Types of Nationalism

Author(s): Louis Wirth

Reviewed work(s):
Source: American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 41, No. 6 (May, 1936), pp. 723-737
Published by: The University of Chicago Press
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 TYPES OF NATIONALISM
LOUIS WIRTH
ABSTRACT
Nationalism,or the social movementsof nationalitiesstrivingto acquire,maintain,
and enhancetheirstatus in a worldwheretheyare confrontedby oppositionor conflict,
has a vast historicalliteratureto its credit. The scientificstudy of nationalismmust
build upon but go beyond the particularisticknowledgeof specificcases, on the one
hand,and avoid lumpingtogetherall instancesofnationalism,on the otherhand. This
paper suggestsa tentativetypologyof European nationalismswhich,it is hoped,may
findwiderapplicability.The typologyis based upon the characteristicformthat con-
flictand oppositiontake and the corresponding self-and group-consciousness whichit
generates.The fourtypes of nationalismhere presentedare hegemonynationalism,
particularisticnationalism,marginalnationalism,and the nationalismof minorities.

A nationality maybe conceivedofas a peoplewho,becauseofthe

in
belief their common descentand theirmissionin theworld,by
virtueoftheircommonculturalheritageand historical careeraspire
to sovereignty overa territory or seek to maintainor enlargetheir
politicalor culturalinfluence in thefaceofopposition.Nationalism
refersto the socialmovements, attitudes, and ideologieswhichchar-
acterizethe behaviorof nationalitiesengagedin the struggleto
achieve,maintain, or enhancetheirpositionin theworld.
Because of the significant roleplayedby nationalismin current
world-affairs, its studyhas attracteda greatbodyof scholarsand
producedan enormous literature.'This literature,aside fromthat
portionofit whichis patentlypropagandistic, consistslargelyofhis-
toricaltreatments of nationalism in specificcountriesand epochs.
This is as it shouldbe, forthemoregeneralscientific studyof na-
tionalism obviously presupposestheaccumulation ofa large,ordered
bodyofreliablehistorical data. The subjectofnationalism has such
wideramifications and comprises sucha varietyand complexity of
phenomena studyhas appearedforbidding.
thatits scientific There
are,indeed,a largenumberoftreatisesthathave dealtwithone or
anotherphaseofnationalism in a non-historicalmanner.National-
ismhas beenstudiedin itsconnection withrace,2language,religion,
I For a comprehensive, classified,and annotatedbibliographycf.Koppel S. Pinson,
A BibliographicalIntroduction to Nationalism(New York, I935).
2
Cf., forinstance,Sir ArthurKeith, Nationalityand Race froman Anthropologist's
Point of View (London, i9I9); JohnOakesmith,Race and Nationality(London, I9I8);
723

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 724 THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

politics,economics,education,and psychology.But despitetheoc-

casionalallusionsto sociologyin thetitlesofbookson nationalism,
and despitethedirectbearingofnationalistic phenomena uponim-
portanttheoretical problemsin sociology,no generalsociological
studyof nationalismexists. The literature of nationalism has re-
centlybeenconsiderably enriched by suchgeneraland fundamental
studiesas ProfessorCarletonJ. H. Hayes's Essayson Nationalism.3
As long,however, as wecontinueto confine ourselvesto a particular-
isticanalysisof thenationalisms of different countries and epochs,
on theonehand,andtreating nationalism as a singleundifferentiated
phenomenon, on theotherhand,thereis littleprospectofscientific
advanceon thissubject.
This paperproposesa provisional set of typesof nationalism as
theyare foundin contemporary Europe. Whiletheseformsof na-
tionalism havebeenidentified primarily in Europe,it maybe safely
assumedthattheyhavea verymuchwiderapplication.Thisis not,
ofcourse,thefirstattemptto setforthtypesofnationalism.Profes-
sor Hayes has distinguished betweenthe originaland derivedna-
tionalism.4Professor Handmanhas distinguished fourtypesofna-
tionalism:oppression-nationalism, irredentism, precaution-nation-
alism,and prestige-nationalism.5 In somerespectsthe typeshere
suggestedcoincidewiththosedelineatedby Handman. The basic
assumption underlyingourtypology, however, is thata typologyof
nationalism mustcorrespond to thetypesofrelationsofopposition
and ofconflictwhichcharacterize therelationsbetweenthegroups.
a nationality
Sociologically is a conflictgroup.The self-and group-
consciousnessgeneratedby nationalistic movements correspondsto
thenatureoftheintergroup relationship thatexistsbetweenonena-

Erich Koch-Weser, Deutschlands Aussenpolitikin der Naclkriegszeit,I9I9-I929

(Berlin, I929); Louis Wirth,"Race and Nationalism,"Introductory GeneralCoursein
theStudyof Contemporary Society(Chicago, I934), pp. 395-4I3; Pinson,op. cit.,items
67-73.
3 New York, I926.

4 "Two Varietiesof Nationalism: Originaland Derived," in Associationof History

Teachers of the Middle States and Maryland,Proceedings, No. 26 (I928), pp. 7I-83.
5 Max SylviusHandman,"The Sentiment ofNationalism,"PoliticalScienceQuarterly,
XXXVI (March,I92I), I04-2I.

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 TYPES OF NATIONALISM 725

tionalityand another.To someextentthetypesofnationalism here

set forthrepresentvariousstagesin the same nationalisticmove-
ment.The discrimination betweenthesetypes,however, is intended
to revealthefundamental in motivation
differences and in meaning
which,inspiteofa seeming similarity
ofgoal,giveseach,froma soci-
ologicalpointofview,a distinctive
character.
HEGEMONY NATIONALISM
Whatgavethenineteenth century thelabel "theepochofnation-
alism"was a seriesofmovements ofnationalunification whichwe
mightidentify as "hegemony nationalism,"and ofwhichthemove-
mentsresulting in theunification ofItaly and theformation ofthe
GermanEmpireare representative specimens.Amongthe factors
thatplayedan animatingrolein thesemovements werecontiguity
of territory, similarityof language,and kinshipof culture.These
movements whichhad been nourishedby thememoryof previous
dynasticunionsofseparatestates,bya moreorlesscommon history,
language,and culture,eventuallybecamedefinedin politicalterms
withan integrated stateand nationalsovereignty as theirgoal. The
questionofracialunityseemsnotto haveplayeda decisiverole,but
in the literarymovements precedingthe politicalstage,mystical
references to race,generallyused forhortatory purposes,are occa-
sionallyfound.The decisivefactorsseemto havebeentheeconomic,
political,and militaryadvantageto be derivedfromconsolidating
smallerprincipalities intolargerand moredynamicunits. The in-
ternalweaknessofsuchan organization, thatmayresultfrommere
arbitrary agglomeration ofterritory and peoples,withoutregardto
culturalandpoliticalhomogeneity and compatibility, is demonstrat-
ed bythedisintegration oftheAustro-Hungarian Empireat thecon-
clusionoftheWorldWar. On theotherhand,a unitarystatemay
ariseevenin thepresenceofdiversity oflanguage,culture,and his-
toricalexperience,as is demonstrated by Switzerland, which,as
Wieserhas put it, is "a statewithoutbeinga nation,"6but which,
unlikemostotherstates,virtuallyhas no foreignpolitics,7 has a
6 FriedrichWieser,Das GesetzderMacht (Vienna, I926), p. 363.
7 Adolf Gunther,Die alpenldndische (Jena, I930), p.
Gesellschaft 309.

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 726 THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

uniquegeographical position,and, as so oftenhappens,has been

cemented intounityby externalpressure.8
The personalfeelingofexpansionwithwhichnationalism infuses
a citizenry,and thecollectiveforcewhichsucha movement gener-
ates,is notlikelytohaltabruptlyaftertheformalgoalsofthemove-
menthavebeenattained.Aftera nationality has achievedpolitical
autonomy, it sometimesredefinesits aimsin termsofempireor de-
generates intoa stateofnationalchauvinism.
Nationalism has thatsinister
notinfrequently meaningwhichwe are in-
clinedto recognizein the suffix"ism." This is a nationalismin whichthe na-
tional feelingof power transcendsthe actual capacityof the nation,it is the
nationalismof avariciousaggressivenessand the nationalismthat plays with
phrases,in short,nationalchauvinism.Quitea numberofthesmallerEuropean
nations have been infectedwith this nationalism.They have taken up the
nationalidea whichwas to be foundamongthestronger nationswhosesuccesses
gave the idea generalcirculation,so that the smallernationsbegan to assume
the haughtydemeanorof the great,withouthaving the latter'saccomplish-
mentsto theircredit.Today we findnationalismeven wherethereis no evi-
denceoftheexistenceofa nation,suchas in Egypt,in India and in China,where
the masseshave not even been touchedby enlightenment.9
Thepan-Germanism oftheold GermanEmpireand thepan-Slavism
ofCzaristRussiaare perhapsthemoststriking examplesoftheex-
Hans Delbriick,whowas one
cessesofnationalideals. The historian
of thebitterest
opponentsof Germanimperialchauvinism, said:
The high ideal of our fatherswas that the Germannational state should
comeintoexistencewithoutour degenerating, however,to the hatefulnessand
exclusiveness, whichwe are in the habit of branding,whenwe findit in other
nations,as chauvinism,Jingoism and Muscovitism ..... This ideal is threaten-
ing to be lost amongus. The noblerspiritsare beginningto look withhorror
upon the formsin whichthe nationalfeelingsare expressingthemselvestoday
and upon the sort of men who make bold to assume leadershipin national
affairs.Io
partygot theupperhandin Germany,
Whenthesaber-rattling in
I906, he wrote:
What we musttakeintothebargainis therenunciation ofthecontinuousin-
crease in our externalsplendorand satiationof our thirstforpower,which
caused theruinofFranceand Russia. This tendencytowardnationalvanityis,
8 H. M. Long, "Imperial Politicsof Great Britain,"ForeignAfJairs,
January,I928,
p. 265.
9 WVieser,op. cit.,p. 399. IO PreussischeJahrbiicher
(I899), p. I678.

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 TYPES OF NATIONALISM 727

unfortunately, altogethertoo strongamongus, and the super-Germans, who,

afterwe have knockedit out of the French,wouldlike to makea grandenation
out ofus, willtherefore
alwaysfindfaultwithGermanpolitics.":
The Germanchancellor, findinghimself graduallyoverwhelmed by
extremist nationalistic
elements,warnedas lateas I9I3: "National-
ism is the worstenemyof our wholepolitics,and everymeasure
whichhas as its aimto makeit moredifficult forthisnationalism to
thrive,promotes thewelfareofourcountry."I2 Even today,longbe-
foreEuropehas recovered fromthemostdisastrouswarofhistory,
the pan-Germannationalistsand imperialists are clamoring fora
largearmyand navy,thereturnoflost territory and colonies,and
therestoration ofnationalprestige.One way in whichit has been
thoughtthatthepowerofthedefeatedCentralPowerscouldbe re-
storedis by a unionbetweenAustriaand Germany.Thisunion,be-
sidestheobviouseconomiesthatmightresultfromit,has muchto
commendit, forit wouldnot createnewminorities and wouldat
leasteliminate butit has beenprevented
onefrontier, by theaspira-
tionsofotherEuropeanpowerswhosaw in thisuniona disturbance
ofthe"balanceofpower"and a threatto thepeace ofEurope.
That a nationalisticmovementin the courseof its development
may fundamentally changeits characterand aimsis evidencedby
the historyof the so-calledIrredenta."Originallythe effort con-
fineditselfto stampingout foreign rulein Italy itself;underGari-
baldi, Mazzini,and Cavour thisaim was accomplished," but the
ambitiongrewuntilGabrieled'Annunzio, underthepretextof"free-
ingco-nationals whoweresubjectedto foreign rulebeyondthebor-
dersof Italy," couldeven crosstheAdriaticin thenameof Italia
Irredenta.I3As thenameindicates, irredentismis a formofnational-
ismwhichhas manyof thecharacteristics of a holywar. It is not
confined to Italy,butwas obviousin FrancebetweenI87I and I9I4
inregardtothe"lostprovinces"andis developing in Germany today
on an evengranderscale.
Thereare twootherformsin whichthetypeofnationalism that
II Ibid., CXXVI (1906), I92-93.
12Quoted by Martin Hobohm, "Hans DelbrulcksKampf gegen die Hugenberg
Front," Tagebuch,October I2, I929, p. i68o.
13 Wieser,op. cit.,p. 405.

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728 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

has thusfarbeendescribedmayappearwhenchargedwithunusual
vigor:oneis imperialism and theotherfascism.Ofthetwothelat-
teris todayofgreatestinterest in Europe. Therearemanyforms of
fascism;or,to be moreaccurate,afterthesuccessoftheItalianad-
ventureothermovements in Europe,whichhad littlesimilarity to
the Italian,appropriated the name. In Spain,forinstance,under
Primode Rivera,fascismconsistedmerelyofa military dictatorship.
Mussolinihimself refusesto regardthefascistic movements in Ger-
many,Spain, and elsewherein Europe as the genuineproduct.
"Fascism is a politicalpseudo-renaissance of post-warEurope,"
whosegovernments wereso thoroughly paralyzedby internalclass
struggles,by externalpressure, and bygeneraldiscontent thatfaith
in theexisting machinery ofgovernment was easilydispelledby the
emotionalappeal to the gloriesof the distantpast and the even
greaterprospectivegloriesof the immediatefuture,if the nation
wouldonlyawakeand putitstrustin itselite.I4Fascismrepresents
a reactionagainstparliamentarism and democracy.For morethan
twoyears,in Italy,fascismmaintained thatit was an "antiparty"
(antipartito),but,on theoccasionofthecelebration ofthefifth anni-
versaryofthemarchon Rome,Mussolinihimself admittedthatthe
fascistiwerea partyafterall, althougha party,whichunlikeother
parties,existedonlyforthegreatergloryofthestate. The tremen-
dous emotionalenthusiasm generatedby thefascistic movement in
Italy,and the"irresistible current ofnationalwillwhichfascismat-
temptedto instillin the'folk-soul,' "I5 was unableto findadequate
expressionintheratherprosaictasksofdomestic reconstruction.In-
evitablyit acquiredimperialistic ambitions. But Italy was not
strongenoughas a militaryand naval powerto makeany but the
mostlimitedimperialistic hopes cometrueaway fromhome,and
became,therefore, verytroublesome to its neighbors.The surplus
of
population Italy mustseek work outside itsborders,and sincethe
nationalistic
movement is confined largelyto thebourgeoisie and the
youthoftheeducatedclasses,thefasciststateattemptsartificially
14See Hermann Heller, Europa und der Faschismus(Berlin and Leipzig, I929).
Ibid.; see also Robert Michels, "Analyse des nationalenElitegedankens,"Jahr-
I5

buchfur Soziologie,Vol. III, and Der Patriotismus:Prolegomena

zu seinersoziologischen
Analyse(Muinchen,I929).

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 TYPES OF NATIONALISM 729

to bindthesewavesofemigrating workers to themother-country by

means of ties of citizenship."Thus fascism,by makinggreater
claimsthanits actualpowerjustifies, degenerates to a formof na-
tionalchauvinism."i6 Othercountries, especiallyGermany sinceshe
losthernavalpowerand hercolonies,havebeenattempting to weld
theemigrating citizensto themother-country through culturalties
in orderto use them,wheneverpossible,to advance politicalor
WhatthefascismofItalyhas in commonwith
colonialinterests.I7
theotherfascisticmovements of Europebesidesthe contemptfor
parliamentary and democratic government is the romanticcultof
the aristocracyof race and of talent. These fascisticgroupschar-
employthelabel Volkto referto theirracialor cul-
acteristically
turalhomogeneity in theirpropaganda.'8
The tendency ofhegemony nationalism to developevermoreag-
gressiveimperialisticclaimsand aspirationsis exemplified by the
mostrecenttrendsin foreign policyof the fascistdictatorships of
Europe. FascistItaly has defiedtherestoftheworldby its Ethi-
opianadventure, whilein Germany theextreme accentuation ofna-
tionalistsentiment as a resultof the stimulation of the National-
Socialistregimehas led to an open denunciation of the Versailles
Treaty,to remilitarizationof Germany, and eventhreatensto en-
gulftheworldin anotherwarofmajorproportions.
PARTICULARISTIC NATIONALISM
A secondmajortypeof nationalism may be referred to as par-
ticularistic
nationalism.Thisformofnationalism is baseduponthe
secessionist
demandofnationalautonomy.Suchmovements char-
beginwitha striving
acteristically forculturalautonomyor tolera-
tion,which,whenthemovement makesheadway,takeson political
I6 Wieser,op. cit.,p. 405.
'7 The activitiesof the Deutsche im Ausland clubs are representative.One reason
why the nationalisticmovementsof Europe turnout so frequentlyto be at the same
timeantisemiticmovementsis perhapsthe beliefthat the internationalaffiliationsand
loyaltiesof the Jewsmake that people appear as doubtfulbearersof the nationalistic
mission.
I8 The movementis knownin Germanyas the "V6lkischeBewegung" (see Richard

Benz, VolkischeErneuerung[Muinchen,I925], for a sample of the literatureof this

movement). Cf. FrederickL. Schuman,The Nazi Dictatorship(New York, I935).

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730 THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

significanceand finallydevelops into the demand forpolitical sov-

ereignty. This has been the case in Norway, where the movement
was successful,and in Ireland, whereit was unsuccessful. In an in-
cipientand utopian formit is to be foundamong the Jews and the
Negroes. The most characteristicexpressionofthistypeofnational-
ism is to be found in such countriesas Poland, Czecho-Slovakia,
Finland, Latvia, and Lithuania. Michels has characterized the
motivesunderlyingthisnationalisticmovementas follows:
A peoplethathas becomeconscious and the
ofitsnationalcharacteristics
ofitsownculture
peculiarities themin their
has thenaturaldesireto conserve
In themaintenance
integrity. ofthiscultural
integrity ofthepeopleis to be
found the only ethicallylegitimateform of patriotism.Consequentlythe
nationalemancipationfroma foreignyokesignifies theeliminationofa cultural
obstaclein the road to humanity.National unityand freedomis theindispen-
sable prerequisiteto social freedomand freehumanexistence,foreverypeople
thatfreesitselffrom ruleconstitutes
foreign onesourcelessforwarandrevolu-
tion.
Thus,besidesthepatriotismbased on profit, on fantasyand on megalomania,
we have thepatriotismbased on culturalneeds,whichaims to secureand main-
and its own humanresources.19
tain a people's rightto its own territory
But, as has already been suggested,a social movementmay often
depart from its original goals. Poland furnishesan interesting,
thoughby no means unique, example of the developmentof a na-
tionalisticmovementfroma romanticto a realisticstage:
Eventhegreatromantic a uniqueform
poetsofPoland,whoproclaimed of
nationalism,accordingto whichPoland was to be the "Christof the Nations,"
i.e., just as Christredeemedmankindthroughhis martyrdom, so Poland was to
redeemthe peoples of Europe, even thesepoets wereno longersatisfiedwith
theethnographically Poland..... This mystical
homogeneous and romantic
nationalism,
however, wassoondisplacedbya quitesoberandprosaicvariety.
The Polesdeclinedthecrownofmartyrdom and let othernationsassumeit.
The prophetofthenewnationalism was RomanDmowski, thePolishinter-
mediaryat thepeaceconferences whoinmanybooks20
inVersailles, andarticles
thegruffest
andis stillpreaching,
preached, andmostuncompromising nation-
alism.EvenwhenPolandwasstillunderRussianandPrussian rulefighting
for
its nationalexistence,he denouncedthenationalistictendenciesoftheLithuani-
ans and the Rutheniansas presumptuous, and labelled the Jewishstrivingsfor
a disintegrating
emancipation movement. theromantic
He disavows patriotism
'9 "Analysedes nationalenElitegedankens,"op. cit.,p. i88.
20
Gedankeneines modernen Polen; la questionpolonaise,etc.

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 TYPES OF NATIONALISM 73I

and displacesit withthe modernpatriotism,or strictlyspeakingnationalism,

whose object it is not to acquire a certainnumberof privilegesor formsof
freedombut to establishthe nationas a living,social organism,whichhas its
own spiritualexistencebased on race and history,its own mentality,its own
culture,and needs and interests... . To thishe added the claim that Poland
had a greatculturalmissionin theEast..... Even at thepeace conference the
officialPolish demand was fora territoryof 50,000 square kilometerswith
38 millioninhabitants,which,had it beengranted,wouldhave made thePoles a
minorityin theirown state.2'
The numerouspotentialnationalities, whichthe Austrian,the
German,theRussian,and theTurkishempireshad conqueredorin-
corporatedin the past, becamerevivified by the developments in
Europeresulting in thecollapseoftheseempires.Someofthesepeo-
ples had at one timehad an independent stateand a fairlydistinct
culture,and a fewofthemhad retaineda largemeasureofthiscon-
sciousness.But therisingnationalidea whichtied itselfup to the
forceofhistorical heritagenotonlyrekindled thefolkspiritbutex-
tendedand deepenedit, becausenowthemassesof thepopulation
werein a positionto participatein thesemovements, whileformerly
theywouldnothave beentouchedby it. Russiawas perhapsmost
secureof all theseempires,for,"withthe exceptionof the Poles,
noneof thenationalities withinherdomainhad arrivedat a point
of nationalconsciousness and the immeasurable extentof the em-
pire'sdominion had an overpowering effect.
'22
The democratic movement, followedby the collapseof themili-
taryand politicalpowerof theempires,causedthesuppressedna-
tionalambitionsof theCzechs,theMagyars,theLithuanians, and
manyothersto burstforth withan energywhichswungmanyofthe
moderateleadersoverto thenationalistic cause. "Even Masaryk,a
convinced advocateofcompromise withtheGermansinAustria,be-
camea decidedCzechnationalist. "23 As a resultmostof thesena-
tionalitieswereableto getrecognition fordemandswhichwerewhol-
ly unjustifiedby historicand ethnicfacts.
Whilethesenewlyformedstates,witharbitrarily drawnbound-
aries,arestillin thethroesofnationalisticexpansion,othernations,
such as Sweden,Denmark,Norway,Holland, and Luxembourg,
21
JakobRappaport,"Die Nationalitatenfrage in Polen," Jakrb.fi4r
Soz., III, 237-39.
22 Wieser,Op. cit.,p. 362. 23 Ibid., p. 204.

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 732 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

Spain, Portugal,and others,seem to have arrivedat a stage ofa rela-

tivelystable national equilibrium,and, as faras theyare concerned,
at least, seem to have settledon a policy of being contentwithwhat
theyhave, and to live in peace withtheirneighbors.In thissense the
newlyformedstates seem to be stillgropingin the nationalisticstage
and not to have arrived at the maturityof full national existence.
Wiesersuccinctlydescribesthisstate ofaffairsin thefollowingterms:
A well-known sloganofLichtenberg, that "humanbeingswouldratherfight
fortheirbeliefthan live accordingto it," mightwell be adapted to read that
"humanbeingsare morereadyto fightfortheirnationalitythanto fulfill their
nationalidealsin theworksofpeace." In thisrespectmuchremainsto be done
in thenewlycreatedstateswhichcame into existencethrougha peace of force.
A stateis farfromconsolidatedwhenit has adopted a constitution, and these
stateshave muchmoreseriousproblemsbeforethemthan the stateswithfull
national existence,because they are mixed states, with deliberatelydrawn
boundariesand are entering uponthebusinessofgovernment withoutexperience
and withoutguidingtraditionsof history ..... These statesoperateunderthe
illusionthat theyhave dearlyfoughtfortheiremancipation,but in realitythe
ententepowersboughtthem theirfreedom,while the nationalsof these new
statespartlystoodon theside ofthedefeatedand had no greatmilitaryleaders
to whomtheycan reverently look as heroesin thenationalstruggleforemanci-
pation.....
The Swedes,the Norwegians,the Danes and the Dutch may well feelthat
theyhave dearlyboughtand areentitledto theirnationhood,but theyrepresent
a modestand moderatenationalism.They live in undisturbed peace withtheir
neighbors,are restrictedto and contentwith theirlimitedhomelyworldand
have reconciledthemselvesto the necessityof losingtheirsurpluspopulation
throughemigrationbeyond the sea, with the possible exceptionof Holland,
whichthroughits plantationsystemis somewhatdifferently situated. These
countriesare, forthe mostpart,neutraland peaceful,and theirsecurityrests
upon the respectof theirneighborsand the greatpowers. To the European
thesenationsmustseem like fortunate islands,whichriseout of the turbulent
sea to whoseterrorstheywereexposedas longas theyhad notlearnedto avoid
the temptationsof externalpower..... Like these northernnations so are
Belgium,Spain and Portugalfreefromworldaspirations,and, taken by and
large,as faras it lies in theirpowertheyhave settledon a policyof external
peace.....
With the new states on the territory of the empiresof Austro-Hungary,
Turkeyand WesternRussia it is otherwise.They are artificialcreationsand
are centresof unrestwithinand without.The Magyars and Bulgarianshave
not only been deprivedof territory and populationwhichrightlybelongsto

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 TYPES OF NATIONALISM 733

them,but the Poles, the Rumaniansand Jugo-Slavianshave annexedterritory

beyondwhattraditionally was theirright.The questionis, can theyholdit?24

MARGINAL NATIONALISM
The thirdmajortypeof nationalism in Europeis whatmay be
termed"marginalnationalism."It refers to thenationalistic move-
mentcharacteristic of borderterritories and populationssuch as
Alsace,Lorraine,Silesia,Schleswig, theSaar and theRhineland, the
Italo-Austrianand Swiss frontier, and similarstrategicareas in
Europe. The sociologicalsignificance of the frontier has recently
been recognized.25 A marginalpeople-i.e., a populationin the
frontier
regionbetweentwostates-even morethanotherpeoples,
has a mixedcultureand a mixedracialmakeup. The populationof
suchterritoriesnotonlyare,as a rule,bilingualor polylingual, but
theyarealsomoredecidedlynationalistic thantherespective hinter-
land populationswithreference to whichtheyare oriented.While
throughthe recentpeace treatiesa numberof particularly danger-
ousfrontierswereremedied, a numberofnewandvulnerable bound-
arieswerecreatedwhichare notlikelyto result quietingtheout-
in
ragedfeelings oflocalmarginalpeoples.26Everyhinterland is likely
to giveitselfthebenefitofthedoubtin theadministration ofsuch
territories.
Thereis generallya struggleovertheleadingpositions
in thegovernment, thearmy,and theculturalorgans,andtheschool
andchurchquestionsarealwaysmattersofacrimonious controversy.
A marginalpeopleis likelyto clingto thetraditions of its mother-
landwiththeutmosttenacity, becausetheculturalheritage is,under
conditionsof foreign rule,sometimes theonlyremaining vestigeof
unityand bringsthemostdivergent interests and partiesintoclose
co-operation.The Germansoftheborderterritory areproverbially
more Germanthan those of Berlin. For strategicpurposesthe
mother-country tends,generally,to accord the borderprovinces
favoredtreatment, notmerelyto bindthemmoresolidlyto thecoun-
try,butto createtheimpression in theterritory on theothersideof
24Ibid., pp. 400-402.
25See GeorgSimmel,Soziologie,p. 623; AdolfGunther,"Soziologiedes Grenzvolkes,"
Jahrb.far Soz., III, 203 ff.;Die Alpenldndische als sozialerund politischer,
Gesellschaft
wirtschaftlicherund kultureller
Lebenskreis(Jena,I930.)
26
See Gunther,"Soziologie des Grenzvolkes,"op. cit.,p. 225.

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734 THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

the boundarythat it would be desirableto be unitedwiththeir

brethren.The economicimportance ofthemarginalterritory often
intensifies
themotivesout ofwhichaggression arises. Thus theex-
istenceofimportant miningresources as is thecase in theSaar,orof
navigablestreamsas is thecase alongtheVistula,orofharbors, such
as Danzig and Trieste,enormously exaggeratesthe significance of
themarginal area. Often,also,thereligious factorintensifies
ormini-
mizesthepoliticaltensionin themarginalterritory. WhiletheGer-
mansofthesouthern TyrolareCatholics,liketheItalianhinterland,
theirCatholicismis morelikethatofAustriathanthatofItaly,and
thesameholdsoftheCatholiceasternprovincesofGermany which
werecededto Poland,as wellas theProtestantnorthern Schleswig
whichwas cededto Denmark.27The attemptwhichwas madedur-
ingtheFrenchoccupationoftheRhinelandto createa separatistic
movement withultimateannexation to Francefailedbecauseofthe
intensenationalismofthatborderterritory, whichis symbolized by
theslogan: "The Rhine-Germany'sStream,Not Germany'sBor-
der."
THE NATIONALISM OF MINORITIES

The fourthtypeof nationalism thatremainsto be mentioned is

the nationalismof the minorities.The problemsto whichthe ex-
have
istenceofracial,ethnic,cultural,ormerelypoliticalminorities
givenrisein Europehave beenmadeavailableto studentsthrough
a vast and extremely interesting Nothingis perhaps
literature.28
moreconvincing proofoftheracialand culturalinterpenetrationof
27 Ibid., p. 222.
28 Of the recentliteraturementionshould be made of the following:J. Auerhan,
Die spraclic4en Minderheiten in Europa (I926); M. H. Boehm, Handbucherdes Aus-
schussesfur Minderheitsrecht (I926); Mitscherlich,Nationalismus Westeuropasand
Nationalstaatund Nationalwirtschaft und ihre Zukunft,1925-7; Volk unter VUikern,
ed. K. C. v. Loesch (I925); Zeitschriftfiir Politik,ed. Dr. Grabowsky;Nationund Staat,
deutscheZeitschrift fur das europaischeMinoritdtenproblem; G. Salomon (ed.), Nation
und Nationalitdt(Karlsruhe, I928); S. R. Steinmetz,Soziologiedes Krieges (I928);
Die Nationalitdten in Europa (I927), by the same author,in Zeitschrift
fur Erdkunde,
SuppI. 2; For Poland: Jakob Rappaport, op. cit.; for Hungary: Zsomborde Szasz,
The Minoritiesin Rumanian Transylvania(I927); forSwitzerlandand Italy: Gunther,
op. cit.,and Nicolussi, Tirol untermBeil (I928); and forthe Germanminoritiesin that
region: Bartsch,Das deutscheLeid (I927); forquantitativestatementsofthe minorities
question: W. Woytinski,Die Weltin Zahlen (Berlin, I925 and I929); Pinson,op. cit.,
items II6-23.

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 TYPES OF NATIONALISM 735

thepeoplesofEuropethantheuniversality and theapparentinsolu-

bilityof theminorities problem.Everynationof Europehas this
problem, and in someit is thequestionnextin importance to theex-
istenceofthestateitself.Somewriters have foundit usefulto dis-
tinguish betweennationalities andminorities, referringto theformer
as "foreign populationgroups,which,however,do notaspireto in-
dependence or unionwithanotherstate, "29 whilethelatterare such
groupsthatare separatistic or hopeto be unitedwiththeirmother-
country.The total populationthat existsin Europe as national
minorities has beenestimatedat thirtymillion.30
The questionhas sometimes beenraisedwhythereis no question
of minorities in the UnitedStates. Whilethereare undoubtedly
problemsthatare fundamentally similarto thosefoundin Europe
to be foundin theUnitedStates,suchas theNegroproblem,espe-
ciallyin theSouthand in thelargecitiesoftheNorth,thedifference
betweenEurope and Americais principallythat in Europe the
minorities live together in largenumbersand are notrecentimmi-
grantswhohavebeenanxiousto,and at leastpartiallysuccessful in,
shedding theircultural heritage.If theriseofthenationalistic move-
menthad comea centuryearlierthanit did,it is doubtful ifsucha
nationas Switzerland couldhave comeintoexistence, consisting, as
it does,of threedistinctmajornationalities and a numberofother
minorgroups.Similarly, Austriamightstillexisttodaywereit not
forthepull whichwas exertedupon the constituent ethnicgroups
fromwithout,becausethereseemedto be a numberof economic
factorsfavorableto itsexistence.31In somecountries theminorities
questionis obscuredbythecircumstance thattherearetwoprincipal
groupsstriving fordominanceratherthanone dominantgroupat-
temptingto subordinatea numberof relativelyweak minorities.
Belgiumis an illustration of the former, Poland of the latter. In
Belgiumtheconflict betweentheDutchelementortheFlemishpart
of the populationand the Walloonsor French-speaking groupis
drawnalongculturallines,in whichlanguageand its use in schools
and universities is a majorpoliticalquestion.A similarconflict ex-
29 Steinmetz,Soziologiedes Krieges,p. 642.

30 Wieser,op. cit.,p. 539.

3IGunther,
"Soziologiedes Grenzvolkes,"
Op. Cit., p. 2I2.

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736 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

istedbetweenCatholicSouthGermanyand ProtestantNorthGer-
manywhichfoundexpression in theKulturkampfunderBismarck,
and betweenSwedenand Norway,whichwas peacefullysettled
throughseparationinto two nations. In countrieslike Poland,
Czecho-Slovakia,Italy, Jugo-Slavia,and a numberof othersthe
problemis of a muchmorecomplexnature:
In Poland thereare fournationalminorities:Germans,Ukrainians,White-
Rutheniansand Jews.The economic,political,cultural,social and religious
peculiaritiesof these peoples give to the Polish minoritiesquestiona unique
expressionand enormously impedea peacefuland desirablesolution. The ques-
tion is firstof all a social questionwhichpresentsitselfin a numberof varia-
tions: The linguisticproblemis merelythe ideationalcoverwhichoftencon-
ceals verycomplicatedsocial processes.Amongtheseis the conflictforthe soil
betweenthe White-Ruthenian and Ukrainianpeasants. The agrarianquestion
is thereforethefocalpointoftheUkrainianand White-Ruthenian problem.The
fightagainstthe Germanand Jewishminoritiesis carriedon underthe slogan
ofthe "de-germanization and de-judaization"of the cities. The Slavic minori-
tiesin Polandare struggling forthevillage,theGermanand Jewishforthecities.
Not less significant is the fightof all minoritiesforthe positionsas officials
in
orderto provideplaces fortheintelligentsia ofeach groupand in orderto exert
a proportionateinfluence-in accordancewith theirnumericaland economic
strength-uponthegovernmental and autonomouscontrolling bodies,and final-
ly in orderto defendtheirnationaland culturalvalues.32
to notethattheGermans,at thetimeoftheirmili-
It is interesting
taryoccupationof Poland,fosteredmuchof thisminority feeling
forobviousnationalistic and strategicreasons.AlthoughthePolish
constitution providesthat"everycitizenhas therightto maintain
hisownnationality, to fosterhislanguageand customs,and to un-
foldhisnationalcharacter haveremained
theseprovisions
fully,"33 a
dead letter,fortheautonomy whichis grantedis nota personalbut
a territorial
autonomy, andcan thereforebe defeatedbythemanipu-
lationoftheelectiondistricts.Unlesstheactualdistribution ofthe
minority populationapproximately conforms to the electiondis-
tricts,theactualpoliticalexpressionoftheminoritiescanbe vitiated.
For thisreasonfigures concerningtheproportion ofminorities to the
dominantpopulationas derivedfromelectionreturns are generally
misleading, and forthesamereasonit is quiteeasyto defeatthein-
32 Rappaport,op. cit., p. 235. 33Ibid., p. 255.

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 TYPES OF NATIONALISM 737

tentoftheprovisions forplebiscitesin so faras it is aimedthrough

themto finda basisfora policyofself-determination.34
Whenone considersthetreatment whichnationalities thathave
just won theirautonomygrantto theirown minorities, one is in-
clinedto believethata nationalityis notcompleteuntilit has some
minority whomit canoppress.Whileundoubted-
withinitsterritory
ly in someinstancesnationalism through a processofconsolidation
and integrationhas minimized friction and rivalry,on thewholeit
has creatednewconflictsituations,
internaland external, amongthe
peoplesof Europe. Similarly,whilein someinstancesthemythof
racialhomogeneity hasbeena unifying factor,on thewholeithas in-
auguratedan epochofracialand nationalconceitand chauvinism.
Underthesecircumstances a unitedEurope,as it hasbeenenvisaged
bysome,eveninmattersofpurelyeconomicco-operation is likelyto
remainan idlehopeforsometimeto come.
UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

34 Rappaport figuresthat the minoritiesin Poland do not constitute29 per cent of

the populationas the census figuresstate, but 38 per cent (ibid.).

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