches
than on higher education (De Graaf et al., 2014; Kaplan-Oz & Miller, 2017).
Materialism focuses on goals and values that subscribe to acquiring items, the
negative results following this has been gaining more attention from researchers (Kasser,
2016). Materialism and compulsive consumption are considered as the dark side of
consumer behavior (Moschis, 2017; Nickerson et al., 2003). For example, due to the fact
that materialistic individuals typically accentuate communications that encompass valued
assets like smartphones, a higher level of materialism might result in an elevated level of
reliance on communications technology (Lee et al., 2018; Roberts & Pirog, 2013).
The research published on the damaging consequences of communications of
materialism in the U.S. is predominantly between individuals living in low
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socioeconomic neighborhoods (Chaplin et al., 2014; Kasser, 2005; Schor, 2004;
VanderPyl, 2019; Williams et al., 2000). Materialism may contribute to the production of
negative consequences in individuals living in a mindless fashion and allured by the
longing for money (Wang et al., 2017). Youth are continuously overwhelmed with
messages of materialism (VanderPyl, 2019). Intriguingly, research has shown that people
who are materialistic are more likely to fall for marketing tactics more frequently (Ruvio
et al., 2014). Unfortunately, they are not offered the proper supports to cease these
messages’ job of encouraging or validating influence in delinquent behavior (VanderPyl,
2019). In addition, there are a plethora of health consequences associated with living a
materialistic lifestyle. The following subsections will discuss the physical, mental/
emotional, and relational impacts of materialism.
Physical Health Effects
The direct link between minimalism and physical health outcomes is yet to exist
in the current literature. Thus, this is one of the goals of this dissertation. However, the
physical health outcomes of materialism will be discussed to attempt to fill this gap.
Materialism has been documented as a noteworthy life value; therefore, substantial
scholarly research has been conducted to examining its impact on individual wellbeing
and consumption undertakings (Belk, 1985; Burroughs & Rindfleisch, 2002; Lee et al.,
2018; Rindfleisch et al., 2009). Highly materialistic individuals were found to have lower
satisfaction within the domains of their health and physical condition (Ryan &
Dziurawiec, 2001). An article has observed the behavior of compulsive buying through a
biological standpoint (Moschis, 2017). Specifically, the occurrence of this behavior has
5
been concluded to be the consequence of a disease or deficiency due to inadequate
development of the cognitive system.
An article that reviewed the literature on the impact of post-structuralism and
postmodern social theory in health sociology revealed a rise in new materialist
perspectives (Fox, 2016). The review yielded that the focus on materialism affects health,
illness and health care (Fox, 2016). The materialist lifestyle/behavioral paths had a major
mediating role in the relationship between socioeconomic position and health (Grundy,
DeStavola, & Ploubidis, 2011). Thus, this article implied that people with higher incomes
are able to purchase better food, better housing, live in safer environments, and have
better access to health care (Grundy et al., 2011). Work to improve an individual's
reported well-being should be viewed as a means of health promotion as well as a disease
prevention strategy (Siahpush et al., 2008). Much more research has been conducted on
the effects of materialism has on individual’s mental and emotional health, the following
subsection will discuss the pertinent findings.
Mental/ Emotional Health Effects
Various problems and negative effects regarding materialism have been discussed
in the literature, such as causes and costs of materialism, the behaviors and personality
traits of materialists, and moral considerations (Belk, 1983; Fournier & Richins, 1991;
Richins & Dawson, 1992). Materialism has been associated with low levels of gratitude,
empathy, as well as additional occurrences of conflict in relationships (Belk, 1985;
Kasser et al., 2004; McCullought et al., 2002; Puente-Díaz & Cavazos-Arroyo, 2015).
Materialism is considered to be a psychological state that is fostered in one’s early years
(Baker et al., 2013; Moschis, 2017; Richins & Chaplin, 2015; Rindfleisch et al., 1997).
6
Mental health costs stemming from compulsive consumption aligns with humanistic
psychologists such as Fromm (1976), Maslow (1956, 1970), and Rogers (1961, 1963)
whose work state that chasing ambitions based on extrinsic rewards, the conditional
approval of other people, and “having” rather than of “being” divert individuals from the
meaningful facets of life as well as potential lead to psychological pain (Nickerson et al.,
2003).
Improved psychological well-being was found to be a positive outcome of the
consumption of experiences versus to the consumption of materialistic goods (Muniz-
Velazquez et al., 2017). Materialism has been propositioned to be a predictor of
subjective well-being (Puente-Díaz & Cavazos-Arroyo, 2019). However, just because a
person believes something will contribute positively to their health does not actually
mean it will occur. Polak and McCulough (2006) insinuated that gratitude could
potentially be a substitute to materialism since it is supposed to have the opposite effect
on subjective well-being (Puente-Díaz & Cavazos-Arroyo, 2019).
The significance placed on material items are expected to lead to different
cognitive, affective, and behavioral outcomes (Kasser, 2016, Puente-Díaz, & Cavazos-
Arroyo, 2019). Actually, some neurological studies have been done to examine the
relationship between acquisitiveness cognitive processes and personality to begin
exploring the reasons why some of us over consume and find it challenging to discard
items (Wang et al., 2012). It would be difficult to speak to the relevance and vitality of
the mental/ emotional health consequences of materialism without discussing hoarding,
happiness, anxiety, depression, insecurity, traumatic stress, and social isolation.
Hoarding
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“Hoarding can be defined as having three components 1) the acquiring of and
failure to discard a large number of possessions that appear to be useless or of limited
value, 2) living spaces sufficiently cluttered so that the clutter precludes activities for
which those spaces were designed, and 3) significant impairment in functioning or
distress caused by the hoarding” (Steketee & Frost, 2007, p. 1). Studies have shown that
lower rates of marriage and higher rates of divorce exist between hoarding couples, thus,
exposing potential issues within these relationships (Stekee & Frost, 2003; Tolin, Fitch,
Frost, & Steketee, 2008). Furthermore, individuals who compulsively hoard hold
emotional attachments to their belongings when compared to people who do not hoard
(Steketee & Frost, 2007). In fact, these individuals appear to have extremely sentimental
attachments to items that are deemed meaningless (Steketee & Frost, 2007). Therefore,
the literature shows that hoarding is considered problematic to emotional attachment as
well as romantic relationships.
Happiness
Richins and Dawson (1992) extensively documented the that definition and
measurement of materialism is the link concerning the attainment of material goods and
the person’s end objective of being happy. In actuality, materialistic individuals tend to
be less happy as well as less satisfied with their lives versus individuals who are less
materialistic individuals (Dittmar et al., 2014; Martin et al., 2019). Individuals who report
higher engagement in materialism are not as happy as individuals who report lower
engagement in materialism Tsang et al., 2014). Similarly, studies have shown that people
who ranked highly in materialism were less satisfied with their life (Ryan & Dziurawiec,
8
2001). Relatedly, people that reported to be happier and more satisfied report to be
healthier (Siahpush et al., 2008).
Many researchers have argued that materialism and the quest for items is not the
cause but the outcome of dissatisfaction; further, that the desire to possess derives from
insecurities or profounder dissatisfactions with one's self and one's life (Braun &
Wicklund, 1989; Cushman, 1990; Fromm 1976; Richins & Dawson, 1992; Wachtel,
1983). Wang et al. (2019) found that consumption had strong negative effects
on happiness. Makant (2010) found that happiness can’t stem from material items as it is
something that can’t be bought or sold. Millburn and Nicodemus (2015) developed what
they called the, ‘The Consumption Continuum,’ which means when people give too much
meaning to the stuff they purchase, they then will think it will bring them happiness.
They went on to explain how this method sets people up for failure.
Anxiety and Depression
A meta-analysis was conducted to explore the relationship between materialism
and signs of mental health such as individual affect, anxiety, and depression (Dittmar et
al., 2014; Wang et al., 2017). This relationship could be damaged by specific
demographics (age and sex) and social (economic growth and inequality) factors (Dittmar
et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2017). Present-day research indicates that compulsive buyers
experience significant anxiety, a lack of pleasure or enjoyment in their lives, and utilize
substances in order to cope with anxiety (Harnish et al., 2019). Additionally, a study
found that lower self-efficacy and higher social anxiety may contribute to materialistic
individuals being more vulnerable to smartphone addiction (Lee, et al., 2018).
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Moschis (2017) studied materialism and compulsive consumption from a social
and behavioral sciences perspective by acknowledging maladaptive patterns that cause
such behaviors. Compulsive buyers experience increased social anxiety, alienation, and
lowered self-esteem versus non-compulsive buyers (Black 2001; King 1981).
Consequently, compulsive buyers may compulsively shop with the goal of enhancing
their social relationships (Harnish et al., 2019; Valence, d’Astous & Fortier, 1988).
Additionally. compulsive buyers may instinctively shop to preserve or improve their
social relationships (Valence et al., 1988).
Materialism was found to be linked to self-reported happiness and depression
(Muniz-Velazquez et al., 2017). An article’s results showed that individuals who place
greater value on wealth, status, and material possessions have an increased likelihood of
becoming depressed or antisocial (Bauer et al., 2012, p. 517). It is expected in society that
an increase in income will coincide with a reciprocal increase in subjective well-being,
however, it was found that negative psychological consequences, such as anxiety,
depression, lower self-esteem, and life dissatisfaction were typically the actual costs of
desiring financial success (Nickerson et al., 2003). Fortunately, romantic relationships
can mitigate to some degree the negative effects of depressive symptoms (Kouros &
Cummings, 2010; Morgan et al., 2018). Knowing that depressive symptoms may be a
consequence of a materialistic lifestyle, one can hypothesize a potential correlation
between these factors and relational satisfaction. Thus, there is existing research that
displays the significant link between mental health diagnoses and relational effects.
However, the link between relational satisfaction and minimalist lifestyles are still left
unexplored.
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Insecurity
The American society endorses materialism despite unintended effects such as
impaired self-esteem (Chaplin et al., 2014), insecurity (Richins & Chaplin, 2015) and
stress (Rindfleisch et al., 1997). It is assumed that these negative, unintended effects can
be relieved by attaining and valuing material possessions. A noted key positive predictor
of materialism in the literature is an amplified feeling of insecurity (Howell et al., 2012;
Kasser & Sheldon, 2000; Maslow, 1954; Pyszczynski et al., 1997). Additionally, when
people experience existential insecurity, it is possible they may become even more
materialistic in order to cope and circumvent self-awareness (Howell et al., 2012; Mandel
& Smeesters, 2008; Rindfleisch et al., 2009).
Traumatic Stress
Minimalism has been shown to reduce stress and increase happiness (Millburn &
Nicodemus, 2015). The gratification that comes from shopping does not offset
posttraumatic distress. In fact, maladaptive shopping behaviors rise alongside the level of
traumatic exposure (Somer & Ruvio, 2014). Further, materialism has shown to have a
negative effect by making traumatic events worse (Ruvio et al., 2014). More research is
needed to validate that materialism is a risk factor for coping with traumatic stress
(Somer & Ruvio, 2014).
Social Isolation
Research has validated various negative effects of materialism, such as loneliness
(Pieters, 2013), anxiety, stress, and depression (Burroughs & Rindfleisch, 2002; Kasser &
Ryan, 1993, 1996; Wang et al., 2017). Materialism has been revealed to employ an
unfavorable consequence on such aspects of mental health, particularly, social isolation
11
(Pieters, 2013). Social support and relationship quality are vital to an individual’s sense
of self and identity, particularly due to the quality of their social relationships having an
effect on both their emotional and physical health (Harnish et al., 2019; Suls & Wallston
2003).
People recounted being lonely preceding a buying episode (Faber & O’Guinn
1992). Researchers have recommended that extra attention be given to create social
support networks of compulsive buyers (Harnish et al., 2019). Additionally, these social
supports may be a safeguard against the social anxiety experienced by compulsive buyers
as well as aid in decreasing feelings of anhedonia and practice of substances to control
social anxiety (Harnish et al., 2019). Somer and Ruvio (2014) found that very
materialistic individuals seek more support from objects than humans in reference to
coping. Therefore, this may be contributing to their overall feelings of social isolation. It
was found that the emotion of ‘awe’ may reduce feelings of loneliness as well as aid in
overcoming materialistic tendencies (Kaplan-Oz & Miller, 2017).
This section reviewed the various mental/emotional health themes: happiness,
anxiety and depression, stress, and social isolation in reference to their intersection with
materialism. In furthering showcasing significance to this topic, various research studies
that all showed negative, some extremely harmful, effects on mental health derived from
materialism and overconsumption. The next section will discuss relational impacts in
regard to overconsumption and materialism.
Relational Impacts
Materialism has been linked to decreased levels of overall life satisfaction (Tsang
et al., 2014). This overall decrease in life satisfaction can potentially impact couples
12
within their relationship. Researchers found that materialism has a significant effect on a
family’s stress level (Roberts et al., 2005). Materialism also been found to have an effect
on an adolescent’s family stress level (Roberts et al., 2005). Further, positive partner and
parent–child relationships are linked to better health and well-being (Carr et al., 2014;
Chopik, 2017; Kim et al., 2014). Much less is studied on the relational impacts of
overconsumption and materialism than on physical, mental, and other harmful effects.
The effects that overconsumption and materialism have on individuals, couples, and
family is so unresearched that no systemic theory has ever even been utilized to
conceptualize it before. This further displays the need for more research as well as the
need for an applied systemic approach to this appalling problem.
Materialism and Relational Satisfaction
Romantic relationships embody a central aspect of social life which tend to be
bases of support, love, health, and wellbeing, however, may also serve a concerning
factor in life (Bradbury et al., 2000; Røysamb et al., 2014; Stack & Eshleman, 1998).
There is a negative connection between materialism and life satisfaction (Belk, 1984,
1985; Dawson & Bamossy, 1991; Kau et al., 2000; LaBarbera & Gurhan, 1997; Richins,
1987; Richins & Dawson, 1990, 1992; Ryan & Dziurawiec, 2001; Sirgy et al., 1995,
1998). “Our culture exerts a constant pressure on us that severs our relationship to
ourselves and each other” (Havrilesky, 2018, p. xiv). An individual’s marital satisfaction
is significantly correlated with their life satisfaction and happiness (Carr et al., 2014).
Further, both spouses’ perspectives on marital quality should be reflected as well as how
these perceptions are associated with specific behaviors, such as spousal caregiving,
which may augment the other spouse’s well-being. (Carr et al., 2014). Furthermore,
13
relationship quality factors, for example, loneliness, may be an imperative predictor of
compulsive buying (Harnish et al., 2019).
Studies that concentrated on relationship conflicts that focused on financial
matters found that conflicts habitually hurt relationships, foreshadowed a deterioration of
marital satisfaction, (Britt & Huston 2012) and projected surges of marital distress and at
times subsequent divorce (Curran et al., 2018; Dew 2007; Dew et al., 2012). Another
study showed that in investigating the effects of goals for financial success on satisfaction
had the highest significance in two particular domains: family life and job, which were
the strongest predictors of general life satisfaction (Nickerson et al., 2003). Thus,
showcasing how exceptionally vital it is to consider partners, children, and other family
members when conducting this type of research.
The driving force of this dissertation project lies within this very intersection of
minimalism and relational satisfaction. Due to the fact that no literature exists within
these two topics, the researcher will discuss the opposite of minimalism which is deemed
in this dissertation as materialism. The connection between materialism and relational
satisfaction will be discussed with the intent of focusing attentions to 1) physical and
mental facets and 2) systemic relational terms. As formerly stated, very few academic
articles discuss minimalism (Uggla, 2019). The purpose of this dissertation is the add to
the very small pool of literature on minimalism, address the physical and mental aspects
that are engrained in engaging in this type of lifestyle, and understand its potential
plethora of benefits through a relational lens.
Significance for Marriage and Family Therapy and other Mental Health Professions
14
Minimalism is a topic yet to be explored by marriage and family therapists
(MFTs). This chapter has displayed the consequences of living a materialistic lifestyle on
various matters that are of prime interests to MFTs such as mental/ emotional health,
physical health, and likely, most importantly, relational satisfaction. This researcher
believes that if MFTs understand the documented impacts of living materialistically has
on individual’s health, that they would have a more vested interest in this topic. Further,
this researcher speculates that living materialistically will have a negative effect on a
person’s relational satisfaction. Thus, this points to another major reason a MFT would
certainly want to pay close attention to this topic. It is hoped that the findings that emerge
from this study can be used to better understand minimalistic lifestyles and its impact on
physical and mental health and relational satisfaction and further contribute to research in
the field of MFT. The researcher hopes the findings add to the enhancement of future
treatment in MFT. Lastly, this researcher notes there has not been a theory that
systemically looks at minimalism or materialism. Thus, Medical Family Therapy is
proposed to employ such as task.
Medical Family Therapy
Medical family therapy (MedFT) is a systemic, biopsychosocial model utilized to
provide therapeutic services to patients and their families who are experiencing or have
experienced physical health problems (McDaniel et al., 2014). The distinctive systemic
viewpoint is exactly what demarcates MedFT from other biopsychosocial theories
(Finney & Tadros, 2019; Marlowe, 2011; McDaniel et al., 2014; Rolland, 1994; Zubatsky
et al., 2017). MedFT applies systemic family therapy principles from a biopsychosocial
15
approach to treat mental and physical health disorders in patients and their families
(Doherty et al., 2014).
“The goals of medical family therapy (agency and communion) through engaging
patients as experts of their own illness experience, facilitating a sense of control over the
different ways that they choose to draw support and cope with their illness-related
challenges” (Williams-Reade et al., 2014, p. 416). Further, MedFT’s goal is to support
the healing and well-being of clients (McDaniel et al., 2014; Zubatsky et al., 2017).
Medical family therapy will be used to address the unique needs of individuals and
families that are affected by overconsumption and materialism in this study.
MedFT has been applied to a variety of patient populations and diagnoses
(Tyndall et al., 2012). MedFT carries out various ideas espoused by early systems
theorists (e.g. Bowen, Whitaker, and Minuchin) that family therapy can be used to treat
both mental and physical health. MedFT has used a variety of ideas from many theories
with many central ideas coming from systems theories (Tyndall et al., 2012). MedFTs
can greatly contribute to the changing healthcare system because of their ability to
approach illness from a biological and psychological perspective. MedFT offers
guidelines on addressing how a person’s physical illness effects daily living and how to
cope (McDaniel et al., 2014, Tadros & Finney, 2019). MedFTs can also help patients and
family members better process their emotions and make rational treatment decisions in
the face of dismal outcomes (Doherty et al., 2014). Additionally, MedFTs can help
families and patients cope with terminal illnesses and death (Doherty et al., 2014).
MedFTs work with patients, their families, and other medical professionals to identify
relational factors impacting health and helps work towards potential solutions (Doherty et
16
al., 2014). Therefore, this study hopes to understand how living a minimalistic lifestyle
can aid in the simultaneous betterment of relational satisfaction, physical, and mental
health. Since this study is looking at relational satisfaction, the researcher hopes to find
ways in which physical and mental health can be enhanced to impact the whole system
by living minimalistically.
Research Questions
This dissertation is focused on answering an overarching research question with
three corresponding sub-questions. The sub-questions being asked will assist in the
understanding of the overarching question of this study. Hypotheses will also be provided
to showcase the researcher’s educated speculations of what the statistics will
demonstrate.
Overarching question: How could benefits of minimalism be understood from
MedFT lens?
Q1: Is there an impact between living a materialistic lifestyle and relational
satisfaction?
H1: There will be a negative impact between living a materialistic lifestyle
and relational satisfaction.
H0: There will not be an impact between living a materialistic lifestyle
Q2: How does living a materialistic lifestyle impact an individual’s physical
health?
H1: Living a materialistic lifestyle will negatively impact an individual’s physical
health.
17
H0: Living a materialistic lifestyle will positively impact an individual’s physical
health.
Q3: How does living a materialistic lifestyle impact an individual’s mental
health?
H1: Living a materialistic lifestyle will negatively impact an individual’s mental
health.
H0: Living a materialistic lifestyle will positively impact an individual’s mental
health.
Summary of Chapter 1
Chapter one introduced the significance of this topic. Chapter one explained that
minimalism is a concept that is severely under researched. Interestingly, materialism has
much more literature and be utilized to understand negative impacts on individuals who
engage in this particular lifestyle. Chapter one also introduced MedFT which will be
utilized to understand minimalism and relational satisfaction. Also, Chapter one also
specified a list of operational definitions utilized throughout this dissertation. This was
provided to avoid any misunderstanding as there are several different definitions for some
of the words as well as to ensure transparency. This chapter highlighted the need for
greater exploration into the literature on the proposed issues. Unfortunately, some of the
articles discussed in chapter one did not use U.S. samples. Therefore, although they were
utilized to showcase the significance of this topic, they will not be able to be reviewed for
the literature review. The primary reason for this is to remain consistent with American
values throughout the literature as with the actual study to be conducted in this
18
dissertation. American values are quite distinct from those of other cultures; thus, the
researcher would like to acknowledge that by only including such studies for review.
Chapter two will review the literature surrounding major variables of the proposed
dissertation. The following chapter will delve into concepts introduced in chapter one as
well as fully define and outline prior research conducted on minimalism and relational
satisfaction. Further, MedFT will be reviewed and conceptualized in terms of the major
topics of this study to fully utilize a systemic lens within said subjects.
Definitions
Materialism. “Defining materialism as a value is consistent with the notion that

materialism reflects the importance a person places on possessions and their acquisition
as a necessary or desirable form of conduct to reach desired end states, including
happiness.” (Richins & Dawson, 1992, p. 307).
Minimalism. “A tool to eliminate life’s excess, focus on the essentials, and find
happiness, fulfillment, and freedom” (Millburn & Nicodemus, 2016, p. 26).
Relational satisfaction. “A partner’s subjective and global evaluation of a romantic

relationship” (Funk & Rogge, 2007; Raffagnino & Matera, 2015, p. 323).
19
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
For years now, materialism has been a topic of attention to consumer researchers
(Baker et al., 2013). However, minimalism is a relatively new topic within the literature
and has yet to be fully examined, particularly its impact on relational satisfaction. The
intersection between minimalism and relational satisfaction has been investigated very
marginally in the current literature. In addition, a systemic lens has never been applied to
these topics prior to this dissertation. The goal of this literature review is to begin
examining how minimalism is defined and how it is connected with relational happiness
within couples through a systemic lens. This literature review will be organized by the
major themes found in the literature: minimalism, relational satisfaction, the intersection
of materialism and relational satisfaction, and Medical Family Therapy. These major
themes were analyzed by conducting a thorough review of the research with a curious
lens into learning about this topic from a very broad to specific scope. Therefore, these
major themes will be organized by smaller, yet important, subthemes of the literature.
Minimalism: A Lifestyle
Minimalization, in mathematics and theoretical computer science, is an
imperative and a typically utilized methodology to generate readable and unambiguous
formulae (Cornell, 1997; Obendorf, 2009). There are various different meanings for the
term, “minimalism,” depending on the subject being examined. For the purposes of this
dissertation, the definition that seems most fitting was constructed by famous
20
minimalists, Joshua Fields Millburn and Ryan Nicodemus. The definition states that,
“minimalism is a tool to eliminate life’s excess, focus on the essentials, and find
happiness, fulfillment, and freedom” (Millburn & Nicodemus, 2016, p. 26). Utilizing this
definition for minimalism for this dissertation is most appropriate. This section will
review the published literature on a minimalist lifestyle.
Minimalist experts Joshua Fields Millburn and Ryan Nicodemus wrote the book,
Minimalism: Live a Meaningful Life, which discusses the journey of two best friends at
30 years old making major life changes to improve their life satisfaction. “The point is
that minimalism is a tool to help you achieve freedom” (Millburn & Nicodemus, 2016, p.
25). They explained that minimalism causes people to get rid of some things to then make
room for life's most important things. These important things in life are identified as:
health, relationships, passion, growth, and contribution. The book explains how they were
able to discover their true passions by quitting their high paying jobs and simplifying
their lives. Authors discussed how their previous lifestyles led to consequences such as
debt, depression, and discontent. The authors also emphasize that people should tolerate,
accept, respect, and appreciate. They go on to say that if one does these things, their
relationships will be more positive, and they’ll gain a deeper understanding of people.
The authors main focus is to showcase that minimalism is a lifestyle choice and
minimalists search for happiness not through things but through actual life itself
(Millburn & Nicodemus, 2016).
Meissner (2019) discussed the impact of post-2008 financial crisis era on
economic productivity and consumption. The article utilized Kate Soper’s concept of
‘alternative hedonism,’ to explore a collection of five self-help books and a blog that
21
encourages the minimalism lifestyle. Additionally, the article uses post-ecological theory,
which claims narratives of minimalist lifestyle are inconsistent in that they attack but
simultaneously promote capitalist cultures of progression. Some narratives argued
principles of economic productivity, which promoted the ethics of minimalism. Other
narratives provided lifestyle guidance on living simplistically, de-cluttering, and
communication. The article’s conclusions highlight the possibility of an eco-movement
that connects the alternative culture of minimalist pleasure-seeking with the eco-political
program of de-growth (Meissner, 2019). Further, the article postulates different
perspectives in reference to minimalism and the current political state post-2008. It is
vital to discuss articles that provide a holistic view on the topic at hand.
Uggla (2019) studied the main concepts of minimalism by studying the writing of
American bloggers and authors. The purpose of the paper was to gain an in-depth
perspective of the ideology of a minimalistic lifestyle. Findings displayed that a lifestyle
change was typically caused by discontent that was felt in their lives. Findings displayed
that minimalism was found to be freeing and lead to autonomy. It was discussed that the
formula for beginning to lead this type of lifestyle is to start with the material possessions
and then proceed on to other areas in their life. Researchers also rationalized that
materialism seems to be a negative outcome of an individualized society as well as the
unclear center of power in social acceleration (Uggla, 2019).
Hausen (2018) conducted a study with the goal of understanding how individuals
implement a minimalist lifestyle. The researcher discussed that our society runs under the
assumption that owning the items one believes they should have, will bring upon
happiness. Prior literature supported that overconsumption does not lead to health and
22
well-being. Dialogical Self Theory (DST) was utilized to aid in the understanding of the
decision-making process in the shift from a materialist to a minimalist lifestyle. The
article found that guidance from oneself and dialogical relations of I-positions helped
with the changeover to a minimalist lifestyle (Hausen, 2018).
This overview of the literature of minimalism included the definition of
minimalism for the purposes of this study. The above also discusses minimalism as a
lifestyle, particularly, that it is a chosen way to live by individuals who seek freedom.
The sub-headers for this section naturally emerged from the literature review on
minimalism. Materialism, arguably the opposite of minimalism, yielded a much richer
search as well as several sub-themes: consumption, stress, and mental health. Materialism
will first be defined and broadly reviewed followed by the emergent themes in the
literature. While the literature on minimalism did consistently show the link between
minimalism and individual well-being, there is a clear dearth of literature examining the
association between minimalism and relational satisfaction.
Materialism
There are several definitions for materialism in the literature. A few that fit the
need of the current study will be provided. One definition for materialism is "a mind-set...
an interest in getting and spending" (Rassuli & Hollander 1986, p. 10). Another definition
for materialism by Belk (1984) is, "the importance a consumer attaches to worldly
possessions" (p. 291). An additional definition states, “Materialism can be defined as a
value system that is preoccupied with possessions and the social image they project”
(Bauer et al., 2012). All of those definitions seem fitting and appropriate. However, for
the purposes of this study, the definition of materialism by Richins and Dawson will be
23
utilized as it appears to fit best for this particular study: “Defining materialism as a value
is consistent with the notion that materialism reflects the importance a person places on
possessions and their acquisition as a necessary or desirable form of conduct to reach
desired end states, including happiness” (Richins & Dawson, 1992, p. 307). Therefore,
the researcher urges that this definition be utilized when conceptualizing systemically
moving forward.
Richins and Dawson (1992) created a values-oriented materialism scale with three
components: acquisition centrality, acquisition as the pursuit of happiness, and
possession-defined success. By conducting validation tests, they found that high scorers
of materialistic values wanted a higher level of income, placed greater stress on financial
security and less on interpersonal relationships, desired to spend more on themselves and
less on others, engaged in fewer voluntary simplicity behaviors, and were less satisfied
with their lives. Thus, researchers have claimed that the search for happiness through
goods is fated to result in dissatisfaction (Leiss 1976; Richins & Dawson, 1992).
Additionally, it is important to consider existing research examining the relationship
between materialism and life satisfaction in order to more thoroughly understand the role
of minimalism in life satisfaction. There are several themes prevalent in the materialism
literature, these include: consumption, stress, and mental health.
Consumption
Makrant (2010) asserted that in a culture of consumerism, individuals pursue
gratification and happiness through consumption. Additionally, the article explained how
having the power to purchase what one wants is at times confused for freedom. The
researcher brought a new perspective through a religious lens about consumerism.
24
Christianity operates under the concept that faith and community is the true source of
happiness. The article postulates that consumerism sells people a false God and that
happiness cannot be purchased (Makrant, 2010).
Researchers Otero-López et al. (2011) explored the relation between materialism,
life satisfaction, and addictive buying. The purpose of their study was to discover a
mediating factor of life satisfaction when looking at the relationship between materialism
and addictive buying. Using structural equation analysis with a sample of 469 women,
results of the study showcased that life satisfaction is seen to be obtained by dimensions
of success and happiness when engaging in addictive buying. The researchers determined
that the mediating role of life satisfaction in a materialist lifestyle is addictive buying
practices. Researchers suggest looking into a more direct channel amongst significance
and addictive buying (Otero-López et al., 2011). Various researchers posit that
consumption is an undertaking of production, meaning as individuals consume, they are
producing a specific life (de Certeau 1984; Hall 1977; Hebdige 1979; Ozanne et al.,
1998; Willis 1978, 1990). The following subsection will discuss the current literature on
materialism and stress.
Stress
Durante and Laran (2016) studied the phenomenon of stress in reference to
consumer saving and spending. Series of seven experiments displayed that consumers
who endure stress utilize saving and spending as a means of gaining control. It was
explained that consumers enduring stress could engage increased saving behavior, this
may be due to the assumption that it comforts them that monetary resources will be
available when needed. Stress could also cause an increase in spending; this may be due
25
to the assumed need for control when other things seem uncontrollable. However, it was
found that consumers spend strategically on items that they believe are necessities. This
study explains that overall stress can lead to both positive and negative effects on
consumerism. Researchers hope that the results inform human behavior in reference to
natural and consumer sciences (Durante & Laran, 2016). In a study about materialism
and life satisfaction, it was revealed that the effects of materialism on life satisfaction
may be unintended and further, facilitated by stress and moderated by religious values
(Baker et al., 2013). The literature has confirmed that greater religious values are
correlated with less materialistic values, similarly, there is a negative link between
materialism and life satisfaction (Baker et al., 2013).
Another study examined the impacts of materialism on traumatic stress and
maladaptive consumption through an Israeli field study and a U.S. national survey (Ruvio
et al., 2014). The field study looked at the impact of materialism on traumatic stress and
maladaptive consumption between individuals from an Israeli town suffering from a
terrorist attack and individuals from an Israeli town not being attacked. The study showed
that when under attack, very materialistic individuals experience increased levels of post-
traumatic stress, compulsive consumption, and impulsive buying more so than less
materialistic individuals. In the U.S. survey, it was found that the effects from the Israeli
study, are also likely because materialistic individuals were found to have lower levels of
self-esteem, which decreases their capacity to be able cope with traumatic events. Thus,
overall both studies concluded that materialism has had negative impacts on
psychological well-being (Ruvio et al., 2014).
Mental Health
26
Martin, Czellar, and Pandelaere (2019) argued that research has shown how
values of materialism change with age during adulthood. The researchers hypothesized
that changes as individuals age are entrenched in changes in self-uncertainty; various
measures of self-uncertainty were used to provide substantiation for this claim. Results of
this study displayed that changes in materialism cannot be rationalized by age-related
differences in socio-demographic variables. Additionally, changes in self-uncertainty
offer a better explanation for changes in materialism than age-related alterations in self-
esteem. (Martin et al., 2019).
Wang et al. (2017) studied the relationship between materialism and mental health
to understand the impacts of dispositional mindfulness and if it would moderate the
effects of this relationships. A sample of 533 college students completed the Material
Values Scale, Mindful Attention Awareness Scale, Symptom Checklist 90, and Social
Desirability Scale. Results of this study showcased that mindfulness exercised a
significant moderating effect. In fact, greater materialism predicted poorer mental health
outcomes in individuals with low and medium levels of mindfulness. Unfortunately, the
impact of materialism on mental health was not significant in individuals with high
mindfulness levels. Therefore, mindfulness may be very helpful in safeguarding harmful
effects of materialism (Wang et al., 2017).
The above review of the literature on materialism yielded themes of consumption,
stress, and mental health. Unfortunately, the studies reviewed all found negative
implications to materialistic lifestyles. These negative impacts surrounded compulsive
buying, overconsumption, the increase of stress, and poorer mental health outcomes. The
purpose of this dissertation, however, is to look at these impacts in terms of relational
27
satisfaction. There are several themes in the materialism literature as it relates to
relational satisfaction and those will be covered in the following section of this
dissertation.
Relational Satisfaction
Relational satisfaction is “defined as a partner’s subjective and global evaluation
of a romantic relationship” (Funk & Rogge, 2007; Raffagnino & Matera, 2015, p. 323).
Relational satisfaction in the literature is typically discussed as a couple unit. Although,
as marriage and family therapists, we know that relational satisfaction can mean
relationships between a parent and child or other individuals, the literature almost
exclusively uses the terms relational happiness or satisfaction to mean a romantic
relationship. There is an abundance of research on relational satisfaction. Therefore, it’s
important to hone in on this particular relationship and then begin to understand how this
relationship can be impacted in terms of physical health and mental health when a
minimalist lifestyle is employed. This section will discuss the following themes of
relational satisfaction: conflict, physical health, and happiness as they are the most
relevant to the overarching study’s purpose.
Conflict
Conflict appeared in the literature as a central theme and risk to relational
satisfaction. Prior research has shown that evading communication about conflictual
matters has been connected to reduced relational satisfaction (Caughlin & Afifi, 2004;
Caughlin & Huston, 2002; Kurdek, 1995; Worley & Samp, 2018). A few new studies that
have shown how relational satisfaction can be decreased in romantic relationships when
28
conflict is a factor. For the purposes of this dissertation, conflict will be discussed in
terms of romantic relationships.
A study explored conflict interactions when assessing for an individual’s
knowledge on mindfulness and their usage of it during conflict (Harvey et al., 2019). It
has been found that when in conflict, six common strategies that partners engaged in are
compromise, domination, submission, separation, avoidance, and interactional reactivity
(Harvey et al., 2019; Zacchilli et al., 2009). The researchers explained how interactions of
conflict are dyadic and call attention for evaluating an individual’s capacity for
mindfulness. The sample of 169 heterosexual couples in actor-partner interdependence
models explained that male mindfulness positively forecasted the couple’s likelihood of
compromising during conflict. The researchers reported gender differences in terms of
mindfulness. Male mindfulness positively associated with relationship satisfaction with
female partners; female mindfulness actually projected a lower probability of male
dominance and reactivity while engaging in a conflict. Researchers asserted that
mindfulness training programs may strengthen romantic relationships (Harvey et al.,
2019).
Worley and Samp (2018) studied the associations between rejection sensitivity,
communication about complaints, and relational satisfaction in romantic relationships.
Researchers used measures consisting of five items from Rusbult et al. (1998) in an
online survey with 260 participants. The results yielded that RS was positively related
with complaint avoidance and negatively linked with positive and negative politeness
when expressing complaints. Further, results recommended that couples open and
29
honestly communicate complaints as it may support the prevention and reduction of
relational dissatisfaction linked with rejection sensitivity (Worley & Samp, 2018).
Physical Health
Marital dissatisfaction has been associated with physical health issues (Bookwala,
2005; Campbell, 2003; Grames et al., 2008; Hawkins & Booth 2005; Umberson et al.,
2006; Wickrama et al., 1997). Didericksen and Berge (2015) conducted a study with the
purpose of exploring family meals, familial relationship satisfaction, and family physical
activity. Structural equation modeling was employed with a sample of 1,435 parents to
figure out the relationship between family meals, familial relationship satisfaction, and
family physical activity. Findings displayed significant results among family meals and
parental health. Additionally, familial relationship satisfaction and family physical
activity were statistically significantly linked with parental health (Didericksen & Berge,
2015). Therefore, results showcase the clear need for a systemic perspective when
analyzing couples’ relational satisfaction and physical health.
A study used contextual theory (Boszormenyi-Nagy, 1987) to conceptualize the
relationship between relational ethics, marital satisfaction, depression, and illness
(Grames et al., 2008). A sample of 632 married individuals were surveyed using the
Relational Ethics Scale. Results using structural equation modeling showed that the
Relational Ethics Scale was a significant predictor of marital satisfaction. In addition, it
showed that marital satisfaction was significantly linked to depression and other health
problems (Grames et al., 2008).
Chopik (2017) strove to discover the association between relationships and health
and well-being throughout an individual’s lifespan. Additionally, the researcher sought to
30
find out if there were more prevalent benefits in later adulthood. Two studies were
conducted, and results displayed that in study one, cherishing friendships was associated
with better functioning, specifically among older adults. However, valuing familial
relationships tended to have a stagnant influence on health and well-being throughout
life. The results from study two showed that stress from friendships predicted more
chronic illnesses, while support from spouses, children, and friends predicted higher
reported well-being (Chopik, 2017).
Another study explored the link between marital quality and physical health in
marriage (Proulx & Snyder-Rivas, 2013). Researchers noted that prior research has not
acknowledged the potential bidirectional link between changes in marital quality and
self-reported health. The study utilized latent change models with a sample of 707
married adults who participated in six waves of the Marital Instability Over the Life
Course panel study and were continuously married to the same spouse for over 20 years.
Results showed that unidirectional coupling was present for marital happiness and self-
rated health only. Therefore, results did not show that there was a link between marital
problems and self-rated health (Proulx & Snyder-Rivas, 2013).
Happiness
Vollmann et al. (2019) examined the mediating role of gratitude toward partners
through the lens of attachment. Previous research has said that insecure attachment is
negatively related to relationship satisfaction. The sample of this study was mostly
female (84%) with 362 participants. An online questionnaire followed by regression and
bootstrap analyses were used to understand relational satisfaction in terms of attachment.
The results revealed attachment avoidance and attachment anxiety are negatively linked
31
to relationship satisfaction. Further, in relationships with attachment avoidance can be
mediated by gratitude towards their partner. The researchers used gratitude interventions
which were shown to have constructive and productive effects on the relationship. The
article advocated for utilizing gratitude interventions, particularly with couples who have
an avoidant attachment style (Vollmann et al., 2019).
Raffagnino and Matera (2015) explained that relational satisfaction is a
substantial contributor to happiness throughout life. Further, researchers have cited
previous literature that documented relational satisfaction being one of the greatest
predictors of marriage stability and physical health as well as self-reported overall well-
being (Bookwala, 2005; Dush & Amato, 2005). Researchers constructed a scale to
measure dimensions of relationship satisfaction using what they called the Dyadic-
Familial Relationship Satisfaction Scale; the scale was up of both dyadic and familial
components. The results showed that the scale could be highly reliable and valid scale in
measuring relational satisfaction (Raffagnino & Matera, 2015).
A literature review was conducted to explore forgiveness as a therapeutic
intervention to increase relational satisfaction for opposite- and same-sex couples
(Aalgaard et al., 2016). Forgiveness between partners has previously been identified in
the literature is identified as a strong indicator of relationship satisfaction. However,
researchers deemed it as being typically discounted as a therapeutic intervention in
increasing couple’s relational satisfaction. Further it was identified that trait anger and
dispositional forgiveness personality projected the quality of close relationships and
effect physical and mental health (Aalgaard et al., 2016; Berry & Worthington, 2001).
32
The review yielded that forgiveness positively impacted relational satisfaction,
specifically, that it can benefit stress and overall health.
A study explored the link between marital quality and both general life
satisfaction and experienced well-being in elder husbands and wives (Carr et al., 2014).
Prior research has shown that there are protective effects of marriage for physical and
emotional well-being (Carr & Springer, 2010; Carr et al., 2014). Nevertheless, newer
research demonstrates that these impacts are conditional upon the quality of the
relationship. Secondary data were utilized from the Disability and Use of Time daily
diary supplement to the Panel Study of Income Dynamics. Results showed that there was
not a significant relationship between a partner’s marital appraisals and their own well-
being. Interestingly, the association between a husband’s marital quality and life
satisfaction is sustained when his wife also reports a happy marriage but decreased when
his wife reports a low marital quality. Thus, this study tells us that for husbands, life
satisfaction is augmented by their wives’ marital happiness. This still holds true even
with husbands who reported unfavorable marital quality. This particular study not only
validates the ‘happy wife, happy life” mantra, but also highlights the significance of self-
reported views on relational satisfaction on a partner’s perspective on the relationship.
Intersection of Materialism and Relational Satisfaction
The intersection of minimalism and relational satisfaction has yet to be explored
in the available literature, therefore, this researcher will look at the antitheist of
minimalism, which is materialism. By conducting this review, the reader will be able to
comprehend the intersection of materialism and relational satisfaction to be able to start
conceptualizing what the potential positive effects could be for minimalistic lifestyles and
33
relational satisfaction. Prior literature has documented the negative connection between
materialism and life satisfaction (Belk, 1984, 1985; Dawson & Bamossy, 1991; Kau et
al., 2000; LaBarbera & Gurhan, 1997; Richins, 1987; Richins & Dawson, 1990, 1992;
Ryan & Dziurawiec, 2001; Sirgy et al., 1995, 1998). Further, one study explained that
materialism was negatively associated with satisfaction in all the aspects of life measured
(Richins & Dawson, 1992). Recent relevant studies will be reviewed below that discuss
the intersection of minimalism and relational satisfaction with the purpose of
understanding this crucial linkage of literature.
Thyroff and Kilbourne (2018) explored the relationship between materialism and
satisfaction by the institutional forces of values and competitiveness. The results of this
study display a negative relationship between materialism and satisfaction. In addition,
self-enhancement values and individual competitiveness were found to mediate the
relationship between materialism and consumer satisfaction (Thyroff & Kilbourne,
2018). Thus, results showcase no positive implications of materialism and satisfaction.
Further, this study is very much aligned with values of the American society, self-
enhancement values and individual competitiveness that wouldn’t necessarily matter to a
minimalistic individual.
A study explored the role that materialism plays in the family structure–stress
relation in adolescents (Roberts et al., 2005). The study explained that materialism is a
multifaceted concept that seems to mediate and moderate the family structure–stress
relation and have positive and negative effects. Findings displayed that adolescents who
linked happiness with material items reported higher levels of family stress. The study
found that parental divorce may lead to increased materialism, also effecting family stress
34
levels. The study speaks to the significance of measuring and gaining insight into the
position materialism plays in family transition and potentially other traumatic events
(Roberts et al., 2005).
Another study examined the mediators of the association between materialism and
life satisfaction (Tsang et al., 2014). A sample size of 246 undergraduate marketing
students did an online survey that assessed for self-report dispositional measures of
materialism, gratitude, need satisfaction, and life satisfaction. Quantitative mediation
methods revealed that gratitude and need satisfaction mediated the relationship between
materialism as well as decreased life satisfaction. Further, gratitude was found to be a
direct mediator to life satisfaction. It was speculated that this negative relationship may
potentially be that materialistic individuals find it harder to be grateful. Additionally,
lower levels of trait gratitude may be associated with unmet psychological needs. The
researchers recommended that mental health professionals should be trained to aid
individuals in changing their view from appreciating what they have already instead of
concentrating on the things they do not have (Tsang et al., 2014).
Leavitt et al. 2019 studied the relational and sexual costs of materialism in
romantic relationships. An actor–partner interdependence model was used to
longitudinally predict relationships across three waves of data over two years of time. A
sample size of 338 married and cohabiting couples. The results of this study showcased
longitudinal relations of materialism and relationship and sexual satisfaction within these
couples. The researchers recommended that therapists utilize the results of this study to
gain insight into the sexual and relational cost of materialism. Further, they recommended
that therapists assess for materialistic ideologies and to provide psychoeducation in
35
understanding the links between materialism and satisfaction within their romantic and
sexual relationships (Leavitt et al., 2019).
All the articles reviewed on the intersection between materialism and relational
satisfaction revealed negative links between them. The articles use different
methodology, populations, and contexts to explore this unique relationship. However, this
relationship has not yet been studied via a systemic lens. This systemic lens may offer
new insight, particularly within romantic, couple relationships. The next section will
discuss the literature on Medical Family Therapy (MedFT), which has yet to be employed
within minimalism research.
Medical Family Therapy (MedFT)
The theoretical orientation employed to conceptualize minimalism and relational
satisfaction for the purposes of this dissertation is Medical Family Therapy (MedFT)
(McDaniel et al., 1992). Although practitioners were engaged in MedFT, it was not
formally introduced until the 1990s by Susan McDaniel and her seminal work Medical
Family Therapy. This work challenged the status quo of the healthcare system at the time
when patient autonomy and their support system was considered secondary. MedFT is
being used to understand minimalism and relational satisfaction due to its focus on
physical and mental health as well as systemic orientation. Additionally, MedFT is a
systemic theory meaning that multiple systems are considered when understanding issues
in a family. Unfortunately, there is not a single article in existence that utilizes MedFT to
understand minimalism. However, MedFT has been used to improve relational and
familial satisfaction. The section will discuss the current literature that explains MedFT
36
as well as employs its theoretical underpinnings to assist in increasing relational
satisfaction.
MedFT is a biopsychosocial, conceptual framework that is rooted in systemic
family therapy principles (Finney & Tadros, 2019; Marlowe, 2011; McDaniel et al.,
2014; Rolland, 1994; Zubatsky et al., 2017). MedFT runs under the assumption that, “all
health and relationship problems are biological, psychological, and social in nature”
(McDaniel et al., 2014, p. 5). MedFT looks at how biological issues impacts multiple
areas of a client’s life and as well as how emotions impact health and decision making.
MedFT aids in the understanding of physical illness and mental illness directly impacting
one another (Zubatsky et al., 2017).
The primary goals of MedFT is promoting agency and communion (McDaniel et
al., 2014). Agency refers to the “activation of the individuals and families to meet their
needs related to health, illness and the health care system and to contribute to their
community” (McDaniel et al., 2014, p. 13). Communion refers to the “emotional bonds
that are often frayed by illness, disability, and contact with the health care system”
(McDaniel et al., 2014, p. 14). Some goals of medical family therapy consist of
promoting agency and communion, improving coping with a physical illness or
disability, better communication with physicians, increasing acceptance, and producing
and maintaining lifestyle changes (McDaniel et al., 2014).
Researchers Tyndall et al. (2012) emphasized the collaborative nature of MedFT.
This literature review found 82 articles that met the criteria and were then divided into
four themes: 1) Historical emergence; 2) Contemporary skills and applications; 3)
Punctuating the “family therapy” in MedFT; 4) effectiveness and efficacy research.
37
MedFTs are advised to not only work with the client and their family, but also other
professionals such as physicians, nurses, case workers, speech pathologists, physical
therapists, neurologists, mental health clinicians, and any other healthcare providers that
are involved in treatment (Tyndall et al., 2012). Other researchers, Marlowe et al. (2012)
also advocated for collaboration between healthcare providers. Further, these researchers
advocated that behavioral health modalities also incorporate MedFT’s relational lens
when collaborating interprofessionally.
Michaels et al. (2014) conducted a content analysis to examine the competencies
from health psychology, medical social work, and MedFT. Researchers coded and
reorganized themes to classify ways to pursue additional skills that could be enhanced to
add to the current competencies in place. Findings displayed that that researchers need to
create competencies in reference to training in relational health, research, and clinical
skills. They suggested to revise competencies by giving priority to the family,
collaboration, and interprofessional communication. Additionally, creating competencies
that aid in assessment, case management, consultation, administration, research, program
evaluation, training, and supervision. Perhaps most striking, was the researchers’ push for
the stressing of the relational lens from which MedFTs’ work derives (Michaels et al.,
2014).
Stermensky and Brown (2014) conducted a literature review in order to discover
the most effective way of integrating solution-focused therapy and motivational
interviewing into medical family therapy. Researchers utilized Proquest, EBSCO,
Medline, and PsychInfo databases and the search yielded 86 articles. Researchers
reviewed 46 articles in which were relevant to the study. Findings displayed that both
38
solution-focused therapy and motivational interviewing is absent in MedFT literature.
Results also displayed that there is promising evidence for This review found evidence
for the integration of solution-focused therapy and motivational interviewing in MedFT.
Additionally, researchers supported the notion of MedFTs receiving more advanced
training in therapeutic and de-escalation skills. Further, the review found that MedFTs
were more cost-effective than other providers such as medical doctors, nurses, and
psychologists in offering family interventions (Stermensky & Brown, 2014).
A recent case study explored the utilization of MedFT with parents of an adult
child with traumatic brain injury. Davis and Tadros (2019) discussed how chronic illness
impacted various areas of a client’s life. The paper provided a case example of an adult
child with a traumatic brain injury. The researchers described multiple phases of
treatment and how the usage of MedFT interventions benefitted treatment. In addition,
researchers advocated for increased access to MedFT services for families such as the
one provided in the case study. With this increased access to care, families would gain an
understanding of how physical and mental issues are impacting the entire family system
(Davis & Tadros, 2019).
In another case study, Finney and Tadros (2019) examined MedFT in home-based
settings through a case application. Home-based family therapy (HBFT) is a modality of
treatment where therapeutic services are provided in their client’s home. Researchers
strove to link HBFT and MedFT to create a comprehensive treatment. The case example
displayed effectiveness of the utilization of MedFT in home-based environments by
clients being able to achieve their goals (Finney & Tadros, 2019). This study showcases
39
the importance of being adaptable and flexible as clinician literally and figuratively to
provide best client care.
In a third case study that utilizes the MedFT framework, Tadros et al. (2019)
integrated narrative therapy and MedFT to treat a client experiencing somatic symptoms
that mimic papillary thyroid cancer symptoms. The study displayed the advantages of
employing MedFT and narrative therapy with a female college student such as
understanding physical symptomology and being able to rewrite her story (Tadros et al.,
2019). Interestingly, the researchers report that the treatment provided would have not
been holistic without exploring both the mental and physical health issues. Thus,
emphasizing the need to examine biopsychosocial aspects of a problem to be able to
effectively treat systemic problems.
Similarly, researchers Rajaei and Jensen (2020) integrated MedFT with narrative
therapy. Narrative therapy was described as an empowering, nonpathologizing, and
collaborative approach that was recommended for usage in integrated behavioral health
care by MedFTs. Case examples were utilized to show efficacy in using narrative
concepts and techniques to treat individuals, couples, and families. The researchers also
advocated for cultural humility to be employed. Further, they advised to aid clients in
altering their problematic stories through separation from it rather than only reauthoring
them.
Another case study explored the utilization of structural and medical family
therapy with an incarcerated mother living with HIV. Researchers Tadros and Finney
(2019) filled a gap in reference to family therapy in incarcerated settings as well as
providing MedFT services in such settings. Additionally, the researchers’ goal was to
40
integrate two systemic models to best treat this particular population. A case was
explored the usage of MedFT and structural family therapy with a daughter and a mother
who is incarcerated and coping with a physical illness. Results of treatment were shown
to be efficacious by techniques utilized to restructure the family as well as help the family
cope with the mother’s HIV diagnosis. Also, the family reported that they were able to
gain insight into their dysfunctional communication pattern (Tadros & Finney, 2019).
Lastly, this paper emphasized the importance of therapists acknowledging both the
physical and mental aspects of health that impact presenting problems within a family
system.
Hertlein (2003) discussed MedFT through a feminist lens. Feminist-informed
MedFT supports therapists in looking at health and healing simulantaously. The
integration allows for treatment that is gender sensitive. A case study was provided and
showcased influences that prohibited a woman from developing agency and communion.
Through communication and flexibility within the couple relationship she was able to
explore options. The researcher spoke to the need for interventions that are sensitive to
different cultures and genders.
A study explored chronic migraines (CM) and its effects on couples (McPhee &
Robinson, 2019). Using phenomenology and dyadic interviews, researchers explored the
CM experience within couple relationships. Three themes emerged from the interviews:
cost, coping, and couple experience. These findings can be seen as contradicting at first
as couples reported fighting more as well as lack of connection due to CM, yet also
reported that CM has made them closer and more resilient. Thus, it is vital to look at CM
41
and the couple experience systemically as both disconnection and connection may be
occurring simultaneously due to these complexities.
A review of the literature surrounding MedFT displayed MedFT’s usage with
different populations, types of families, and kinds of medical issues. MedFT encompasses
a systemic outlook where the client’s mind, body, relationships, and community are
considered in treatment (McDaniel et al., 2014). Further, a couple or family’s physical
health, culture, mental health, and socioeconomic status directly affect an individual’s
overall well-being (McDaniel et al., 2014). This review showcased MedFT’s helpfulness
in better understanding the link between physical and mental illnesses as well as its
applicability towards bettering relational satisfaction with couples and families. The hope
for this dissertation is to utilize this theory to display how living minimalistically can
positively impact physical and mental health within relational satisfaction.
In summary, there is limited research on MedFT. What was found in the literature
was mostly case studies and theoretical integrations. It appears that there is a need for
more empirical- quantitative and qualitive analyses- to validate the efficacy of this
theory. The purpose of employing MedFT is due to its central focus on the utility of the
physical and mental systems being integrated in a systemic fashion. Lastly, MedFT was
chosen due to being an overarching conceptual framework to assist in the understanding
of materialism in physical, mental, and relational domain.
The above review of the literature consisted of an in-depth exploration of major
topics of this study: minimalism and relational satisfaction. These major themes were
examined closely and from this, subthemes emerged organically. These subthemes
42
consisted of specific topics that aided in the understanding of the main concepts of this
study. The intersection of minimalism and relational satisfaction had no research for the
researcher to review and build off of, thus the intersection of materialism and relational
satisfaction was conducted. Previous literature on MedFT was discussed with the purpose
of providing explanations for brief tenets of the theory to then apply to the methodology
moving forward as well as a way of conceptualizing the literature on the main topics as a
whole. The following chapter will explain the study’s methodological design.
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CHAPTER III
METHOD
The purpose of this chapter is to introduce the research methodology for this
quantitative study. This chapter identified the research questions and corresponding
hypotheses that guide the study in every facet. Chapter three is composed of an
exhaustive explanation of the methodological plan that was carried out. Principal
components of this chapter consist of the participants, procedures, measures, data
analyses, and the handling of missing data are reviewed in this chapter. Finally, the
statistical methods to be employed and the rationale was provided.
Research Questions
This dissertation is concentrated on exploring an overarching research question
with following subquestions. Hypotheses were provided to showcase the researcher’s
educated speculations of what the statistics will demonstrate. The overarching question
asked is: How could benefits of minimalism be understood from MedFT lens?
Q1: Is there an impact between living a materialistic lifestyle and relational
satisfaction?
H1: There will be a negative impact between living a materialistic lifestyle
H0: There will not be an impact between living a materialistic lifestyle
44
Q2: How does living a materialistic lifestyle impact an individual’s physical
health?
H1: Living a materialistic lifestyle will negatively impact an individual’s physical
health.
H0: Living a materialistic lifestyle will positively impact an individual’s physical
health.
Q3: How does living a materialistic lifestyle impact an individual’s mental
health?
H1: Living a materialistic lifestyle will negatively impact an individual’s mental
health.
H0: Living a materialistic lifestyle will positively impact an individual’s mental
health.
Research Design
Survey research is one of the oldest methods and most popular research designs
used in social science fields (Heppner et al., 2016). Using survey design, the
aforementioned hypotheses that have not yet been validated by prior research were tested.
Effectiveness of a descriptive design study is directly dependent on the quality of the
survey being used to describe a phenomenon (Heppner et al., 2016). As with all research
designs there are pros and cons of each methodology. Benefits of survey research include
the obvious convenient nature of the data collection (Murphy, 1988) as well as
respondents being able to answer questions privately. Limitations to survey research are
typical as they are self- reported and thus, may not be completely accurate. Further,
“ethical approaches to human-subjects research emphasize a cost–benefit calculus” (Lupu
45
& Zechmeister, 2018, p. 563). Thus, a section in this chapter outlined ethical
considerations of this type of methodology. Surveys used in this study collected both
categorical and continuous data. The measures for the core concepts materialistic values
and physical and mental health have been validated in prior research. Thus, this adds to
the quality the current study. The following section discusses the participants that were
recruited for this study.
Participants
In total the researcher originally hoped to obtain an estimate of 250 individuals to
be participants in the study. The sizeable estimated sample size of (n=254 individuals) is
advantageous to the study as it justifies the statistical power (Cohen, 1992). Power
analysis for the regression was conducted using G*POWER to establish a valid sample
size using at an alpha of .05, a power of .95 (Faul et al., 2007). Consequently, the alpha
level is 95%, with a 5% of a margin of error. The total sample was more than originally
anticipated (n= 586). A convenience sample of participants was drawn from social media
groups and through advertisements posted at a private practice. The total participants in
the study includes 586 individuals. The sample in terms of gender consists of n= 555
females and n= 31 males. Thus, the vast majority of the sample (94.4%) consists of
females. In terms of racial and ethnic breakdown, 501 participants are White or
Caucasian, 8 are Black or African American, 34 Hispanic, 22 Asian, and 21 Other race/
Multi-racial.
Inclusion/ Exclusion Criteria
Participants must be age 18 and over and must be in a romantic relationship.
Inclusion criteria additionally required individuals to speak English, be physically and
46
mentally capable of answering survey questions, as well as to be comfortable enough in
providing private information regarding the status of their physical and mental health as
well as their romantic relationship.
Procedures
Once IRB approval was obtained, invitations to participate in the study were sent
via social media and email. In order to recruit participants, a public post was written for
these sites with a link to the survey. Potential participants were screened through initial
demographic questions to ensure qualifications for the study were met. The sample for
the current study was collected from various sources. The recruitment of participants was
done via social media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, and LinkedIn.
Interestingly, a study found that professionals, university students, and members
of the community more likely to complete surveys using a paper-and-pencil format
versus individuals who complete surveys online (Weigold et al., 2019). In fact,
participants using the paper-and-pencil method for the surveys were almost twice as
likely to complete surveys compared to those who took it on the computer (Weigold et
al., 2019). With this information, the researcher was prepared to print the surveys and
have participants fill them out in a traditional paper-and-pencil fashion. This was done to
ensure the necessary sample size is met as well as potential convenience for the
participants if they requested.
Participants were asked to complete an online survey which prompted participants
with the informed consent form (Appendix A). The informed consent was necessary to be
acknowledged prior to even seeing the questions that will be asked. The informed consent
provided information to the participants about the purpose and procedures of the study.
47
Potential risks and discomforts associated with participation were outlined in detail to
ensure the participant is informed. In addition, benefits and compensation information
was provided. Further, the participant’s right to refuse or withdraw was outlined and
followed by procedures of confidentiality of records and the limits to confidentiality.
Lastly, the researcher’s contact information was listed in case of other questions the
participants may have and a signature of acceptance of these terms was collected at the
end.
After completing the informed consent, participants were directed to complete the
study surveys. First, a demographic questionnaire appeared for the purposes of collecting
basic demographic information such as gender, race/ ethnicity, income, relationship
status, etc. as well as to evaluate them using the established eligibility criteria (Appendix
C). Following the demographic questionnaire, the participants completed the Material
Values Scale (MVS) (Appendix D). Subsequently, participants completed the Short Form
(SF-20), (Appendix E) and lastly, finish the comprehensive survey with The Relationship
Assessment Scale (RAS) (Appendix F). The order of the surveys was randomized in
Survey Monkey in order to minimize the potential for order effect bias. Randomizing was
a way to address the issue with having the surveys all pre-ordered for all participants.
Thus, the order was different depending on participant at random.
Once the survey was completed a debriefing paragraph appeared saying, “The
purpose of this study was to explore the impact of living a minimalist lifestyle on
relational satisfaction, physical health, and mental health. The researcher does recognize
the content of some of the questions asked may be emotionally difficult. If a participant
finds that any part of this study led to a negative emotional response, please reach out to
48
friends and/or family, a mental health provider of your choice, or access information and
resources via the researcher at your request. Please contact the researcher Michelle
Cappetto, at mac223@zips.uakron.edu, if you have any further questions regarding this
study. Thank you for your contribution.” Additionally, there was an incentive offered to
participate in this study, four $25 visa gift cards were awarded to participants who elected
to provide their email at the end of the survey. The winners were randomly selected and
contacted via email once data collection was complete. In addition, every participant was
thanked for their time and their contribution to this project. When all the data were
collected from all participants, descriptive analyses was computed to contextualize the
participants and gain an understanding of who participated in the overarching study. The
following section discusses the specific measures used in detail for this study.
Measures
The measures that were utilized in this study consist of a brief demographic
survey, The Material Value Scale (MVS) Short Form, the SF-20, and The Relationship
Assessment Scale (RAS). These four different surveys were employed to measure
demographics, materialism, physical health, mental health, and relationship assessment
scale respectively. The following subsections describe the scales were utilized in this
study.
Demographics
Demographic information from all participants was collected and analyzed. In
creating the brief demographics questionnaire, the following topics were considered to be
important to be able to understand the demographics of the participants in the study:
gender, race/ethnicity, relationship status, relationship length, childhood family financial
49
status, current financial status, and therapeutic services. All of the demographic variables
emerged from the literature review and therefore are important pieces of information to
collect from participants. These data were collected for demographic purposes as well as
to contextualize the data. Understanding the participants’ background information was
helpful in finding links and associations in the analysis. Further, it aided in the
explanation of specific patterns that may emerge.
Demographic Survey
Gender. The researcher inquired about the categorical variable of gender. The
researcher asked, “What is your gender?” The choices were 0 = male, 1 = female, 2=
other gender. The rationale for allowing multiple options for gender were so that
participants can identify how they wish.
Race/ Ethnicity. The researcher inquired about the categorical variable: race/
ethnicity. Researchers asked the participants, “What is your race/ ethnicity?” and then
prompted to select one of the following options: 1 White or Caucasian, 2 Black or
African American, 3 Hispanic 4 Asian, 5 Other Race/ Multi-racial. The measurement has
been given these options to include various options for the participants. Race/ethnicity
were included in the demographics survey and be coded with the numbers stated above.
Relationship Status. The researcher asked about the categorical, dichotomous
variable of relationship status. The question asked, “Are you currently in a romantic
relationship?” The answer choices were 0= no and 1= yes. If an individual answered no,
they will not be prompted to move forward as the inclusion criteria for this study states
participants must be in a romantic relationship at the time completing the survey. If a
participant answered yes, they were prompted to the next measure.
50
Relationship Length. The researcher asked about the categorical variable of
relationship length. The question asked, “How long have you been in your current
romantic relationship?” The answer choices were 1= Less than one year, 2= One to five
years, 3= Five to ten years, 4= Ten years or more. The rationale for measuring this way
was to gauge how long the participant has been in their current relationship. This data
helped to contextualize the sample.
Childhood Family Financial Status. The researcher asked about the dichotomous,
categorical variable of childhood family financial status. The survey question asked, “Do
you believe you and your family were financially well-off during childhood?” The
answer choices were 0= no and 1= yes. The rationale for measuring this way was for the
participant to be able to generally self-report this information while it not being the
central focus of the study.
Current Financial Status. The researcher will ask about the dichotomous,
categorical variable of childhood family financial status. The survey question asked, “Do
you believe you are currently financially well-off?” The answer choices were 0= no and
1= yes. The rationale for measuring this way was for the participant to be able to provide
an estimated, general self-report this information while it not being the central focus of
the study.
Therapeutic Services. The researcher asked about the categorical, dichotomous
variable of therapeutic services. The question read, “Have you ever been to individual,
couple, or family counseling? The answer options were 0= no and 1= yes. The rationale
for measuring this way was to be able to gain basic knowledge on if the participant had
51
received such services, regardless of duration. This variable was being included due to
the literature stating that couples’ therapy may increase relational satisfaction.
Material Value Scale (MVS) Short Form
The MVS measures materialism in individuals by means of three distinctive
dimensions: success, centrality, and happiness (Richins & Dawson, 1992). The MVS was
found to have good psychometric properties, particularly when utilized to measure
materialism broadly (Puente-Díaz & Cavazos-Arroyo, 2017). The measurement’s
subscales were explained as, “the centrality of possessions and their acquisition in a
person’s life (i.e., material centrality), the belief that possessions and their acquisition are
essential to one’s happiness and life satisfaction (i.e., material happiness), and the use of
possessions in judging the success of others and oneself (i.e., material success)” (van der
Meulen et al., 2017, p. 1203).
The scale selected for the present study was The Material Value Scale (MVS)
Short Form (Richins, 2004), the condensed nine-item measure of materialistic values
which was revised and constructed from The Material Values Scale (MVS) created by
Richins and Dawson (1992). Previous examination has “indicated that the nine- item
version possesses better psychometric properties than the other two short versions. This
nine-item scale encompasses the same three domains as the long form and possesses
acceptable levels of reliability and validity for measuring overall materialism” (Richins,
2004; p. 216). It has been found that “the scales possess acceptable levels of reliability,
and their dimensional characteristics are superior to those of the 18-item scale” (Richins
& Dawson, 2004, p. 216). Thus, based on the validity and reliability of the MVS short
form, the researcher decided to utilize it for the current study. Further, the scale’s items
52
are scored on likert scale going from 1 to 5. In accordance with typically accepted likert
scales, 1 indicates “strongly disagree” and 5 represents “strongly agree.” Thus, the higher
the number the higher the score of agreeability to the item’s statement. Therefore, the
scales in this measure did not necessitate reverse coding. The full scale can be found in
Appendix D.
Medical Outcomes Study (MOS) 20-Item Short-Form Health Survey (SF-20)
The SF-20 has been endorsed for health-related quality of life research (Carver et
al., 1999). It has been said that this scale is a compromise between extensive scales and
single-item measures of health (Stewart et al., 1988). The SF-20 has been used to
measure quality of life and has been assessed for applicability to clinical practice and
clinical trial settings. (Holme et al., 1996; Wachtel et al., Carpenter, 1992; Wu et al.,
1991, 1994). It is additionally utilized to measure scopes of broad health-related quality
of life: physical, role, and social functioning as well as mental health and health
perceptions (van Dijk et al., 2016).
The SF-20 measures health through six spheres: six questions on physical
functioning, two questions on role functioning, one question on social functioning, five
questions on mental health, five questions on health perceptions, and one question on
pain (Stewart et al., 1988). The smaller subset of these items borrowed from its longer
form of measures have met the criteria for acceptability, reliability, and validity in a
general population (Manning et al., 1982; Stewart et al., 1988). Thus, the SF-20 provided
multiple questions that are used as a scale of physical and mental health separately yet in
the same comprehensive measure. The SF-20 has also been used to assess for functional
status scores, disability time, health care usage, and symptom-related struggle (Huang et
53
al., 2006; Kroenke et al., 2001). Further, the SF-20 has been deemed as a measure of the
health outcomes of chronic disease with verified reliability and validity (Franks et al.,
2003; Stewart et al., 1988; Stewart et al., 1989).
For the current study, the physical functioning subscale was used to assess
physical health and the mental health perceptions sub-scale was used to assess mental
health. Physical functioning was measured on the SF-20 with items 3–8 while mental
health with 12–16 (Hanninen et al., 1998). The physical health subscale was deemed
reliable and has been validated as an appropriate measure for physical health (Hanninen
et al., 1998; Stewart et al., 1988). The mental health subscale is representative of four
major mental health dimensions: anxiety, depression, loss of behavioral-emotional
control, and psychological well- being (Veit & Ware, 1983). Therefore, for the current
study those exact items were used for the corresponding physical and mental health
questions. The scale can be found in Appendix E.
Reverse Coding. The rationale of reverse coding data was for the items within a
measure to be in the same direction. Scores were reverse coded so that a high value will
signify a better health score. The physical health questions did not necessitate recoding,
however, two of the mental health items must be recoded so that all items are going in the
same direction. Reverse coding was completed as typically the highest score on the scale
(5) represents the best possible score and the lowest score (1) represented the worst
possible score. Question 9: “During the past month, how much of the time have you felt
calm and peaceful?” requires recoding; the recoding equivalents would be as follows: 1=
6, 2= 5, 3=4, 4= 3, 5 = 2, 6=1. Similarly, question 11: “During the past month, how much
54
of the time have you been a happy person” needs to be recoded, the recoding equivalents
would be as follows: 1= 6, 2= 5, 3=4, 4= 3, 5 = 2, 6=1.
The Relationship Satisfaction Scale (RAS)
The RAS was constructed to measure an individual's satisfaction with their
current romantic relationship (Hendrick et al., 1998). Relationship satisfaction is
considered to be how satisfied both partners feel about their relationship (Hendrick,
1988). The RAS is a concise measure of global relationship satisfaction (Hendrick et al.,
1998). The RAS is a broad measure for wide a range of individuals, yet items are specific
enough to look at different dimensions like love, problems, expectations (Dicke &
Hendrick, 1998; Hendrick, 1988; Vaughn & Baier, 1999). Further, research conducted on
this measurement has been shown to be correlated with other types of measurements of
love, sexual attitudes, self-disclosure, commitment, and investment in a relationship
(Hendrick, 1988).
The scale is comprised of a seven item likert scale based on the five items of a
marital assessment questionnaire (Henrick, 1981). Also, the researcher elected to only use
likert scales and multiple-choice questions to eliminate further identification. A few years
since the original scale was made changes were made to the word such as “marriage” to
“partner” to be inclusive and encompass other romantic relationships (Hendrick, 1988).
The RAS has exhibited respectable criterion-related validity and good discriminant
validity (Vaughn & Baier, 1999). The RAS revealed to be high in the following: internal,
test-retest reliability, structural, convergent, and discriminant validity (Røysamb, et al.,
2014). Further, researchers deemed it very useful and a good broad measurement of
55
global relationship satisfaction. The complete scale utilized in this study can be found in
Appendix F.
Reverse Coding. The rationale of reverse coding data is for the items within a
measure to be in the same direction. Items numbers 4 and 7 must be reverse scored as
follows: 1= 5, 2 = 4, 3 = 3, 4= 2, 5= 1. Items were recoded after data is collected before
summing the scores. After reverse coding, all items will be in the same directions so one
could add up the items and divide by 7 to get the mean score.
Data Analysis Plan
The data analysis plan consisted of data cleaning, screening, and analysis
procedures. The purpose of cleaning data was to recode necessary variables such as from
the SF-20 and RAS discussed above, and the organizing data. The survey tool,
SurveyMonkey, was utilized to collect data from participants. Once the data were
inputted into SPSS, the univariate, descriptive statistics for each scale were calculated,
including mean, median, range, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis. Frequencies
and percentages for those categorical variables were ran.
Following this, bivariate statistics, such as correlations, were conducted to better
understand the relationship between variables. The researcher ran t-tests for any of the
dichotomous variables and ANOVAs for the multiple category variables. Multiple
ANOVAs were conducted as a part of the bivariate analysis which allowed one to
analyze potential differences between the means in the sample for the covariates that
contain more than two groups, for example the gender variable. Multiple t-tests were
conducted to analyze potential differences between the means in the sample for
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covariates that contain only two groups such as the dichotomous variable of therapeutic
services.
Lastly, multivariate statistics were conducted to answer the three research
questions. Specifically, three separate hierarchical linear regressions were conducted to
determine the relationship between the MVS and the RAS, the physical functioning
subscale of the SF-20, and the mental health perceptions of the SF-20. Regression
analyses were chosen since a regression is used to evaluate the accuracy of predictions
(Salkind, 2014). A regression or prediction line is used to analyze the data through a
series of points on a scatterplot (Mertler & Vannatta, 2017). A hierarchical linear
regression allowed for an analysis of the association between the MVS and the three
dependent variables within the context of controlling for demographic variables as well.
Finally, the word choice utilized for the research questions mirror the statistical method
being utilized. For example, regression analysis being employed allows for the word,
‘impact’ because regression categorizes which variables does or doesn’t have an impact
(Gallo, 2015; Szewczak, 2009). Further, it seeks to find which of the variables are the
most significant and which do not have as much of an impact on the dependent variable
(Gallo, 2015; Szewczak, 2009).
Missing Data
The researcher pondered the question of what to do with missing data. For
example, should participants who left substantial amounts of questions unanswered/
blank be eliminated from inclusion completely? Or should an approved method of
handling missing data be applied to replace missing scores? The data within the current
study sample was checked for missing values. Missing data has the potential to
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negatively impact statistical power (Acock, 2005). Additionally, missing data can
damage the validity of the analysis as well as potentially allow for a research bias
(Acock, 2005). The researcher decided to eliminate surveys with ANY missing
information. The researcher instructed the participants to answer all questions, but also
advised them that if they feel uncomfortable answering any of the questions at all, they
may end participation at any time. When the researcher found missing answers when
reviewing the data upon completion, the surveys were then not utilized.
Ethical Considerations
It is vital with any research study to account for research ethics. Prior to the
study’s data collection, Internal Review Board (IRB) approval was obtained from The
University of Akron for working with human subjects. To maintain anonymity and/or
confidentiality of subject responses and data the researcher asked for names or any
identifying information from participants. Participants may have elected to put in their
email, but their personal, identifying information was not sought. Also, the researcher
elected to only use likert scales and multiple-choice questions to eliminate further
identification. Surveys were discarded once was data inputted into the statistical software
(SPSS).
The researcher minimized potential risks by informing participants in the
informed consent they can withdraw their participation at any time for any reason. In
addition, the participants were debriefed at the end of the survey and if any emotional
distress is caused or experienced, participants were encouraged to contact their local
crisis center to obtain mental health treatment and follow-up, as well as referrals in their
area, if they reported and/or requested services.
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This chapter described the present study’s research questions and hypotheses.
Subsequently, participants, procedures, measures, data analyses, and missing data were
examined. Moreover, the variables were identified and the rationale for the utilization of
these variable was based on the existing literature on minimalism, materialism, and
relational satisfaction with the theoretical support of MedFT. The proposed plan for data
analysis was discussed for the current study. Conclusively, the overarching goal of the
researcher is to understand the association between living a minimalist lifestyle and
relationship satisfaction via a MedFT lens. The researcher hopes that with the methods
described above will produce data that answers the presenting research questions to
contribute to the research in marriage and family therapy entirely.
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CHAPTER IV
RESULTS
The present chapter provides an overview of the results of the current study.
Chapter 4 will provide univariate, bivariate, and multivariate analyses of the study’s
results in paragraph form as well as with coinciding APA statistical tables. This study
sought to answer three research questions surrounding materialism. These research
questions have been answered by conducting preliminary bivariate statistics such as
correlations, t-tests, and ANOVAs that informed three hierarchical multiple regressions.
Univariate, bivariate, and multivariate statistics were ran to contextualize and better
understand the sample.
Data Cleaning and Screening
IBM SPSS Statistics version 26 was utilized to complete the statistical analysis
conducted for this dissertation. The variables’ means, skewness, kurtosis, and standard
deviations are represented in Table 1. The information in the table showcases that the
data were normally distributed. No issues of multicollinearity issues were found as the
variables have a correlation of less than .80 or less.
The data were cleaned by methods of deletion, recoding, and creating sum scores.
First, missing data were accounted for. The raw sample size was n= 690 prior to data
cleaning and screening. In chapter three, it was explained that the researcher would
eliminate all surveys with incomplete data. Due to various surveys left blank or
incomplete, the researcher deleted those from the data (n= 98). Additionally, participants
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that indicated no to the question, “are you currently in a romantic relationship” were
deleted due to the previously stated inclusion criteria (n= 4). Deletion of unfinished
surveys and unfitting criteria resulted in n= 588 participants. The survey asked
participants to select a gender (male, female, or other gender). Two individuals identified
as other which would indicate a non-binary gender. The data from these two participants
had to be removed due to the extremely low representation, two out of 588. The total
participants in the sample were n= 586.
Following the deletion of unusable data, items were recoded so that the Likert
scale scores would all be in the same direction. Covariates did not need to be recoded. In
the RAS, question numbers 4 and 7 were recoded due to being reverse-scored. The final
recoded summary score for the RAS indicated that the higher the score, the more satisfied
the respondent is with the relationship. For the mental health questions, number 7, 9, and
11 were recoded for scoring to be kept continuous in terms of direction. The physical
health questions and MVS did not require recoding. After items were recoded to be in the
same direction, sum scores were calculated per scale. Sum scores add up all the item
scores in a scale. The lowest possible score for the mental health questions was 5 and
highest possible score was 30 with a standard deviation of 2.154. The lowest possible
score was for the physical health questions was 6 and highest possible score was 18 with
a standard deviation of 2.824. The lowest possible score was 18 for the MVS and the
highest possible score was 45 with a standard deviation of 5.642. The lowest possible
score was 7 and the highest possible score for the RAS was 35 with a standard deviation
of 5.50. After recoding was complete, descriptive statistics and frequencies were
computed.
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Univariate Analyses
Descriptive statistics and frequencies of the sample have been included to better
understand the study’s participants. The total participants in the study includes 586
individuals. For relationship length, 72 individuals reported being in a relationship for
less than one year, 198 individuals reported one to five years, 138 six to ten years, and
178 eleven years or more. As for childhood finances, 258 people believed they were not
financially well of during childhood and 328 thought they were financially well-off
during childhood. For current finances, 171 believed they were not currently financially
well off and 328 thought they were currently financially well off. In terms of previous
counseling experience, 198 individuals reported ‘no’ they have not been to individual,
couple, or family counseling and 388 reported ‘yes’ they have attended. See Table 1 for
descriptive statistics of the main variables. See Table 2 for frequencies of the study’s
covariates and demographic variables.

Table 1
Descriptive Statistics (n= 586)
Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Skewness SE Kurtosis
MVS 10.00 41.00 23.8208 5.64206 .299 .101 -.466 .202

Mental Health 10.00 23.00 14.9761 2.15457 .485 .101 .409 .202
Physical Health 6.00 18.00 16.4266 2.82460 -1.906 .101 2.727 .202
RAS 7.00 35.00 29.2440 5.49780 -1.300 .101 1.560 .202
Table 2
Frequencies of Covariates (n = 586)
Frequency Percent
Gender
Male 31 5.3
Female 555 94.7

Race
White or Caucasian 501 85.5
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Black or African American 8 1.4
Hispanic 34 5.8
Asian 22 3.8
Other race/ Multi-racial 21 3.6
Relationship
Length Less than one year 72 12.3
One to five years 198 33.8
Six to ten years 138 23.5
178 30.4
Eleven years or more
Childhood
Finances
no 258 44.0
yes 328 56.0
Current Finances
no 171 29.2
yes 415 70.8
Previous Counseling
no 198 33.8
yes 388 66.2
Preliminary and Bivariate Analyses
A series of Pearson correlations were conducted to better understand the
relationship between the study’s dependent and independent variables. Findings from the
correlation analyses indicated there is a statistically significant positive correlation
between materialist values and mental health, (r(584) = .184, p = .000). The correlations
indicated that there’s not a statistically significant correlation between materialist values
and physical health, (r(584) = .027, p = .520). Additionally, there’s a statistically
significant negative correlation between materialist values and relational satisfaction,
(r(584) = -.118, p = .004). There are also correlations between the dependent variables.
Correlation analyses indicated there’s a statistically significant negative correlation
between physical and mental health, (r(584) = -.113, p = .006). It was also found that
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there is a statistically significant positive correlation between physical health and
relational satisfaction (r(584) = .148, p = .000). Lastly, there is a statistically significant
negative correlation between mental health and relational satisfaction (r(584) = -.113, p =
.006). See Table 3 for more information about these analyses.

Table 3.
lations between MVS and Dependent Variables
MVS Mental Health Physical Health RAS

**
MVS Pearson Correlation 1 .184 -.027* -.118**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .520 .004
N 586 586 586 586

** **
Mental Health Pearson Correlation .184 1 -.113 -.113**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .006 .006
N 586 586 586 586
Physical Health Pearson Correlation -.027* -.113** 1 .148**
Sig. (2-tailed) .520 .006 .000
N 586 586 586 586
RAS Pearson Correlation -.118** -.113** .148** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .004 .006 .000
N 586 586 586 586
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Prior to running multivariate analyses, the researcher ran preliminary analyses,
including correlations, independent samples t-tests and one- way ANOVAs. These
analyses were conducted to examine the relationships between the variables within the
study and the results from these analyses informed which of the covariates were to be
included into the hierarchical multiple regression models to answer each of the research
questions. The covariates had to be statistically significant with one of the main
independent and dependent variables in order to be included in the multivariate analyses.
For relationship satisfaction, analyses indicated a statistically significant group difference
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between the relational satisfaction and both childhood finances (t(584) = -1.99, p = .047)
and current finances (t(584) = -4.88, p = .000). All other preliminary findings examining
relational satisfaction and other covariates were not statistically significant. For physical
health, independent t-tests and ANOVA analyses indicated significant group differences
for the following covariates: race (F(4, 581) = 4.658, p = .001), relationship length (F(3,
582) = 5.495, p = .001), childhood finances (t(584) = -3.0882, p = .002), current finances
(t(584) = -2.879, p = .004), and counseling (t(584) = 4.025, p = .000). The preliminary
analysis indicated that the relationship between physical health and gender was not
statistically significant. For mental health, bivariate analysis indicated that relationship
length was the only covariate that was statistically significant (F(3, 582) = 8.869, p =
.000). All other preliminary analyses between mental health and the covariates were
found to be non-significant.
Research Question 1
A hierarchical multiple regression was conducted to determine if there is an
impact between living a materialistic lifestyle and relational satisfaction. The researcher
hypothesized that there will be an impact between living a materialistic lifestyle
and relational satisfaction. Both childhood finances and current finances were utilized as
control variables in the multivariate analysis due to being statistically significant in the
preliminary analyses. Control variables were included in Step 1 of the model, the MVS
was included in Step 2, and relationship satisfaction was included as the dependent
variable. The final regression model was statistically significant (F (3, 582) = 10.019, p <
.001). Childhood and current finances explained 4% of the variance in relational
satisfaction. The R2 for the final model was .049, explaining 4.9% of the variance in
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relational satisfaction predicted by the covariates and materialist values. Childhood
finances was not statistically associated with relationship satisfaction in the final model (t
= .741; p = .459). Both current finances (t = 4.153; p = .000) and the MVS (t = -2.383; p
= .017) were statistically significant predictors in the final model. Therefore, the
researcher’s original hypothesis was supported. Results from the regression can be found
on Table 4.
Table 4.
Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Examining Association between MVS and Relationship Satisfaction (n = 586)
Model 1 Model 2
Variable B SE B β B SE B β
Block 1
Childhood .290 .470 .026 .347 .468 .031

Finances
Current 2.300 .513 .190 2.140 .515 .177
Finances
Block 2
MVS -.095 .040 -.097
Research Question 2
Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were used to answer research question
two: Is there an impact between living a materialistic lifestyle and physical health? The
researcher hypothesized that there will be an impact between living a materialistic
lifestyle and physical health. Preliminary analysis results indicated controlling for the
following variables in this model: race, relationship length, childhood finances, current
finances, and counseling. These covariates were utilized due to being statistically
significant in the preliminary analyses. Control variables were included in Step 1, the
MVS was included in Step 2, and physical health was included as the dependent variable.
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In the first model, the covariates explained 4.9% of the variance in physical
health. Current finances (t = 1.988; p = .047) and counseling (t = -3.609; p = .000) were
the only two control variables that were statistically significant predictors in the final
model. The final regression model was not statistically significant (F (5, 580) = -.733, p =
.464). The R2 for the final model was .050 in the final model explaining 5% of the
variance in physical health predicted by the control variables and materialist values. The
findings from the regression displayed that the MVS was not a statistically significant
predictor of physical health. Thus, the original hypothesis was not supported. Results
from the regression can be seen on Table 5.
Table 5.
Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Examining Association between MVS and Physical Health (n = 586)
Model 1 Model 2
Block 1
Race/ ethnicity -.049 .114 -.018 -.047 .114 -.017
Relationship -.147 .113 -.053 -.165 .116 -.060

Length
Childhood .463 .244 .081 .466 . 244 .082

Finances
Current .552 .264 .089 .529 .266 .085

Finances
Counseling -.883 .244 -.148 -.881 .244 -.148
Block 2
MVS -.015 .021 -.031
Research Question 3
A hierarchical multiple regression was conducted to answer research question
three: Is there an impact between living a materialistic lifestyle and an individual’s
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mental health? The researcher hypothesized that there will be an impact between living a
materialistic lifestyle and an individual’s mental health. Preliminary analyses yielded the
usage of just one covariate: due to being statistically significant in the preliminary
analyses- relationship length. The control variable, relational length was included in Step
1, the MVS was included in Step 2 of the model, and mental health was included as the
dependent variable. Results from Model 1 indicated relationship length is a significant
predictor of mental health and explains 4.3% of the variance. The final regression model
was statistically significant (F (2, 583) = 19.829, p =.000). The R2 for the final model was
.064 explaining 6.4% of the variance in mental health predicted by the control variables
and materialist values. Both relationship length (t = -4.310; p = .000) and
MVS (t= 3.554; p = .000) were statistically significant predictors in the final
model. Therefore, the original hypothesis was supported. Results from the regression can
be seen on Table 6.
Table 6
Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Examining Association between MVS and Mental Health (n = 586)
Model 1 Model 2
Block 1
Relationship -.437 .085 -.208 -.371 .086 -.177

Length
Block 2
MVS .056 .016 146
Chapter four described the process of the statistical analyses performed as well as
results of the current study. The chapter began by explaining measures taken to prescreen
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the data and data clean. Missing data and ineligible participants were removed from the
study’s sample. Thus, the study’s final participants total was 586. Next, univariate
statistics were conducted to describe the participants. Preliminary and bivariate analyses
were conducted to better understand the participants and variables. The three research
questions were answered by multivariate statistical analyses: hierarchical multiple
regressions. The results for research question one supported the hypothesis as it displayed
statistically significant results for relational satisfaction. The results for research question
two did not support the hypothesis as it displayed statistically insignificant findings for
physical health. Finally, the results for research question three supported the hypothesis
as it showed statistically significant results for mental health.
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CHAPTER V
DISCUSSION
The purpose of this project was to explore the role of materialism in reference to
impacts on relationship satisfaction, physical health, and mental health. This chapter
examines the statistical analyses provided in chapter four. This chapter discusses
interpretations of all three of the study’s hypotheses. Clinical implications for marriage
and family therapists to work with individuals, couples, and families to better their
relationships will also be discussed. Additionally, this chapter lists limitations and future
directions to continue research on minimalism and relational satisfaction.
Interpretation of Hypotheses
Hypothesis 1
Research question one asked, “Is there an impact between living a materialistic
lifestyle and relational satisfaction?” The researcher hypothesized that there would be an
impact between living a materialistic lifestyle and relational satisfaction. The hypothesis
was supported as the results of research question one were statistically significant,
meaning that materialist values did negatively impact relational satisfaction. There has
been plenty of literature that has documented a negative relationship between materialism
and life satisfaction (Belk, 1984, 1985; Dawson & Bamossy, 1991; Kau et al., 2000;
LaBarbera & Gurhan, 1997; Richins, 1987; Richins & Dawson, 1990, 1992; Ryan &
Dziurawiec, 2001; Sirgy et al., 1995, 1998). Additionally, a study has shown that
individuals who are less materialistic are happier (Howell et al., 2012). Lower
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materialism was found to be associated with increased happiness and decreased
depressive symptoms (Muniz-Velazquez et al., 2017). Individuals that spend more of
their money on experiential purchases have more happiness in their lives as they expend
income on their memories, which are deemed not replaceable or upgradeable (Howell et
al., 2012). Thus, spending money on activities that contribute to happiness would also
increase relational satisfaction. Another reason for this could be that individuals engaging
in materialistic endeavors such as shopping, may have less time to engage in other
activities with their romantic partner which may contribute to overall relational
satisfaction.
Hypothesis 2
Research question two asked, “How does living a materialistic lifestyle impact an
individual’s physical health?” The hypothesis stated, “Living a materialistic lifestyle will
negatively impact an individual’s physical health.” The hypothesis was not supported as
materialist values did not statistically significantly impact physical health. The results
from this study does not match the available literature discussed in earlier chapters.
Previously reviewed literature connected physical health and materialism (Belk, 1985;
Burroughs & Rindfleisch, 2002; Lee, Chang, Cheng, & Lin, 2018; Rindfleisch et al.,
2009; Ryan & Dziurawiec, 2001). The findings of this study do not coincide with prior
literature and one reason for this may be due to the scale utilized to measure physical
health. Limitations of the scale utilized to measure physical health may explain the lack
of statistical significance between the independent and dependent variable. However,
current finances and previous counseling were statistically significant predictors of
physical health which are important factors to consider. The findings from the current
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study display that the answer to what impacts physical health may be other contributors
such as mental health which was found statistically significant (research question three).
In addition, there may be different measures for physical health that would better capture
the aspects of physical health that more relate to MVS such as assessing for chronic
health conditions like heart diabetes, cancer, stroke, addiction, etc.
Another reason for statistically insignificant results could be that the scale only assessed
for physical limitations. For example, a person could have diabetes or high cholesterol
but have no limited abilities in terms of climbing stairs or walking a block. All six
questions asked about an activity and the amount of time it was limited for, thus,
someone may have had physical limitations over a year ago but since it is just asking
about “three months or longer,” past limits would likely not be accounted for. Lastly,
there may be other constructs to include as covariates in future research that may be more
statistically significant such as life satisfaction, age, geographic location, and family
structure.
Hypothesis 3
Research question three asked, “How does living a materialistic lifestyle impact
an individual’s mental health?” The researcher hypothesized that living a materialistic
lifestyle will negatively impact an individual’s mental health. The results from the
hierarchical multiple regression displayed that the hypothesis was supported that living a
materialistic lifestyle negatively impacts an individual’s mental health. This finding
aligns with past research that states materialism has been linked to lower levels of mental
and emotional health (Belk, 1985; Kasser et al., 2004; McCullought et al., 2002; Puente-
Díaz & Cavazos-Arroyo, 2015). Additionally, prior research has stated that engaging in
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experiences is significantly linked with psychological well-being, more so than having
material goods (Muniz-Velazquez et al., 2017). Therefore, it is important to note that
living a materialistic lifestyle may decrease an individual’s mental health. It is important
that individuals understand the negative effects of living a materialistic lifestyle as the
mental health impacts can be extremely detrimental.
Clinical Implications
The findings from this dissertation displayed statistically significant results
between materialistic value’s impact on both relational satisfaction and mental health.
With the knowledge of these effects and how materialistic values can negatively impact
people, it is important to discuss the clinical implications. These clinical implications are
recommendations for marriage and family therapists to implement within their clinical
practice with individuals, couples, and families.
Results from this study indicated that both current finances and materialist values
were statistically significant predictors of relational satisfaction. This finding coincided
with previous research. A study pursued ways to decrease impulsive, emphasizing the
reduction of impulsive online shopping (Li et al., 2019). Findings displayed process
simulation and downward outcome simulation could be an easy and efficient tool for
materialistic individuals to reduce their online impulsive buying (Li et al., 2019).
Financial habits can be emulated by your partner, for example if your partner is bad with
saving and finances it may affect you. It certainly makes sense to go off what your
partner is doing because they are socialization agents, they influence you (Curran et al.,
2018). Therapists should advise that these financial conversations happen both at home
and in the context of therapy and there on after.
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Additionally, issues of power and control may arise if these things are not
discussed (Curran et al., 2018). Making decisions together and talking about them help in
becoming closer and more satisfied (Curran et al., 2018). It may be beneficial for MFTs
to assess partners for materialistic tendencies specifically when overconsumption is
impacting the couple relationship. MFTs can facilitate important and transparent
conversations about these habits. Additionally, female partners have been blamed for
relational issues due to spending and overconsumption (Hendrick, 1981). A partner
blaming their partner for a lifestyle choice for materialism is a necessary discussion for
MFTs to bring up during sessions, especially in how it can be detrimental to the
relationship. Further, MFTs are advised to not blame due to societal gender norms as
male partners may also engage in this type of lifestyle.
Findings from this study showed that materialistic values are significant
predictors of poorer reported mental health and relational satisfaction. These findings
show why it is so important to live more minimalistically to be able to improve these
outcomes. However, what if a couple doesn’t want to live a minimalistic lifestyle?
Although, the study’s results showed that materialistic values can negatively impact
mental health and relational satisfaction, it doesn’t seem appropriate to force that type of
lifestyle on someone. “A clutter- free existence exerts a constant pressure that’s
oppressive in its own way” (Havrilesky, 2018, p. 77). Further, as previously cited in the
literature, the minimalism lifestyle must be chosen to obtain the corresponding benefits.
Millburn and Nicodemus (2015) explained that “organizing is well planned hoarding” (p.
29). Additionally, they connect how it all equates to the accumulation of stuff and utilize
metaphor for a war between the two: the organizers and hoarders. Whether one is
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organizing a collection of items or have it all in a mess array, the overconsumption is still
present.
This study found that materialistic values are significant predictors of both mental
health and relational satisfaction. Havrilesky (2018) wrote a series of essays that incline
people to reject society’s concept of ‘enough’ and rather, personally define it. She also
addresses the ‘broken’ American culture which she claims could be attributed to the
dream of the consistent pursual of the ‘bigger and better.’ It has been said that the
American dream is simple, just buy stuff and the happiness will come (Millburn &
Nicodemus, 2014). The whole process starts so young; American children are taught that
the American Dream, being infatuated with overconsumption, is crucial to success and
happiness (VanderPyl, 2019). “We first-world humans have always had a conflicted
relationship with our belongings” (Havrilesky, 2018; p.72). Every celebration and
holiday is centered around giving and receiving material items (Havrilesky, 2018). MFTs
are urged to not only discuss the relationship with their materials, but how couples with
children can mitigate these risks associated with materialistic values as found in this
study. Engaging in overconsumption, is something that is taught and reinforced
frequently MFTs may assist couples in understanding how these patterns are passed down
and repeated.
Relational quality doesn’t assume that couples are happy or do not have problems,
rather, it runs under the idea that couples are working at meeting the needs and
expectations the couple has in place for their relationship (Chonody et al., 2018; Gabb &
Fink, 2015). An article suggested daily logs to assess relational satisfaction, they
explained how tracking this subjective report would provide more insight into
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communication and interactions which would be contributing to the scores (Duck, 1994;
Hendrick et al., 1998). Therefore, therapists are advised to work with couples to
determine their expectations of materialism and minimalism to create their own
expectations and be able to meet them as well as to increase relational quality. Further,
therapists may also urge couples to do activities together. It makes sense that the findings
of this study showed materialism negatively impacts relational satisfaction. These
findings can inform how to proceed clinically to help facilitate better romantic
relationships as well as future research on factors to improve these relationships.
The findings from this study display that materialistic values are a significant
predictor of relational satisfaction. “Not only do modern consumer choices rarely bring
us long-term satisfaction, but they’re exhausting. It takes a lot of energy to recognize
which signifiers will place you in the dreadful almost-past with the know-nothings who
aren’t always moving forward, always casting off and acquiring more, always focused on
what comes next” (Havrilesky, 2018, p. 78). Thus, it is difficult to be satisfied if nothing
ever seems like it is enough. People all believe they are entitled to a life of luxury
(Havrilesky, 2018). But what if luxury was a relationship in which both couples have
their needs met and are satisfied with their partnership? There needs to be an alteration in
the ideology people hold about material items by mental health professionals helping
people to put the focus on what they have already (Tsang et al., 2014). MFTs and other
mental health professionals are advised to process the meanings and feelings they
associate with such materials.
Medical Family Therapy
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MedFT employs a biopsychosocial approach to assess presenting problems in the
context of the client’s family, community, health care system, and culture (McDaniel,
1995; McDaniel et al., 2014; Tadros et al., 2019). Individual’s biological, psychological,
and social experiences interrelate and effect each other in intricate ways (McDaniel,
1995). MedFT’s goal is to encourage the healing and well-being of clients (McDaniel et
al., 2014; Zubatsky et al., 2017), therefore, this encompasses multiple types of health.
However, typically, in our society mental health services have been deemed as less
significant of an issue than medical care when considering overall well- being (Pelletier,
2002). Therefore, this study’s results were particularly interesting as materialism was
found to be a significant predictor of mental health, but not physical health.
Signs (2015) connected narrative therapy’s letter writing to MedFT by urging
patients to write about their pain and associated feelings. This would additionally aid in
finding new meanings and reauthoring their stories (Signs, 2015). MedFT strives to
lessen the stigma about mental health as it looks at health holistically and in a
comprehensive manner which coincides with the findings of this study as both.
Furthermore, in clinical practice, it is also recommended to utilize this approach.
Although, the findings of this study found materialist values was not a significant
predictor of physical health, both having undergone counseling and current finances were
found to be significant predictors of physical health. In assessing for physical health
problems within the therapy room, therapists are advised to also inquire about current
finances and how couples manage them together. The conversations therapists have with
clients may reveal struggles couples are having in references to finances as well as
spending habits, overconsumption practice, and materialist values. The intersection of
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these topics is clear as previous studies have noted negative impacts of overconsumption
on physical health (Ryan & Dziurawiec, 2001). Thus, a discussion of current finances and
how to best manage them may be particularly beneficial to physical health. A model of
therapy that includes physical as well as mental health would be optimal due to these
findings. Therefore, counseling that employs MedFT concepts may be useful in
discussing issues pertaining to physical health. Further, MedFT ideologies could be used
as an adjunct in the discussion of finances as they have also shown to be a predictor of
physical health problems. These findings can inform clinical practice and especially the
importance of conceptualizing with MedFT lens. Thus, MFTs are advised to apply
principles of MedFT into their clinical practice.
Mindfulness
Based on the findings from this study displaying that materialistic values are a
significant predictor of mental health and relational satisfaction, mindfulness is a
recommended strategy for increasing mental health and relational satisfaction while
decreasing materialistic values. Mindfulness is “the awareness that emerges through
paying attention, on purpose, in the present moment and non-judgmentally to the
unfolding of the experience moment by moment” (Kabat-Zinn, 2003, p. 145).
Mindfulness entails gaining knowledge to control the concentration of attention (Lynch et
al., 2006). It has been found that mindfulness-based techniques are associated with
healthier decision-making, awareness, acknowledgement of emotions, and increased
focus (Christopher & Maris, 2010). By being mindful, people can concentrate on both
their external environments and their internal experiences (Kabat-Zinn, 2003).
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Mindfulness has been used in conjunction with Dialectical Behavioral Therapy
(DBT) in a recent study (Finney & Tadros, 2019). Mindfulness assists with the regulation
of difficult emotions (Siegel, 2014) as well as can be used to de-escalate periods of crisis
in couples (Finney & Tadros, 2019). MFTs can assist clients to develop awareness of
themselves and their partner. “Mindfulness is a powerful antidote to the human tendency
toward automatic responding, which corporations and advertisers exploit in the service of
consumerism” (Rosenberg, 2004, p. 115). Therefore, mindfulness can be used to
acknowledge issues within consumerism. One being the unconscious psychological
processes that advertisers hope to speak to and life dissatisfaction’s brief solution by
consumption (Rosenberg, 2004).
Vollmann, Sprang, and van den Brink (2019) found that gratitude interventions
were discovered to have positive effects on relational outcomes, for example, relationship
satisfaction, perception of the person, and ease in expressing relationship concerns.
Individuals with the will to practice mindfulness have been shown to be linked positively
with the usage of constructive conflict strategy use (Harvey et al., 2019). In addition,
willingness to practice mindfulness is negatively linked with damaging conflict strategy
usage when individuals have a disagreement with their romantic partner. Thus, aiding
distressed and high-conflict couples in implementing a new interaction pattern that will
assist in the increasing of intimacy and relational satisfaction necessitates each partner to
stop their current customary patterns and trust the therapeutic process (Zrenchik, 2015).
The findings from this dissertation displayed that materialist values negatively impacted
both relational satisfaction and mental health; thus, therapists can utilize mindfulness to
mitigate this impact.
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Cultivating Change: Increasing Relational Satisfaction via Minimalism
This study’s findings showed that materialist values negatively impacted both
relational satisfaction and mental health. These findings display a need for change. The
goal of this section is to discuss creating meaningful advancement towards a lesser
materialistic lifestyle with the goal of increasing relational satisfaction within couples.
Cultivating change necessitates more sweeping solutions than just the development of
new products and product replacements amongst consumers. The anti-consumption task
poses some critical questions about how to encourage such notions to make them
conventional among consumers. It must be considered what role marketing plays within
this process as well (Barr et al., 2011). All groups of people including governments,
businesses, families and communities, the public sector, voluntary and community
organizations need to make different life adaptations if we are to realize the vision of
sustainable expansion (Barr et al., 2011). Studies have been done that show community-
based changes are more likely to be successfully than people working individually to
make changes to their lifestyles. Community support and engagement leads to higher
rates of success (Middlemiss, 2011). Therefore, changing a societal view on this will also
contribute to making more micro-level changes, such as, in romantic relationships.
Sustainable living is an option for reaching this goal of a more minimalistic society and it
will be introduced below.
Sustainable Living
Sustainability is often researched in regard to environmental science and finances,
but it is rarely studied to measure social impact of a minimalist or materialist lifestyle.
Unlike overconsumption and consumerism practices, sustainability is a completely
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opposite lifestyle choice. Sustainability is defined as reconsidering our ways of living,
what we buy and how we consolidate our everyday lives (Sustainable Lifestyles
Taskforce, 2010). It is also about changing and transforming how we socialize, exchange,
share, educate and build identities. It means altering our societies and living in accord
with our environment (Axon 2017; Sustainable Lifestyles Taskforce, 2010). A variety of
research has shown that there are significant toxic effects on environment due to
overconsumption (DesJardins, 1999; Garcia-Ruiz & Rodriguez-Lluesma, 2015; Gardiner,
2004; Peifer et al., 2019). Environmental effects are of particular interest in the media
due to ‘debates’ about global warming. It is crucial that we minimize the negative effects
of human behavior to reduce the harmful consequence to the environment. Minimalist
lifestyles aid in preserving the environment; thus, this is one of the many benefits of this
lifestyle.
Sustainable living is a relatively new concept and has not been studied extensively
compared to other concepts in mental health. An article focused on the concept of
sustainable happiness where people are responsible for how they pursue happiness
(O’Brien, 2013). The article focuses on how happiness does not occur in isolation and
that an individual’s happiness cannot come at the expense of other people or the
environment (O’Brien, 2013). A pilot study assessed sustainable behavior and topic areas
such as pro-ecological, frugal, altruistic, and equitable activities (Fraijo-Sing et al., 2013).
This study also assessed for happiness, and a positive correlation was found between
engaging in sustainable behaviors and happiness (Fraijo-Sing et al., 2013). Therefore, this
study showcases the positive correlation between living sustainably and happiness.
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Knowing this, it may be presumed that relational satisfaction may also increase as a
sustainable lifestyle is employed.
A biological aspect to consider that opposes sustainability is acquisitiveness;
acquisitiveness is widely considered as a primary human feature (Preston et al., 2009). It
motivates people to not only obtain items that increase our survival or reproductive
potent, but to also acquire, passively obtain, and fail to shed a wide assortment of items
that we may never even use. People vary widely in this acquisitive inclination (Preston et
al., 2009). The range is immense varying from minimalists to compulsive hoarders (Frost,
Steketee et al., 2000; Steketee et al., 2001). In a culture where items are superfluous it is
easy to acquire items but difficult to manage and let go of (Wang et al., 2012).
People many not recognize the direct effects between environmental issues and
how it could affect our long-term relational networks, but researchers such as Kantola et
al. (1983), Baldassare and Katz (1992), and Segun et al. (1998) have argued that
environmental concerns serve as tangible threats to the self and a wider network of family
and friends. They note that a higher level of participation in environmental issues in
needed (Barr & Gilg, 2006). The ripple effect is currently unknown and we do not know
what could happen to humanity if these conservation concerns are not addressed. The
sustainability concept openly incorporates both the fulfilment of human needs and the
need of protecting the natural environment (Tapia-Fonllem et al., 2013). Attitudes about
the environment and their relationship to behavior have been a major topic of study (e.g.,
Dunlap & Van Liere, 1978; Lipsey, 1977). One study began to look at the various short,
medium, and long-term barriers to implementation to sustainable lifestyles. A multitude
of factors, both enablers and barriers, were found to impede the establishment of
82
sustainable lifestyles (Axon, 2017). The above section discussed how a sustainable
lifestyle coincides with living minimalistically and therefore can cultivate change.
More recent research surrounding sustainability has documented the link between
ecology and materialism which may be of interest within policy (Thyroff & Kilbourne,
2018). sustainability is connected to living a minimalistic lifestyle. Consumerism has
been frequently been confused for power and can tell an incorrect narrative of an
individual (Makant, 2010).
The marriage and family therapy/ counseling field has shown much interest and
the ecological movement display a pronounced curiosity in overall family sustainability
and well-being. (First et al., 2012). While broad interest in this topic has generated buzz
over recent years inquisitiveness alone is not enough to propel this concept forward into
something tangible. Sustainable happiness is another concept that intersects with
sustainable living. Sustainable happiness contributes to individual, family, community
and global well-being without exploiting others, the environment, or future generations
(O’Brien, 2013).
Despite the overlap between minimalism, environmental sustainability, and
systemic thinking, marriage and family therapists (MFTs) have remained quiet about the
implication of sustainability in training and clinical practice (Blumer et al., 2012). This
study shows us that while MFTs are aware of our place in the eco-system it is often a
system that is overlooked for various reasons, such as not knowing practical applications
for treatment, disinterest and ambiguity of the topic (Blumer et al., 2012). Others felt the
topic was too broad to connect back to treatment for families (Blumer et al., 2012). There
is an inherent link between family systems and ecosystems that could provide bases for
83
different treatments such as eco-informed therapy, but more research needs to be done to
see if this can improve treatment outcomes for families (Blumer et al., 2012).
It has also been noted that sustainability from a psychological lens has been
somewhat limited and more needs to be done to give us more of a lens on how
environmental issues confront humanity in a real way. Multidisciplinary research and
policy change are urgently called for to create hope for a sustainable future (McKenzie-
Mohr, 2006). If people do not work together in an interdisciplinary fashion, it would be a
disserve to neglect the ways to solve long term problems that may plague humanity. A
dissertation that explored happiness and sustainability submits that a sustainable society
can be achieved by scaling back expectations of consumption and consumerism, but this
can only be achieved through fostering cultural changes through social policy
(Kantenbacher, 2018). Sustainable living is form of cultivating change; it is also a way to
live militaristically.
Limitations
Despite the various strengths of this study, there are limitations that must be
transparently discussed. There are limitations to this study due to survey research. Survey
responses were limited to those who have internet access to be able to participate. Thus,
participants who do not have access to the internet based on socioeconomic status may
have been excluded due to this. This may be a limitation because there may be
individuals of a lower socioeconomic status that are not represented. Also, people must
be able to read the English language to participate in the study. Therefore, the perspective
of individuals who live in the U.S., but do not speak English were excluded. This could
be a limitation by not having these perspectives reflected.
84
Also, the limitations of the research design are that researchers can try to
manipulate the variables before enough information is known about a particular
phenomenon (Heppner et al., 2016). Reliability and validity of the observations and the
generalizability of the sample are key issues in descriptive research but using random
sampling can help reduce bias in the study (Heppner et al., 2016). Sample bias may be an
issue as 94% of the survey participants were women and 85% of the participants were
White. This calls for a more diverse sample in terms of gender and race. Further, these
results may not be generalizable to other cultures being from the U.S.
Additionally, in reference to scales utilized, the lack of significance between
physical health and materialistic values may be due to the SF-20. The SF-20 permits the
calculation of a global rating yet does not allow for an individual to rate the severity or
importance of these issues (Aaronson et al., 1989; Carver et al., 1999; Donovan et al.,
1993; Gill & Feinstein, 1994). Thus, a limitation of this particular scale may be that not
all physical health concerns or even the majority of health concerns cannot be examined
with this scale.
Another limitation is in reference to independence of the data. Independence of
the data cannot be an assumption made as people who were partners participated and
there is no way of knowing if two partners in a romantic relationship but participated.
Further, it is known that partners may have other reasons to continue a relationship in
which they are dissatisfied, however, partners in a romantic relationship are expected to
be more satisfied than dissatisfied, otherwise they may not stay in the relationship. This
may account for the high scores in terms of relational satisfaction. Lastly, while
significant the variance accounted for was relatively small and more work is needed to
85
better understand the relationships between minimalism and health and minimalism and
relational satisfaction. It is a limitation to have a smaller variance and the researcher
advocates for future research especially due to this.
Future Directions
Speaking from a marriage and family therapist and counselor’s point of view, it is
vital that clinical implications, advocacy steps, and research directions be provided. In
suggesting areas of growth in all three of these subsections provide ideas as well as
practical solutions to the issues discussed. To begin building off what this study has
found it is important to discuss the major strength of this study which was 1) looking at
minimalism from a MFT lens and 2) bridging the connection between materialist values
and different dimensions of health: physical, mental, and relational.
The study’s limitations shed light on what can be improved in future studies. The
limitations section explained that the sample was not diverse in reference to both gender
and race, this calls for a more diverse sample, specifically more males and people of
color. The diversity within the sample may yield different or more statistically significant
predictors of physical health, mental health, and relational satisfaction. Another
demographic piece of information that was not collected was age and future studies may
want to explore how age/ life experience may have some different data points.
Additionally, this study did not assess for sexual preference. Research has not
documented differences in reference to relational satisfaction amongst lesbian and gay
couples and heterosexual couples (Patterson, 2000; Peplau & Cochran, 1990; Peplau &
Fingerhut, 2007; Pepping & Halford, 2014). In a future study, it would be interesting to
look at differences between individuals with diverse sexual preferences in terms of
86
materialistic lifestyles. In addition, the limitations of this study were surrounding the
assumption of independence within the data. However, since this data wasn’t necessarily
independent or dyadic, a future study could be enhanced by using dyadic data. This future
study could include couples and look at differences between partners as well as other
potential predictors that may directly impact the couple relationship.
Looking at minimalism through a systemic lens, specifically MedFT, allowed for
a biopsychosocial approach to the conceptualization of mental and physical health
problems. Not using a systemic approach may lead to the bypassing of MFTs in
healthcare as well as who is actually the focus of treatment, individuals versus individuals
and families (Christenson et al., 2011; O’Farrell et al., 1996). Rationalization for the
amalgamation of mental and physical health services has been long overdue (Christenson
et al., 2011; Kiecolt-Glaser & Newton, 2001). Future researchers are urged to continue
the usage of a MedFT lens when studying the relationship between physical health and
materialism or minimalism. The MedFT framework may guide future studies that go
beyond the scope of this dissertation by studying intersections of other systems that
require a more comprehensive view of healthcare.
Kahneman (2011) elucidates that happiness and satisfaction are distinct
constructs. He explains that happiness is a short-term experience that occurs
spontaneously and is brief. Satisfaction on the other hand, is a long-term sensation,
constructed over time and founded on achieving goals and building the kind of life one
loves. He contests that people don’t seem to want to be happy and that they actually want
to increase their satisfaction with themselves and with their lives which leads in entirely
different directions than the augmentation of happiness (Kahneman, 2011). Thus, it is
87
wondered how this satisfaction is achieved relationally if Kahneman’s theory is correct.
Additionally, would this pursuit of satisfaction be similar if an individual is seeking this
relationally? New research is needed to explore this.
Hendrick (1981) found that high reciprocity between partners, found a positive
relationship between self-disclosure and marital satisfaction. He also found that self-
disclosure was a significant predictor of marital satisfaction. Hendrick’s (1981) study is a
springboard for future studies, specifically, surrounding self-disclosing habits of
overconsumption and materialistic values prior to marriage. Qualitative or quantitative
analyses can be used to assess for potential differences prior to marriage and while or
post- marriage. This would also serve to promote open and honest communication
between romantic partners and potential predictors of better relational satisfaction.
MFTs are great facilitators of such conversations and can advocate for their occurrence.
As previously discussed, it was found that the emotion of ‘awe’ may reduce
feelings of loneliness as well as aid in overcoming materialistic tendencies (Kaplan-Oz &
Miller, 2017). Perhaps if feelings of awe were incorporated into a relationship, this could
be a protective factor for couples experiencing loneliness and/or hold materialistic values.
Thus, increasing positively deemed emotions into romantic relationships may
additionally lower materialistic propensities. This is certainly something to explore in a
future study surrounding strategies to increase positive emotions within a relationship
while also examining if these techniques helped lower materialistic tendencies. In
addition, a study found that gratitude was found to be a direct mediator between
materialism and life satisfaction (Tsang et al., 2014). A new study could potentially build
88
off these results and examine how gratitude towards a partner could facilitate better
relational satisfaction.
There are longitudinal links of materialism and sexual satisfaction within couples
(Leavitt et al., 2019). Thus, there is a need for future research to explore materialism
impacts on intimacy and assess for sexual frequency and satisfaction. Intriguingly, the
RAS is highly correlated with the commonly used Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS)
(Hendrick et al., 1998). Therefore, a future study could use both the DAS and RAS along
with the MVS to assess dyadic adjustment and how materialist values impact couple’s
adjustment. Additionally, to date, there is not a single article that utilizes MedFT to
understand minimalism or materialism.
In future studies, a major necessity is to develop a measure to directly assess
minimalism not through materialism. It was stated as a limitation of this study that a
materialism scale was utilized rather than one for minimalism. Unfortunately, a
minimalism scale has yet to exist. One must be created to be able to most accurately
assess and understand a minimalistic lifestyle. Lastly, minimalism literature is not
academic, typically one must rely on books, blogs, or magazines to find such
information. There is a need for peer-reviewed, scholarly articles on minimalism and it’s
impacts on relationships and health.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to explore the role of materialism in reference to
impacts on relationship satisfaction, physical health, and mental health. These findings
display the need for a change in how people view their relationship with possessions as it
has shown to have negative impacts on mental health and relational satisfaction. This
89
study found that materialist values effected relationship satisfaction as well as mental
health. It is imperative that these findings are utilized to enhance overall health and
relationships. The researcher hopes these findings will help create new avenues in clinical
research to benefit family systems and lead to further research on this lifestyle choice to
improve relational satisfaction within couples.
90
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APPENDIX A
Informed Consent for Participation in Research
Title of Research Study:

Understanding minimalism through a Medical Family Therapy lens
Introduction:
My name is Michelle Cappetto and I am a doctoral student in the Counselor Education
and Supervision Marriage and Family Therapy program at The University of Akron. For
my dissertation, I am conducting a study on relationship satisfaction and minimalism.
Purpose:
The purpose of this dissertation is the add to the extremely small pool of literature on
minimalism, address the physical and mental aspects that are engrained in engaging in
this type of lifestyle, and understand its potential impacts in terms of relationships.
Procedures:
You will be asked to rate statements about how you feel in your current relationship, your
attitude towards materialism, how often you engage in different physical activities, and
how often you have different feelings. Approximately 250 adults will be recruited for the
study. You will be recruited via email, social media, or through the School of Counseling
listserv. For this online survey, all questions asked are multiple choice. The entire survey
will take approximately 15 minutes.
Inclusion:
To participate in this study, you must be:
● 18 years of age, or older
● Currently in a romantic relationship
Individuals will be excluded from the study if they do not meet the above criteria.
Risks and Discomforts: (See note to clearly list specific referral numbers here or at
end)
Answering questions regarding one’s mental and physical health may lead to some
discomfort. If you find participating in this survey causes distress, you may discontinue
from participating. If you experience any emotional distress, contact the National
Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI) helpline at 1(800)950-NAMI.
Benefits:
126
At the end of the survey, you have the option to enter your e-mail to be entered into a
raffle for a $25 Visa gift card. Four gift cards will be raffled off. The researcher will
contact the winners by e-mail once data collection is completed. Your e-mail will not be
linked to your survey responses.
It is hoped that the findings can be used to better understand minimalistic lifestyles and
its impact on relational satisfaction and further contribute to research in the field of
marriage and family therapy. Also, the findings will be used to inform treatment
strategies in the field of marriage and family therapy.
Right to Refuse or Withdraw:

Participation in this study is voluntary. You may refuse to participate or withdraw from
the study at any time by exiting the survey. There is no penalty or loss of benefits to
which you are otherwise entitled for not agreeing to participate or withdrawing from the
study.
Confidentiality of Records & Limits to Confidentiality:

Your responses will be kept confidential (e.g. by only accessing via a password-protected
computer) and used only for research purposes. In the event that you report any serious
harm or intended plan to harm to themselves, another person, building, disabled person, a
child, or elderly person, etc., the researcher, due to being a mandated reporter, is required
to file proper documentation and/or consult with her advisor and dissertation chair, Dr.
Rikki Patton, and/or necessary figures of authority. All efforts will be made to maintain
participant confidentiality. It is noted that part of the project includes information
pertaining to their relationship with their romantic partner. Data will only be presented or
published in aggregate form.
Who to Contact with Questions:

As a participant, you have the right to ask questions about the study at any time. If you
have any questions regarding this study, please contact the research, Michelle Cappetto,
at mac223@zips.uakron.edu. The University of Akron Institutional Review Board has
reviewed and approved this project. If you have any questions about your rights as a
research participant, you may call the university’s IRB at (330) 972-7666.
Agreement:
Click below to either agree or disagree to consent to participate in the study. By
consenting to participate, you are agreeing that you:
● Have read this consent form and are willing to participate in the study
● Have been informed of the potential risks
● Are 18 years of age or older
● Understand that your participation in this research is completely voluntary and
that you can stop participating at anytime
127
APPENDIX B
Institutional Review Board Form
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129
130
131
132
133
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135
APPENDIX C
DEMOGRAPHICS SURVEY
1. What is your gender?
1 = male
2 = female
3= other gender
2. What is your race/ ethnicity?
1= White or Caucasian
2= Black or African American
3= Hispanic
4= Asian
5= Other race/ Multi-racial
3. Are you currently in a romantic relationship?
1= no
2= yes
4. How long have you been in your current romantic relationship?
1= Less than one year
2= One to five years
3= Five to ten years
4= Ten years or more
136
5. Do you believe you and your family were financially well-off during childhood?
1= no
2= yes
6. Do you believe you are currently financially well-off?
1= no
2= yes
7. Have you ever been to individual, couple, or family counseling?
1= no
2= yes
137
APPENDIX D
The following statements are about life and material items. Rate each statement from 1 to
5 where 1 is strongly disagree and 5 is strongly agree.
1. I admire people who own expensive homes, cars, and clothes.
1 2 3 4 5
2. The things I own say a lot about how well I’m doing in life.
1 2 3 4 5
3. I like to own things that impress people.
1 2 3 4 5
4. I try to keep my life simple, as far as possessions are concerned.
1 2 3 4 5
5. Buying things gives me a lot of pleasure.
1 2 3 4 5
6. I like a lot of luxury in my life.
1 2 3 4 5
7. My life would be better if I owned certain things I don’t have.
1 2 3 4 5
8. I’d be happier if I could afford to buy more things.
1 2 3 4 5
9. It sometimes bothers me quite a bit that I can’t afford to buy all the things I’d like.
1 2 3 4 5
138
APPENDIX E
For how long (if at all) has your health limited you in each of the following activities?
1. The kinds or amounts of vigorous activities you can do
1. Limited for more than 3 months

2. Limited for 3 months or less
3. Not limited at all
2. The kinds or amounts of moderate activities you can do

3. Walking uphill or climbing a few flights of stairs

4. Bending, lifting or stooping

5. Walking one block

6. Eating, dressing, bathing or using the toilet

7. How much of the time, during the past month, have you been a very nervous person:
139
1. all of the time
2. most of the time
3. quite a lot of the time
4. some of the time
5. a little of the time
6. none of the time
8. During the past month, how much of the time have you felt calm and peaceful:
1. none of the time

3. some of the time
5. most of the time
6. all of the time
9. During the past month, how much of the time have you felt downhearted and blue:
1. all of the time

2. most of the time
4. some of the time
6. none of the time
10. During the past month, how much of the time have you been a happy person:
1. none of the time

3. some of the time
5. most of the time
6. all of the time
11. How often, during the last month, have you felt in the dumps that nothing could ever
cheer you up:
1. all of the time

2. most of the time
4. some of the time
6. none of the time
140
APPENDIX F
RELATIONSHIP ASSESSMENT SCALE
Please mark on the answer sheet for each item which best answers that item for you based
on a traditional likert scale (1= low, 5= high):
1. How well does your partner meet your needs?
1 2 3 4 5
2. In general, how satisfied are you with your relationship?
1 2 3 4 5
3. How good is your relationship compared to most?
1 2 3 4 5
4. How often do you wish you hadn’t gotten in this relationship?
1 2 3 4 5
5. To what extent has your relationship met your original expectations:
1 2 3 4 5
6. How much do you love your partner?
1 2 3 4 5
7. How many problems are there in your relationship?
1 2 3 4 5
141
APPENDIX G
SURVEY DEBRIEF
Thank you for your time. I appreciate you partaking in my dissertation survey. If any
emotional distress is caused or experienced, you are encouraged to contact the National
Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI) helpline at 1(800)950-NAMI to obtain mental health
treatment and follow-up, as well as referrals in your area. Please enter your email if you
would like to be considered for the $25 gift card, if not click 'complete.'
142

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THE IMPACT OF MINIMALISM ON HEALTH AND RELATIONAL

SATISFACTION: UNDERSTANDING MINIMALISM THROUGH A MEDICAL

FAMILY THERAPY LENS

The Graduate Faculty of The University of Akron

of the Requirement for the Degree

SATISFACTION: UNDERSTANDING MINIMALISM THROUGH A MEDICAL

FAMILY THERAPY LENS

admitting me as a student in 2017 and taking a chance on my research which was

such as the work of Marie Kondo and The Minimalists.

overwhelmed by the amount of responses I received. Combining my love for marriage

to happiness and life satisfaction. Live simply, love authentically.

Minimalism: A Chosen Lifestyle............................................................................1

Overconsumption: A Materialistic Epidemic .........................................................4

Physical Health Effects................................................................................5

Mental/Emotional Health Effects.................................................................6

Anxiety and Depression...............................................................................9

Social Isolation .........................................................................................11

Materialism and Relational Satisfaction................................................................13

Summary of Chapter 1...........................................................................................18

II. LITERATURE REVIEW..............................................................................................20

Mental Health ...........................................................................................26

Intersection of Materialism and Relational Satisfaction........................................33

Medical Family Therapy (MedFT)........................................................................36

Summary of Chapter 2...........................................................................................42

Research Questions ..............................................................................................44

Relationship Length ..................................................................................51

Childhood Family Financial Status ..........................................................51

Current Financial Status...........................................................................51

Therapeutic Services .................................................................................51

Material Values Scale (MVS) Short Form ................................................52

The Relationship Satisfaction Scale (RAS) ...............................................55

Data Analysis Plan.................................................................................................56

Missing Data .........................................................................................................57

Summary of Chapter 3...........................................................................................59

Data Cleaning and Screening.................................................................................60

Preliminary and Bivariate Analysis...........................................................63

Research Question 1..................................................................................65

Research Question 2..................................................................................66

Summary of Chapter 4...........................................................................................68

Medical Family Therapy........................................................................................76

Cultivating Change: Increasing Relational Satisfaction via Minimalism.............80

Appendix A Informed Consent ...........................................................................126

Appendix B Institutional Review Board Form ...................................................128

Appendix C Demographics Survey ....................................................................136

Appendix D Material Values Scale (MVS) Short Form......................................136

Appendix E Medical Outcomes Study (MOS) 20-Item Short-Form Health Survey

Appendix G Survey Debrief................................................................................142

3. Pearson Correlations between MVS and Dependent Variables.....................................64

4. Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Examining Association between MVS

and Relationship Satisfaction.............................................................................................66

5. Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Examining Association between MVS

and Physical Health............................................................................................................67

6. Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Examining Association between MVS

and Mental Health..............................................................................................................68

happiness, fulfillment, and freedom. Benefits of a minimalistic lifestyle include

by marriage and family therapists (MFTs). Medical family therapy (MedFT) is a

systemic, biopsychosocial model utilized to provide therapeutic services to patients and

understood from MedFT lens? Descriptives, frequencies, correlations, t-tests, ANOVAs,

not a statistically significant predictor of physical health. Limitations of the study,

implications for clinical practice, and future directions are discussed.

My name is Michelle Cappetto and I am a Ph.D. student in the Counselor

Akron. I am a 31-year-old, white, heterosexual female from a middle-class family. My