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Mesopotamia (World History)
Mesopotamia (World History)
The 'two rivers' of the name refer to the Tigris and the Euphrates and the land
was known as 'Al-Jazirah' (the island) to the Arabs as a fertile land
surrounded by water. The term "Fertile Crescent" was coined by Egyptologist
J.H. Breasted (l. 1865-1935) in 1916 to describe the region at the north-end of
the Persian Gulf, associated with the biblical Garden of Eden.
The invention of the wheel is also credited to the Mesopotamians and, in 1922
CE, the archaeologist Sir Leonard Woolley discovered “the remains of two
four-wheeled wagons, [at the site of the ancient city of Ur] the oldest wheeled
vehicles in history ever found, along with their leather tires” (Bertman, 35).
Other important developments or inventions credited to the Mesopotamians
include, but are by no means limited to, domestication of
animals, agriculture and irrigation, common tools, sophisticated weaponry
and warfare, the chariot, wine, beer, demarcation of time into hours, minutes,
and seconds, religious rites, the sail (sailboats), and legal codes.
Orientalist Samuel Noah Kramer, in fact, has listed 39 `firsts' in human
civilization that originated in Sumer. These include:
The First Schools, The First Case of `Apple Polishing', The First
Case of Juvenile Delinquency, The First `War of Nerves', The
First Bicameral Congress, The First Historian, The First Case of
Tax Reduction, The First `Moses', The First Legal Precedent,
The First Pharmacopoeia, The First `Farmer's Almanac', The
First Experiment in Shade-Tree Gardening, Man's First
Cosmogony and Cosmology, The First Moral Ideals, The First
`Job', The First Proverbs and Sayings, The First Animal Fables,
The First Literary Debates, The First Biblical Parallels, The First
`Noah', The First Tale of Resurrection, The First `St. George',
The First Case of Literary Borrowing, Man's First Heroic Age,
The First Love Song, The First Library Catalogue, Man's First
Golden Age, The First `Sick' Society, The First Liturgic Laments,
The First Messiahs, The First Long-Distance Champion, The
First Literary Imagery, The First Sex Symbolism, The First Mater
Dolorosa, The First Lullaby, The First Literary Portrait, The First
Elegies, Labor's First Victory, The First Aquarium.
Learning & Religion
Mesopotamia was known in antiquity as a seat of learning, and it is believed
that Thales of Miletus (l. c. 585 BCE, known as the 'first philosopher') studied
there. As the Babylonians believed that water was the 'first principle' from
which all else flowed, and as Thales is famous for that very claim, it seems
probable he studied in the region.
Intellectual pursuits were highly valued across Mesopotamia, and the schools
(devoted primarily to the priestly class) were said to be as numerous as
temples and taught reading, writing, religion, law, medicine, and astrology.
There were over 1,000 deities in the pantheon of the gods of the
Mesopotamian cultures and many stories concerning the gods (among them,
the creation myth, the Enuma Elish). It is generally accepted that biblical tales
such as the Fall of Man and the Great Flood (among many others) originated
in Mesopotamian lore, as they first appear in Mesopotamian works such
as The Myth of Adapa and the Epic of Gilgamesh, the oldest written story in
the world. The Mesopotamians believed that they were co-workers with the
gods and that the land was infused with spirits and demons (though
`demons' should not be understood in the modern, Christian, sense).
The beginning of the world, they believed, was a victory by the gods over the
forces of chaos but, even though the gods had won, this did not mean chaos
could not come again. Through daily rituals, attention to the deities, proper
funeral practices, and simple civic duty, the people of Mesopotamia felt they
helped maintain balance in the world and kept the forces of chaos and
destruction at bay. Along with expectations that one would honor one's elders
and treat people with respect, the citizens of the land were also to honor the
gods through the jobs they performed every day.
Jobs
Men and women both worked, and “because ancient Mesopotamia was
fundamentally an agrarian society, the principal occupations were growing
crops and raising livestock” (Bertman, 274). Other occupations included those
of the scribe, the healer, artisan, weaver, potter, shoemaker, fisherman,
teacher, and priest or priestess. Bertman writes:
At the head of society were the kings and priests served by the
populous staff of palace and temple. With the institution of
standing armies and the spread of imperialism, military officers
and professional soldiers took their place in Mesopotamia's
expanding and diverse workforce. (274)
Women enjoyed nearly equal rights and could own land, file for divorce, own
their own businesses, and make contracts in trade. Contracts, business
arrangements, and correspondence were written in cuneiform script on clay
tablets and signed with an imprint from a person's cylinder seal, which was
one's form of identification. Once the tablet dried, it was sometimes placed in
a clay envelope and sealed again so only the recipient could read the letter or
contract. Cuneiform script was used in writing Semitic languages, such as
Babylonian, or others like Sumerian and remained in use until replaced by
alphabetic script. Receipts for goods received were also written on cuneiform
tablets (as everything was, including literature) and these have all lasted
much longer than documents written on papyrus or paper.
The earliest beer receipt in the world comes from Mesopotamia, known as the
Alulu Receipt (c. 2050 BCE), written in the city of Ur. The early brewers of
beer and wine, as well as the healers in the community, were initially women.
These trades were later taken over by men, it seems, when it became apparent
they were lucrative occupations. The work one did, however, was never
considered simply a `job' but one's contribution to the community and, by
extension, to the gods' efforts in keeping the world at peace and in harmony.
Simple homes were constructed from bundles of reeds lashed together and
inserted in the ground, while more complex homes were built of sun-dried
clay brick (a practice followed later by the Egyptians). Cities and temple
complexes, with their famous ziggurats, were all built using oven-baked
bricks of clay which were then painted.
Still, even very efficient rulers, such as Sargon of Akkad (r. 2334-2279 BCE),
had to deal with perpetual uprisings and revolts by factions, or whole
regions, contesting his legitimacy. As Mesopotamia was so vast a region, with
so many different cultures and ethnicities within its borders, a single ruler
attempting to enforce the laws of a central government would invariably be
met with resistance from some quarter.
Pre-Pottery Neolithic Age
In this period there was a widespread use of tools and clay pots and a specific
culture begins to emerge in the Fertile Crescent. Scholar Stephen Bertman
writes, “during this era, the only advanced technology was literally 'cutting
edge'” as stone tools and weapons became more sophisticated. Bertman
further notes that “the Neolithic economy was primarily based on food
production through farming and animal husbandry” (55) and was more
settled, as opposed to the Stone Age in which communities were more mobile.
Architectural advancements naturally followed in the wake of permanent
settlements as did developments in the manufacture of ceramics and stone
tools.
Also known as The Chalcolithic Period owing to the transition from stone
tools and weapons to ones made of copper. This era includes the so-called
Ubaid Period (c. 5000-4100 BCE, named for Tell al-`Ubaid, the location in Iraq
where the greatest number of artifacts were found) during which the first
temples in Mesopotamia were built and unwalled villages developed from
sporadic settlements of single dwellings. These villages then gave rise to the
urbanization process during the Uruk Period (4100-2900 BCE) when cities
rose, most notably in the region of Sumer, including Eridu, Uruk, Ur, Kish,
Nuzi, Lagash, Nippur, and Ngirsu, and in Elam with its city of Susa.
The earliest city is often cited as Uruk, although Eridu and Ur have also been
suggested. Van De Mieroop writes, “Mesopotamia was the most densely
urbanized region in the ancient world” (as cited in Bertman, 201), and the
cities which grew up along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, as well as those
founded further away, established systems of trade which resulted in great
prosperity.
This period saw the invention of the wheel (c. 3500 BCE) and writing (c. 3600
BCE), both by the Sumerians, the establishment of kingships to replace
priestly rule, and the first war in the world recorded between the kingdoms of
Sumer and Elam (2700 BCE) with Sumer as the victor. During the Early
Dynastic Period (2900-2334 BCE), all of the advances of the Uruk Period were
developed and the cities, and government in general, stabilized.
Increased prosperity in the region gave rise to ornate temples and statuary,
sophisticated pottery and figurines, toys for children (including dolls for girls
and wheeled carts for boys), and the use of personal seals (known as Cylinder
Seals) to denote ownership of property and to stand for an individual's
signature. Cylinder Seals would be comparable to one's modern-day
identification card or driver's license and, in fact, the loss or theft of one's seal
would have been as significant as modern-day identity theft or losing one's
credit cards.
Early Bronze Age (3,000 – 2119 BCE)
The Akkadian Empire of Sargon the Great was the first multi-national realm
in the world and Sargon's daughter, Enheduanna (l.2285-2250 BCE), the first
author of literary works known by name. The library at Mari contained over
20,000 cuneiform tablets (books) and the palace there was considered one of
the finest in the region.
The rise of the Kassite Dynasty (a tribe who came from the Zagros Mountains
in the north and are thought to have originated in modern-day Iran) leads to a
shift in power and an expansion of culture and learning after the Kassites
conquered Babylon. The collapse of the Bronze Age followed the discovery of
how to mine ore and make use of iron, a technology which the Kassites and,
earlier, the Hittites made singular use of in warfare.
The period also saw the beginning of the decline of Babylonian culture due to
the rise in power of the Kassites until they were defeated by the Elamites and
driven out. After the Elamites gave way to the Aramaeans, the small
Kingdom of Assyria began a series of successful campaigns, and the Assyrian
Empire was firmly established and prospered under the rule of Tiglath-
Pileser I (r. 1115-1076 BCE) and, after him, Ashurnasirpal II (r. 884-859 BCE)
consolidated the empire further. Most Mesopotamian states were either
destroyed or weakened following the Bronze Age Collapse c. 1250-c.1150
BCE, leading to a brief "dark age".
Legacy
The legacy of Mesopotamia endures today through many of the most basic
aspects of modern life such as the sixty-second minute and the sixty-minute
hour. Helen Chapin Metz writes,
These cuneiform tablets were deciphered by the scholar and translator George
Smith (l. 1840-1876 CE) in 1872 CE and this opened up the ancient
civilizations of Mesopotamia to the modern world. The story of the Great
Flood and Noah's Ark, the story of the Fall of Man, the concept of a Garden of
Eden, even the complaints of Job had all been written centuries before the
biblical texts by the Mesopotamians.
Once cuneiform could be read, and the ancient world of Mesopotamia opened
up to the modern age, it transformed people's understanding of the history of
the world and themselves. The discovery of the Sumerian Civilization and the
stories of the cuneiform tablets encouraged a new freedom of intellectual
inquiry into all areas of knowledge. It was now understood that the biblical
narratives were not original Hebrew works, the world was obviously older
than the church had been claiming, there were civilizations which had risen
and fallen long before anyone previously thought and, if these claims by
authorities of church and schools had been false, perhaps others were as well.
The spirit of inquiry in the late 19th century was already making inroads into
challenging the paradigms of accepted thought when Smith deciphered
cuneiform but the discovery of Mesopotamian culture and religion
encouraged this further. In ancient times, Mesopotamia impacted the world
through its inventions, innovations, and religious vision; in the modern day it
literally changed the way people understood the whole of history and one's
place in the continuing story of human civilization.