College of Humanities, Language Studies, Journalism

and Communication

Course: General Psychology and Life Skills (psyc 1011)

Name: Besufikad Shiferaw Mengesha

ID No: 4323/14

Section: 5

Submitted to: Geta W.

Contents
1. Compare and Contrast.........................................................................................................................2
i. Cofounding and extraneous variables.............................................................................................2
ii. Dependent and independent variables...........................................................................................2
iii. Examples..........................................................................................................................................2
2. Sensation and perception....................................................................................................................3
3. Sensory adaptation, selective attention, and transduction....................................................................3
4. Different types of Monocular and Binocular cues...............................................................................4
5. Detection or signal detection theory...................................................................................................5
6. Classical conditioning and operant conditioning.................................................................................6
7. Different reinforcement schedules......................................................................................................6
8. Short term and long term memory......................................................................................................7
9. Instinct Theory of Motivation, Drive Reduction Theory of Motivation, Arousal Theory of Motivation
and Maslows Hierarchy of Needs................................................................................................................7
10. Different types of ego defense mechanisms....................................................................................8
11. Anxiety disorder, personality disorder and mood disorder with their respective symptoms..........9
References.................................................................................................................................................11

1
 1. Compare and Contrast

i. Cofounding and extraneous variables

A Confounding variable is anything that differs between the control group and the experimental group
besides the independent variable. It is a variable other than the independent variable that has
systematically affected the dependent variable throughout an experiment. They occur when one or more
variables other than the independent variable are permitted to vary across conditions of an experiment or
when we have results that can’t be attributed to the independent variable alone. An Extraneous variable is
any variable outside the experimental design that has the potential to affect the dependent variable. In an
experiment it’s important to control extraneous variables so that valid conclusions are made. An
extraneous variable that affects the validity of an experiment is referred to as a confounding variable. In
terms of similarities between them; both of them are variables other than the independent variable that
may affect the dependent variable. Both can compromise the validity or reliability of the results.

ii. Dependent and independent variables

Independent Variable (IV) is the variable that is systematically changed in an experiment. The
independent variable in the experiment is the variable that is manipulated to test its effects on the other,
dependent variable. And also, it’s the kind of variable that is controlled throughout the experiment, but is
not affected by any other variable. Dependent Variable (DV) is the variable that is measured in an
experiment. The dependent variable in the experiment is measured to see how it is changed from the
manipulation of the independent variable. It is the variable being tested that depends on other factors.
Both the IV and DV’s may change during the duration of the experiment. However, the experimenter is in
control of changing the independent variable, but not the dependent variable. The dependent variable
solely changes the influence of the independent variable.

iii. Examples
Examples for Confounding and Extraneous Variable

1, A researcher who wants to know whether a sunlight makes plants grow, starts light growth experiment
by placing one plant in the sunlight and one in the darkness. After a time when he sees that one of his
plants is doing better than the other, he might assume that its due to the sunlight but it may be wrong
because; the water given for each of them, soil and air temperature, location, container size; which all of
these are extraneous variables, are not measured accurately. They may or may not interfere with the
experiment. If any of this impact the result then we call it a Confounding variable.

2, Situational variables, participant variables, investigator effects and demand characteristics are all
extraneous variables that have the potential to affect the results of the experiment. If they are not
controlled however, they become confounding variables.

Examples for Independent Variable and Dependent Variable

2
Robert wanted to test how tall would tree grow after 1 year of treating it with a certain type of fertilizer.
In this experiment time is and will always be an independent variable. Because, the height of the tree may
change and also the amount of fertilizer, but will have no effect on 1 year period. Hence, we can’t speed
up or slow time down, it will always be independent from anything we do. In this case the height of tree is
a dependent variable because its dependent on the amount time, type of fertilizer, temperature and so on.

2. Sensation and perception

SENSATION PERCEPTION

The experience of sensory stimulation.
Encompasses the processes by which our sense organs
receive information from the environment.
The activation of the sense organs by a source of
physical energy.
Input about the physical world provided by our sensory
receptors.
Involves transduction, the translation of physical
energy into electrical signals by specialized receptor
cells.
Sensation is not affected by culture.
Is associated with sensory memory.
The process of creating meaningful patterns from the
sensory information
is the brain’s and the sense organs’ sorting out,
interpretation, analysis, and integration of stimuli.
Receives information from the senses and organizes
and interprets into meaningful experiences is largely
conscious.
The process through which we select, organize, and
interpret input from our sensory receptors.
Involves perceptual organization and interpretation
as the main process of perception.
Perception is affected by culture because our
interpretation depends on it.
Is associated with perceptual memory.

A meaningless bit of information A meaningful sensory experience

E.g1 Hearing a song on the radio. E.g1 Feeling happy because you remember the time
with your friend and you heard that song.
E.g2 Tasting broccoli E.g2 Spitting back out because you hate broccoli.

3. Sensory adaptation, selective attention, and transduction

I. SENSORY ADAPTATION

Is a reduced sensitivity to unchanging stimuli over time. Adaptation is an adjustment in sensory capacity
after prolonged exposure to unchanging stimuli. It occurs when we become accustomed to a constant
stimulus and change our evaluation of it. E.g1. A swimmer dives into a pool, notice the water is chilly.
However, after swimming for a while he/she don’t notice the water temperature. Eg2. When we go out

3
specially to the big cities, we hear a big noise of city traffic with a lot of people. But after we stay in it for
a while, we adapt that big noise of everything.

II. SELECTIVE ATTENTION

It is the process of selecting some inputs to attend to while ignoring others. An input is more likely to
reach a person’s awareness if it relates to an anticipated event. For example, a professional football player
may not recognize the voice of cheering huge crowded fan while he’s playing. However, after a referee
whistle to stop playing for an half hour play this player may recognize a fans cheering for his team as well
as himself. Another example is that a selective attention example is having a conversation with someone
in a crowded, public space. One chooses to focus on what the friend is saying rather than every single
noise present in the background.

III. TRANSDUCTION

Transduction refers to the process in which a sense organ changes or transforms physical energy into
electrical signals that become neural impulses, which may be sent to the brain for processing. It is the
process of turning environmental information into neural impulses, in which our sense organs produce
neural impulses by their own required characteristics. For example, as we read any word, our eyes
capture the lights reflected off the page in front of us. Then structures in our eyes change this pattern of
light into signals that are sent to brain and interpreted as language. E.g2. The brain receiving the sensory
stimulus of smelling smoke. Because the brain smells smoke, it may be to perceive that something nearby
is burning.

4. Different types of Monocular and Binocular cues

A, MONOCULAR CUES: are cues to depth or distance provided by only one eye. They permit us to
obtain a sense of depth and distance with just one eye. Some types of monocular cues are presented
below.

Accommodation: is the tension of the muscle that changes the focal length of the lens of eye. In order to
focus on close-up objects, certain muscles in our eye contract, altering the shape of our lens. For example,
approaching objects at the bridge of our nose, if we feel our eye muscle is contracted then the object is
very near. If we feel our eyes muscle is relaxed then the object is far from us.

Motion parallax: a type of depth perception cues in which objects that are closer appear to move faster
than objects that are further. For example, when we travel in a vehicle, objects far away appear to move in
the same direction as the observer, whereas close objects move in the opposite direction. Objects at
different distances appear to move at different velocities.

Overlap or interposition: If one object overlaps another, it is seen as being closer than the one it covers
or when one object overlaps another, the object that is partially obscured is perceived as being farther
away. For example, when we use our computer, we know that the keyboard is closer than the desk
because you we see the desk around the keyboard.

Texture gradient: it is that the texture of a surface appears smoother as distance increases. E.g A stadium
in which a lot of fans are attended their texture become more visible when we are closer and when we get
far from them their texture become smoother and near to the ground.

4
Height cues (aerial perspective): is a monocular cue of depth perception, where objects which are
further away appear lighter and less detailed. For example, standing on a tall mountain and observing
grass, rocks, and trees up close, while seeing mainly bluish colors in a distant valley.

Linear perspective: is method of determining depth by noting that parallel lines appear to converge in
the distance. For example, the apparent convergence of two parallel lines, specifically while viewing a
long, two-lane stretch of highway.

B, BINOCULAR CUES: are cues to depth or distance provided by the use of both eyes or it is depth
information based on the coordinated efforts of both eyes.

Convergence: In order to see close objects, our eyes turn toward one another; the greater this movement,
the closer such objects appear to be.

Retinal disparity (binocular parallax): Our two eyes observe objects from slightly different positions in
space; the difference between these two images is interpreted by our brain to provide another cue to
depth.

5. Detection or signal detection theory

It is a method of differentiating a person's ability to discriminate the presence and absence of a stimulus
(or different stimulus intensities) from the criterion the person uses to make responses to those stimuli. It
is about detecting stimuli (a signal) through the senses. Testing the signal detection theory exposes
observers to signals.

When testing the signal detection theory, a signal is given or not, and the observer recognizes the signal
or not. The outcomes of the signal detection experiment are Hit. Miss, False alarm, and correct rejection.

Hit refers to the observer being exposed to the stimulus and the observe recognizing the stimulus. Hit is a
positive outcome of the testing as the stimulus was present and acknowledged by the observer.

Miss exposes the observer to the stimulus, but the observer does not acknowledge the present stimulus.
Miss is viewed as a negative outcome, and it indicates that something in the testing was wrong. In the
case of a miss, the stimulus was present but went undetected by the observer.

False Alarm: The stimulus is not present, but the observer thinks they encountered a stimulus

Correct Rejection: The observer is not exposed to a stimulus, and they do not acknowledge a stimulus;
this is called correct rejection. This is a positive outcome of the testing as the stimulus was not present,
and the observer did not sense any signal.

E.g., In the hearing test, the subjects were commanded to raise their hand when they hear the sound and if
they didn’t hear they should not have to raise their hand. At first, the sound was present and the subject
raises the hand in this case we call it a Hit. Because the signal was present and there was a positive
response. Secondly, the sound was present but the subject does not raise their hand in this case it would
be a Miss. Thirdly, the sound was absence they didn’t play a sound but the subject raise their hand
thinking that they heard a sound. And this is going to be a False alarm. Finally, the sound was absent and
the subject does not raise their hand. And this will be a correct rejection.

5
 6. Classical conditioning and operant conditioning
Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a response naturally elicited by a stimulus comes to
be elicited by a formerly neutral stimulus. Operant conditioning is a kind of learning in which a behavior
is performed, followed by a consequence. Learning takes place as a result of some voluntary action by the
learner. In classical conditioning, learning takes place without choice. The stimulus causes the response.
Operant conditioning takes place after the response, while classical conditioning takes place before the
response. Classical conditioning is learning by association, and operant conditioning is learning by
reinforcement. In contrast to classical conditioning, operant conditioning involves encouraging or
discouraging a specific behavior using reinforcement

7. Different reinforcement schedules

There are two foundational reinforcement schedules. These The two foundational forms of reinforcement
schedules are referred to as continuous reinforcement and partial reinforcement.

Continuous Schedules of Reinforcement

In continuous reinforcement, the desired behavior is reinforced every single time it occurs. This schedule
is best used during the initial stages of learning to create a strong association between the behavior and
response. Imagine, for example, that you are trying to teach a dog to shake your hand. During the initial
stages of learning, you would stick to a continuous reinforcement schedule to teach and establish the
behavior. This might involve grabbing the dog's paw, shaking it, saying "shake," and then offering a
reward each and every time you perform these steps. Eventually, the dog will start to perform the action
on its own.

Partial Schedules of Reinforcement

Once the response is firmly established, a continuous reinforcement schedule is usually switched to a
partial reinforcement schedule. There are four schedules of partial reinforcement. These four schedules of
reinforcement are sometimes referred to as FR, VR, FI, and VI which stands for fixed-ratio, variable-
ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval.

Fixed-ratio schedules are those in which a response is reinforced only after a specified number of
responses. An example of a fixed-ratio schedule would be delivering a food pellet to a rat after it presses a
bar five times.

Variable-ratio schedules occur when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of

responses. This schedule creates a high steady rate of responding. Gambling and lottery games are good
examples of a reward based on a variable ratio schedule.

Fixed-interval schedules are those where the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of
time has elapsed. An example of this in a lab setting would be reinforcing a rat with a lab pellet for the
first bar press after a 30-second interval has elapsed.

Variable-interval schedules occur when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time
has passed. This schedule produces a slow, steady rate of response. An example of this would be
delivering a food pellet to a rat after the first bar press following a one-minute interval; a second pellet for

6
the first response following a five-minute interval; and a third pellet for the first response following a
three-minute interval.

8. Short term and long term memory

Similarity of short term and long-term memory is that both of them are memory. There is relationship
between them on transferring information. A short-term memory's conversion to long-term memory
requires the passage of time, which allows it to become resistant to interference from competing stimuli
or disrupting factors such as injury or disease. This time-dependent process of stabilization, whereby our
experiences achieve a permanent record in our memory, is referred to as "consolidation." Memory
consolidation can occur at many organizational levels in the brain. This is also their similarity.

Difference: - Short-term memory involves information that’s retained for a short amount of time and then
lost, while long-term memory lasts much longer. Short-term and long-term memory is different in two
major ways. The first is the length of time memory is retained, and the second is the amount of
information that can be retained. It’s thought that short-term memory only lasts for about 15 to 30
seconds before the information is lost or put into long-term memory. Short-term memory is also thought
to only be able to contain around seven items of information.

9. Instinct Theory of Motivation, Drive Reduction Theory of

Motivation, Arousal Theory of Motivation and Maslow’s
Hierarchy of Needs
Instinct Theory of Motivation: According to this theory, people show certain behavior because they are
evolutionary programmed to show that particular behavior. Instincts are the inborn characteristics of
human behavior which are determined biologically. These instincts motivate them and provide them
energy to perform activities e.g. some people show exploratory behavior because of their instinct to
explore, seasonal migrations, hunger, heat, barbarianism etc.

Drive Reduction theory: According to this theory, when the basic biological need of living organism is
lacking, drive comes into operation to fulfill the body requirements. In simple words, we can say that
drive is an arousal that motivates organism to show a particular behavior or carry out certain activity e.g.
one might be motivated to drink a glass of water in order to reduce thirst or one might be motivated to eat
food because of the hunger drive.

Arousal motivation theory indicates that people act in a way to maintain their optimal level of
psychological arousal. For example, a bored, rich person can do anything to stimulate themselves. This
individual can plan a skydiving event that will raise their adrenaline levels, thus leaving them feeling
stimulated. However, if the stimulation is too high and surpasses the individual's expectation, they can
consider a relaxing activity like napping or listening to calm music. This example indicates that
stimulation levels can exceed one's expectations, and they need to be reduced to the optimal levels of an
individual.

Maslow Hierarchy of Needs/ Humanistic theory: According to Maslow, people are motivated to fulfill
their basic needs before moving on to other needs. It divides people’s needs in to 5 levels. Though these
needs are divided into five levels but if observed closely, we can divide them into two types i.e. D or

7
Deficiency needs and the growth needs. Those needs which occur from lack of something are called D-
needs. The lowest four levels in the pyramid fall in this category whereas the highest level i.e. the self-
actualizing needs fall in the category of growth needs.

Unlike Maslow Hierarchy of Needs/ Humanistic theory all the preceding three theories did not provide
hierarchy for needs of people. They did not provide which need precedes another need. They provide a
single reason for all needs unlike that of Maslow’s theory of motivation. Maslow did not provide what
energies are motivating people to do certain action. He provides nothing than categorizing those needs in
hierarchical order. On the other hand, all those three theories provide for the reason for that needs and
energies which are motivating those needs.

10. Different types of ego defense mechanisms

Denial: it occurs when you refuse to accept facts or reality. Example, you killed someone before
everyone but you refuse as didn’t kill that person.

Repression: Unsavory thoughts, painful memories, or irrational beliefs can upset you. Instead of facing
those thoughts, people may unconsciously choose to hide them in hopes of forgetting them entirely.

Projection: Some thoughts or feelings you have about another person may make you uncomfortable.
When people project those feelings, they misattribute them to the other person. For example, you may
dislike your new co-worker, but instead of accepting that, you choose to tell yourself that they dislike
you. You start to interpret their words and actions toward you in the worst way possible, even though they
don’t actually dislike you.

Displacement: You direct strong emotions and frustrations toward a person or object that doesn’t feel
threatening. This allows you to satisfy an impulse to react, but you don’t risk significant consequences. A
good example of this defense mechanism is getting angry at your child or spouse because you had a bad
day at work.

Regression: Some people who feel threatened or anxious may unconsciously “escape” to an earlier stage
of development. This type of defense mechanism may be most obvious in young children. If they
experience trauma or loss, they may suddenly act as if they’re younger again. They may even begin
wetting the bed or sucking their thumb as a form of regression.

Rationalization: Some people may attempt to explain undesirable behaviors with their own set of
“facts.” This allows you to feel comfortable with the choice you made, even if you know on another level
it’s not right. For example, someone who didn’t get a promotion at work might say they didn’t want the
promotion anyways.

Sublimation: It is considered a mature, positive strategy. That’s because people who rely on it choose to
redirect strong emotions or feelings into an object or activity that is appropriate and safe. For example,
instead of lashing out at your coworkers during a stressful shift, you choose to channel your frustration
into a kickboxing class. You could also funnel or redirect the feelings into music, art, or sports.

Reaction formation: People who use this defense mechanism recognize how they feel, but they choose
to behave in the opposite manner of their instincts. A person who reacts this way, for example, may feel

8
they should not express negative emotions, such as anger or frustration. They choose to instead react in an
overly positive way.

Compartmentalization: Separating your life into independent sectors may feel like a way to protect
many elements of it. For example, when you choose to not discuss personal life issues at work, you block
off, or compartmentalize, that element of your life.

Intellectualization: When you’re hit with a trying situation, you may choose to remove all emotion from
your responses and instead focus on quantitative facts. For example, you may see this strategy in use
when a person spends their days creating spreadsheets of job opportunities and leads after they are let go
from a job.

11. Anxiety disorder, personality disorder and mood disorder with

their respective symptoms
I. Anxiety disorder

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD): performing certain actions repetitively.

Social phobia/Social anxiety disorder: unable to handle everyday situations such as making small talk
or even eating in public.

Specific phobias: go to great lengths to avoid the object or situation that triggers their anxiety.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): The person will have difficulty sleeping or relaxing due to
constant flashbacks of the event.

Panic disorder: it includes a range of physical symptoms such as dizziness, shortness of breath and
excessive perspiration.

II) Personality disorder

Cluster A personality disorders

Paranoid personality disorder: The main feature of this condition is paranoia, which is a relentless
mistrust and suspicion of others without adequate reason for suspicion.

Schizoid personality disorder: limited range of emotions when interacting with others.

Schizotypal personality disorder: intense discomfort with and limited need for close relationships.

Cluster B personality disorders

Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD): lack of respect toward others and don’t follow socially
accepted norms or rules.

Borderline personality disorder (BPD): emotional regulation, resulting in low self-esteem, mood
swings, impulsive behaviors and subsequent relationship difficulties.

Histrionic personality disorder: intense, unstable emotions and a distorted self-image.

Narcissistic personality disorder: low self-esteem and a lack of self-confidence.

9
Cluster C personality disorders

Avoidant personality disorder: chronic feelings of inadequacy and are highly sensitive to being
negatively judged by others. Though they would like to interact with others, they tend to avoid social
interaction due to the intense fear of being rejected.

Dependent personality disorder: constant and excessive need to be cared for by someone else. It also
involves submissiveness, a need for constant reassurance and the inability to make decisions.

Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD): consistent and extreme need for orderliness,
perfectionism and control (with no room for flexibility) that ultimately slows or interferes with
completing a task.

III Mood Disorder

Depression: It is symptom in general is feeling sad or hopeless. It has the following subtypes:

Postpartum depression (peripartum depression): hormonal, physical, emotional, financial and social
changes after having a baby.

Persistent depressive disorder: chronic form of depression that must last for at least two years.

Seasonal affective disorder (SAD): Symptoms of winter seasonal affective disorder may resemble those
of major depression.

Depression with psychosis: hallucinations (seeing or hearing things that others don’t) or delusions
(having fixed but false beliefs).

Bipolar disorder: It has symptoms include intense shifts in mood, energy levels, thinking patterns and
behavior. There are four basic types of bipolar disorder, including:

Bipolar I disorder: having episodes of both mania and depression, but an episode of depression isn’t
necessary for a diagnosis.

Bipolar II disorder: This disorder causes cycles of depression similar to those of bipolar I. A person
with this illness also experiences hypomania, which is a less severe form of mania.

Cyclothymia disorder (cyclothymia): People with cyclothymic disorder have a chronically unstable
mood state. They experience hypomania and mild depression for at least two years.

Other specified and unspecified bipolar and related disorders: Symptoms of this type of bipolar
disorder don’t meet the criteria for one of the other types, but people still have significant, abnormal
mood changes.

Other mood disorders: Other mood disorders include: Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD):
Symptoms may include anger, irritability, anxiety, depression and insomnia. Disruptive mood
dysregulation disorder (DMDD): It involves frequent anger outbursts and irritability out of proportion
to the situation.

10
References
 https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-a-schedule-of-reinforcement-2794864#:~:text=These
%20four%20schedules%20of%20reinforcement,interval%2C%20and%20variable%2Dinterval
 https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9636-personality-disorders-overview
 https://vistapineshealth.com/memory/
 https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/experts-short-term-memory-to-long-term/
 https://www.scholarshipsads.com/motivation-theories-of-motivation/
 https://study.com/learn/lesson/theories-of-motivation-instinct-drive-reduction-arousal.html
 https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17843-mood-disorders
 https://www.googleadservices.com/pagead/aclk?
sa=L&ai=DChcSEwisxu37jYj7AhUL7O0KHcXPCqwYABAAGgJkZw&ohost=www.google.co
m&cid=CAESbeD2qPi0qBWxteY8I5LXn5kgXR0NQ85gfRh5lgAgCaZLI1d3Em9p-
AQCAAp25XWe5iJNgYkmS3MRjOJEMZPglVlqwT_F_wWtiWUT4N3putqE4vPl1SxkVcWVc
eiDt8S2f_vtufv93n_xu3gYd28&sig=AOD64_19S_MhCPHA8bdR2KXcOF0lfn0EMg&q&adurl
&ved=2ahUKEwjcm-f7jYj7AhWNUMAKHdObB54Q0Qx6BAgHEAE
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qe7wN8qT8ic
 Lauren Williams, 500 AP Psychology Questions to know by test day by
 Robert S. Feldman, Understanding Psychology, 10th edition
 Robert A. Baron, Psychology, 4th edition

11