TYPES OF BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATIONS

SYMBIOSIS
This is a close and lasting biological association between two organisms of different species in
which the body of one provides food and/or shelter for another. Examples of symbiosis include;
 Mutualism
 Commensalism
 Parasitism
 Competition

Mutualism
This is a close relationship between two organisms of different species in which both partners
benefit. This may be between two plants or two animals. Examples include;
 Termite and flagellate called Triconympha :The diet of the termite is mostly cellulose but
it has no cellulose digestion enzymes to break the cellulose down. The flagellate produces
cellulose digesting enzymes for the termite to breakdown its cellulose in the gut of
termites. The flagellate in turn stays in the body of the termite and get protection from
external attack from other organisms.

Termite and Triconympha

 Herbivores (mammals) and cellulose-digesting bacteria.
These bacteria are found in the caecum of herbivorous mammals producing the enzymes
cellulase with which the mammal breakdown cellulose. The microscopic organism in-
turn obtains food, shelter and warmth from the mammal.
 Nitrogen fixing bacteria called Rhizobium in the root nodules of leguminous plants.
The Rhizobium converts atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates which are readily absorbed by
the roots of leguminous plants. The bacterium (Rhizobium) gains protection and food
from the association. The leguminous plant can thrive in nitrate deficient soil.
 Rhizobium in the root nodules of leguminous plant

 Hydra viridis and green algae called Zoochlorella.

The Hydra inhabits the alga which is capable of photosynthesizing from carbon dioxide
and nitrogenous waste from the Hydra to obtain energy. The alga also provides oxygen to
the Hydra from its photosynthetic activities. The alga in turn obtains shelter.
 Certain species of hermit crab, always have sea anemone attached to their shell.
The anemone is attached in such a way that its mouth and tentacles are close to the mouth
of the hermit crab. The anemone obtains scraps of food and free transport from the hermit
crab. The hermit crab gains protection from the anemone’s stinging cells.

Commensalism
It is a form of interspecific symbiosis. It is a close relationship between two organisms of
different species where one species (commensal) benefits whilst the host neither loses nor gains.
Only a member of the pair of living organisms involved in this relationship derives benefit.
The other neither suffers nor benefits. The gains may be in terms of food, free transport or
shelter.
Examples are;
 A small fish, the remora lives as a commensal on the shark, attached by its sucker. When
the shark feeds, the remora detaches itself and feeds no scraps of food discarded by the
shark. The remora also obtains a free ride. The shark neither benefits nor is harmed by the
relationship.
 Remora and shark
 The association of egrets (birds) and cattle. The egrets benefit from grazing near the
cattle because the cattle flush insects and other animals from the vegetation as they graze
and the egrets then feed on these insects and animals

Egrets and cow

An association is described as commensalism when both organisms involved in the
interspecific relationship are not hampered.

Parasitism
It is a close relationship between two organisms in which the parasite lives in or on the body
of the host deriving benefit, food and shelter from it and causing harm to it.
A parasite is an organism that lives in or on the body of another organism called the host
and obtains food and shelter at the expense of the host.
Most parasites exploit the resources of the host but do not kill it.
Benefits derived can be food, shelter or both. Parasites have special adaptations to enable
them to survive in their hosts.

Adaptations of a Parasites
Physiological adaptations are:
 Secretion of lytic enzymes to dissolve tissues to enable them bore into host tissues.
 They have a high reproductive rate to ensure survival
  The existence of intermediate host (secondary host) that assists in spread/dispersal of
parasite. The existence of intermediate host ensures survival of the species because if the
parasite dies in the primary host, some state of the parasite would be living in the
secondary host and vice versa.
Anatomical adaptations are:
 Some have hooks or legs (e.g. Flea), which enables it to penetrate the tissues of the host.
 Some have means of attachment, (e.g. Schistosoma). It has hooks and suckers which
protects it from the host defence mechanism.
 Some have degenerated systems (e.g. Tapeworm). They have simple locomotory,
digestive and excretory systems since they do not need to digest or move.
 Some have penetrative devices for gaining entrance into host. For example, the
miracidium larva of the liver fluke has a slender tip onto which open a group of glands
which secrete lytic enzymes.
 Some have protective devices. For example, the tapeworm has a thick protective cuticle
which protects the worm’s body from being harmed by the host’s digestive enzymes.

Types of Parasites
-Facultative Parasites are parasites that obtain their nutrients by feeding off the host until it dies
and then adopt a saprophytic mode of feeding. E.g. some fungi (vaginal candidiasis),
Acanthamoeba naegleria, Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis
-Obligate parasite is a parasite that cannot complete its life cycle without exploiting a suitable
host. It dies if it cannot obtain a host. They depend on the host throughout their life cycle. They
live permanently in a host and cannot live without it. E.g. Trichomonos species, lice, ear mites,
Taenia solium.

Taenia solium

-Ectoparasites are parasites that live on the body of their host and obtain food and or shelter and
cause harm to the host. Examples: mosquito, tsetse fly, ticks, lice, mites, and plants such as
mistletoe and dodder.

Tsetse fly

-Endoparasites are parasites that live in the body of their host. Examples: tapeworms, liver fluke,
Plasmodium, trypanosomes affect humans.
A parasite may have a simple life cycle involving a single host for all its developmental stages.
A complex life cycle involving both a primary and secondary host. It causes damage to primary
host but the secondary or intermediate host may be a vector that transmits the parasite to the next
primary host or stage in its life cycle.

-Total Parasites: live their entire adult life in their host. Eg. tapeworm.

-Partial or Semi parasites: parasites that only obtain parts of its nutritional requirements from the
host. Eg. Africa mistletoe that attacks citrus plants and cocoa trees.

Saprophytism (Saprotrophism)
It is a close relationship where one living organism (referred to as the saprophyte/saprobiont)
lives on and feeds on dead organic tissues of other organisms. The saprophyte derives soluble
nutrients from the dead organisms. They digest dead organic matter externally and absorb the
digested products. Examples of saprophytes: fungi (mushroom, bread mould-Rhizopus)

Mouldy bread
In this form of nutrition, the living organism produces and secretes digestive enzymes (proteases
and amylase) from thread-like hyphae which grow through the dead organic material.
The enzymes catalyse the breakdown of proteins and starch (present in dead matter) to form
amino acids and simple sugars respectively. This digestion is called extracellular digestion.
Extracellular digestion is a type of digestion that occurs outside the cells or body of the
organism.
 Differences between Parasites and Saprophyte
Parasites Saprophytes
Feed on living organisms Feed on dead decaying organic matter
Do not exhibit extra-cellular digestion of host Exhibit extra-cellular digestion of host before
before nutrients absorption nutrients absorption
May be host-specific Usually not host specific but exploit many
hosts
Obtain both nutritional and shelter benefits Obtain only nutritional benefit from host
from host
Have harmful feeding habits which may cause Have useful feeding habits resulting in decay
the death of host. and decomposition

Similarities between Parasites and Saprophytes

1. Both obtain their nourishment in solution
2. Both exploit a host organism since they cannot manufacture their own food.
3. Both require structures of penetration into the body of the host.

Epiphytism
It is a close association between two different species of plants in which one plant, usually the
smaller one (epiphyte) depends on the bigger plant (host) for support. The epiphyte uses the host
plant just for support.
Epiphytes are capable of photosynthesis and live high on tree branches where they have an
advantage over other producers in the competition for sunlight. An epiphyte’s root system
absorbs nutrients from the water that drips down the host’s stem. Common epiphytes are ferns
and orchids.
Competition
Competition is a close relationship between organisms in the same habitat where the resources in
the area are limited. The resources include space, nutrients, mates, etc. The limited supply of
resources generates a struggle for the resource.
Competition is usually an intraspecific association (i.e. between the same species) e.g. among
mango trees. Competition can also be interspecific association (i.e. between different species)
e.g. mango plants and weeds.

Biological Pest Control

Biological pest control is a method of controlling pest such as insects, mites and weeds by the
use of natural or biological enemies. The natural enemy may be a parasite or a predator. This is
an important component of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) programs. Most parasites are
specific to particular species of host that may be involved in the destruction of agricultural
produce. By carefully studying the parasite – host relationship, scientists can then use the natural
enemy of the pest to control their population or the spread of the pest. Prey-specific predators
can also be used in a similar way to keep the population of the prey in check. This approach of
controlling pest does not damage the ecosystem since it does not involve the use of chemicals
which may have some other side effects.

Examples of Biological Control

1. The introduction of fishes such as Tilapia or top minnow into ponds or stagnant water to feed
on the larvae and pupae of mosquitoes is to disrupt the life cycle of adult mosquitoes, the vector
of Plasmodium sp.
2. The ladybird (a beetle) feeds on aphids that pierce and suck fluids from the phloem of plants.
In this way, the aphid population on a farm can be controlled effectively when ladybirds are
introduced into a farm infected by aphids.

3. The introduction of the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis into vegetation infested with larvae of
butterflies (caterpillars). The bacterium which is a host – specific parasite, feeds on the
caterpillars and effectively controls their population.

4. The vector Biomphalaria (fresh water snail) which transmits the causative organism
Schistosoma haematobium that causes the parasitic disease Schistosomiasis (Bilharzia) can be
effectively controlled by introducing ducks into the infested river.
The ducks feed on these water snails which are the intermediate hosts of the parasite.

5. Introducing chicken into fenced cotton plantations to feed on cotton stainers and therefore
control the population of cotton stainers that feed on cotton bolls and stain them with a fungus in
their saliva.

Advantages of biological pest control.

1. Control of pest is specific, so other useful organisms are not affected. Pesticides and
weedicides are often unable to distinguish between target organisms and other closely
related but desirable organisms.
2. Pollution of the environment is reduced to its minimum.
3. The cost involved in breeding predators is low but their effectiveness is very high.
4. The pest is unable (or very slow) to develop a resistance or mutation.
5. Biological control is self- perpetuating.

Disadvantages of biological pest control

1. Control is slow.
2. It does not exterminate the pest.
3. It is often unpredictable since the predator can be a pest if not chosen carefully.
4. It requires expert supervision.
 5. It disrupts the food chain in the ecosystem.

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
This involves an orderly and gradual community change in a habitat, in which a less complex
community of plants and animals is successively replaced by a series of more complex
community of organisms until a more stable community is reached over a long period of time.

This means over a period of time, a less complex community of organisms are successively
replaced by a highly complex community of organisms until a stable community is attained
where the community remains the same in its composition and size over a long period of time.
At this stage, a Climax Community is established. The climax community depends on the
climate conditions in the area and it always has a dominant plant and animal species hence there
is little or no replacement of species.

Ecological succession can therefore be defined as the establishment of a series of plant and
animal communities in a particular habitat over a period of time, eventually resulting in
the establishment of a climax community.

There are two types of succession;

 Primary succession
 Secondary succession

Primary Succession
Primary succession occurs on an entirely new area where there has been no previous vegetation
or community. Examples of such habitats would include newly exposed or deposited surfaces
such as landslides, volcanic lava and debris, elevated sand banks and dunes, quarried rock
surfaces (bore rocks) etc.
The first organisms to colonize such an area is said to be a pioneer community.
This is followed by a series of successive intermediate communities known as seres before the
attainment of the climax community.

Considering a bore rock surface, the pioneer community will usually be lichens (which is a
symbiotic association between algae and fungi). The lichens release acids and other substances
that gradually break down the rocks through its hyphae. They also penetrate the rocks, trapping
dust particles and organic materials which accumulate gradually to form humus. The lichens die
adding to the humus content in the crevices of the rock.

The next community of plants to grow on the rock is mosses which also trap more dust and
organic materials to form part of the soil. This will be followed by ferns, grasses, annual herbs,
perennial herbs etc. As various plants survive and grow, some generations die and decompose
releasing more minerals and organic materials to form thick soil. Later, shrubs and trees may
begin to grow in the soil that now covers what was once a bare rock source. Over time, a climax
community is reached that is more stable barring any further disturbances in the community by
human activities or natural disaster.

Note that primary succession occurs in areas where no community had existed before and it
involves the formation of new soil.

Secondary Succession
Secondary succession occurs in a habitat that was once covered or colonized by well-established
vegetation but disturbed or damaged as a result of human activities or natural disaster. This
disturbance can be due to natural occurrences such as wind or rain storms, bush fires etc. It can
also be due to human activities within the habitat such as ploughing of farmlands, construction of
roads, buildings and even deforestation.
 The re-colonization of such a disturbed habitat by a series of both plant and animal species
eventually resulting in the establishment of a climax community is referred to as secondary
succession.

Many factors determine the progression in the colonization of the disturbed habitat till the
establishment of the climax community. Among them are local environmental factors such as
soil nutrients, climate and topography. The number and size of each species and their
competitive ability determine the progression of succession species.

The vegetation may become very diverse at some point in the colonization process, but the
diversity decreases as more successful colonizers become established.
As the plant varieties change with time, the animals feeding on the plants also change
accordingly until a climax community is established. As succession proceeds, the total biomass
increases and so is the non-living organic matter.

Secondary succession is usually much quicker than primary succession for the following reason;
 There is already an existing spore and seed bank of previous plants in the soil.
 Root systems undisturbed in the soil, stumps and other plants parts from previously
existing plants can rapidly regenerate.
 The fertility and structure of the soil already exist for suitable growth and colonization.

In considering a case of an abandoned farm land, the land is re-inhabited first by annual weeds,
followed perennial herbs, then by shrubs and trees.

That is,
Annual weeds –¿ perennial herbs –¿ shrubs –¿ trees.

Differences between Primary Succession And Secondary Succession

PRIMARY SUCCESSION SECONDARY SUCCESSION
Begins with no life Follows the removal of existing inhabitant
 organisms
No soil is present Soil already present
Takes a relatively longer times Takes a relatively longer time to occurs
Pioneers are usually lichens and mosses Seeds, spores and roots already present
New site Old site (area)
Biomass is low Biomass is higher