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WA51 - 80109 - r2016 t89 No4 - G Polonica Krzysztof
WA51 - 80109 - r2016 t89 No4 - G Polonica Krzysztof
WA51 - 80109 - r2016 t89 No4 - G Polonica Krzysztof
Abstract
The concept of centripetal and centrifugal forces was formally applied to the geographical sciences
by Charles C. Colby in the 1930s; and for decades, these terms have been key elements used in explaining
the development of cities and regions. Given that geographical research treats these concepts as represented
by scientific metaphors, the work described in this article has sought to look critically at relevant issues from the
physical point of view, i.e. in terms of Newtonian mechanics. Although the use of these metaphors is not always
found to reflect the reality characterising the observed elements in the socio-economic system of a city and its sur-
roundings, these may serve as an important element of explanations of ‘classical’ geography, new economic ge-
ography and Batty’s concept of the “new science of cities”, providing that certain objections are taken account of.
Key words
city-forming forces • centripetal forces • centrifugal forces • urban system • ontological approach
in urban and socio-economic geography has forces, and when are we faced with other
been growing for years now, mainly in asso- types of city-forming forces1?
ciation with reflections as to the role of cen- The problem of the ambiguity of the two
tripetal and centrifugal forces in creating the types of force under discussion is so important
reality that surrounds us. and timely that it may not only lead to episte-
The concept involving centripetal and cen- mological disharmony, but also in some cases
trifugal forces was applied broadly to the geo- constitute an incorrect diagnostic base in real
graphical sciences by Colby (1933). Although strategic and planning activities - unfortu-
the terms had appeared before, they took nately even at the level of national policy (e.g.
their places as key elements explaining the Poland’s Concept of National Spatial Develop-
development of cities and regions for decades ment 20302).
to come thanks to Colby’s article. Their mecha- Explanations offered in this article refer
nistic background has also found a prominent to the ontological approach. The two discussed
place among other physicalistic approach- forces have been verified, and their specific-
es, be these thermodynamic, gravitational ity from the point of view of urban geogra-
or field-related. Also constituted in this way phy juxtaposed with their nature as defined
is an important alternative in the explanation- within the framework of Newtonian mechan-
based-on-systems theory. ics. It has been assumed that such a combi-
Overall, the concept of centripetal and nation will allow for a redefining of certain
centrifugal forces has accompanied anthropo- uses of the terms centripetal and centrifugal
geography since the end of the 19th century. force. The article is therefore stricte explana-
With successive geographical approaches tory, but also discursive in nature. A further
to presenting socio-economic reality, it has part points to the frequently divergent points
undergone a true evolution. Starting from of view in terms of definitions of these forces,
foundations in anthropogeography based as well as their applicability in both the aca-
on the landscape and functionalist explana- demic forum and planning or strategic policies
tion, through the stage of theoretical concepts (regional and municipal).
important for the geography of mature cities
(1930-1970) and the founding of a new eco-
The problem of centrifugal
nomic geography (end of the 20th century),
to the recently evolving approach The new
and centripetal forces in research
science of Cities. The durability of mechanis- on urban settlement systems
tic-approach-explanations over such a long
period undoubtedly attests to their rank and The discussed issue of centripetal and cen-
position in socioeconomic research. trifugal forces in urban settlement systems
However, despite significant scientific her- has already a very rich scientific output.
itage and numerous conceptualisations, the This is undoubtedly due to the significance
issue of centripetal and centrifugal forces
1
in urban geography requires further improve- The term “city-forming forces” in this study en-
compasses the kinds of forces that play a key role in the
ment, synthesis and clarification. Such objec- process by which a town emerges in geographical
tives were therefore set for the work described space. It can also be defined in terms of genetic urban
in this article. An emphasis on the fundamen- functions.
2
tal problem of defining centripetal and centrif- The Concept of National Spatial Development
2030 considers that development in Poland should
ugal forces has been equally important, and be based on the gravity-diffusion model. Paradoxically,
in many cases offers a de facto representation gravity forces are in this case identified with ... cen-
of the so-called ‘double’ scientific metaphor. trifugal forces. From the point of view of physics, the
The research question addressed in this arti- existence of such a system at all is impossible. Does
it therefore gain verification as a metaphor with which
cle is therefore when, in geographical space, to define the principles for the development and func-
do we encounter centripetal and centrifugal tioning of a state in spatial terms?
of the discussed issue in geographical and as a result of centripetal forces, those of vil-
economic studies, as well as the fact that the lages by centrifugal forces.
first achievements in this area had already However, a turning point in the conceptu-
been made more than 125 years ago (Weber alisation of centripetal and centrifugal forces
1889). However, the development of research as city-forming forces was reached with the
on these forces has undergone certain cycli- fundamental work of Colby (1933), with its
cal stages. Three out of four of these began first reference to the ontological foundations
with milestone publications. The cyclical of Newtonian mechanics as a background
nature reflected the fact that temporarily against which the socioeconomic develop-
increased interest in the issue was followed ment of an area, primarily in urban develop-
by dissemination. For example, with respect ment, can be explained. Colby suggested that
to the second stage of conceptual evolution, the mechanistic concept of centripetal and
Korcelli (1969: 22-23) writes: “The succes- centrifugal forces be viewed as a set of socio-
sors of C. Colby did not introduce anything economic forces experienced in real geograph-
new in later studies as for understanding the ical space.
essence of the discussed forces, especially As has been noted, the post-World War
on the existing classification; and the issue II period brought a certain relativisation
of the impact of centripetal and centrifugal of these concepts, which were adopted as de-
forces in metropolitan development became terminants, mainly in empirical and empirical-
a truism in the 1960s”. explanatory works. Philbrick (1957) had the
As abovementioned, the research and con- impact of centripetal and centrifugal forces
ceptualisations of centrifugal and centripetal ‘annexed’ to explanations based on field phys-
forces had 4 stages which were as follows: ics. Their essence had a local dimension and
– up to 1933, i.e. prior to the publication constituted an explanation of the development
of the fundamental work of C. Colby in this of the city and its surroundings as being in-
area; duced by gravity in the field of an urban cen-
– from the 1930s through to the 1980s- tre. The 1950 work of Bogue as author of the
1990s, when the dividing line was marked “concept of metropolitan development” was
by explanations of the new economic geog- later expanded on by Gottman (1961, 1978),
raphy that appeared, most especially those with account primarily being taken of the role
presented by P. Krugman; centripetal forces play in shaping cities and
– from the 1980s-1990s to the period after urban agglomerations.
2010, designated symbolically by the work New attempts and developments relating
of Batty (2013), who proposed the so-called to centripetal and centrifugal forces in urban
“new science about cities”; geography arose in the 1960s and 1970s.
– the contemporary period post-2013. Gibbs (1963) proposed a concentration-
The two most important publications in the deconcentration model based on two phases
first period were works by Weber (1889) and of development of cities and urban agglom-
Hasinger (1910). Weber’s merit was to draw erations (i.e. a ‘stratigraphic’ model); while
attention to forces he called locational. In his Friedmann and Miller (1965 [1974]) proposed
opinion, they point-fixed the so-called func- the urban field concept, one of whose founda-
tional layers in geographic space. In turn, the tions was, not merely the process or interac-
essence of the explanations from Hasinger tion of concentration and deconcentration, but
(1910) was a focus on the role centripetal and also an equivalence between them, depending
centrifugal forces play in shaping the settle- on the focus of attention of research on this
ment system as a being based on the concept development – in the spatial or temporal
of the city and the village. Hasinger’s expla- sense. From the other side, Hudson (1970)
nations generally came down to a formulation gave a brief description of the action of the
of a thesis that functions of cities are created centripetal and centrifugal forces, in relation
to time as well as space (the linear model). The conflicting issues, such as spatial concentra-
strong functionalist context has been under- tion and spatial balance of economic activ-
lined by Henderson (1974) and Clark (1977). ity, or spatial balance versus instability not
A milestone in research on the role of cen- caused by the concentration factor.
tripetal and centrifugal forces in urban ge- A further important aspect of the “new eco-
ography was reached with explanations nomic geography” entailed expansion of the
from R. Lawton (Daniel & Hopkinson 1996; field of research beyond the so-called circular
Krzysztofik 2014), who presented the action causation exposed by Myrdal, and explaining
of centripetal and centrifugal forces on the that, in general, manufacturing is focused
non-inertial subsystem level, emphasizing the in areas with the largest market, albeit with
spatial structure of a city in particular. the market being largest where industrial
Work done in Poland has also taken up the production is concentrated (Krugman 1993).
issues of mechanisms underpinning the devel- A novum against these explanations, regard-
opment of cities and urban agglomerations, less of their nature and course, was to take
with the factor of the forces responsible for into account as primary and genetic, forces
this development also taken account of. The that acted centripetally (the market) or cen-
most important studies in this area include: trifugally (manufacturing).
Malisz (1966), Korcelli (1969, 1974), Karłowicz Nevertheless, the most important research
(1978), Biderman (1978), Jędrzejczyk (1989) reflection of the assumptions of the new eco-
and Parysek (2011). nomic geography is the firm statement that
The third stage by which the issue of cen- “it is the interactions between centripetal and
tripetal and centrifugal forces was conceptual- centrifugal forces that shape the evolution
ised began in the 1980s and 1990s. In terms of the structure of the spatial economy” (Fujita
of time, it ‘overlapped’ with the second stage. et al. 2001: 346). This thesis has also been
In the third stage, the explanation of the confirmed by Soja (2000), who augmented
forces’ impact was largely based around it with an idea that these interactions should
assumptions in new economic geography be seen on a number of different (spatial-hier-
(Barnes 2003). However, a breakthrough was archical) scales, among which key interactions
provided in explanations advanced by Krug- include: city centre–surroundings, one urban
man (1995, 1997). It must be noted that the centre versus another of similar potential, and
efforts to clarify this issue emerged in the finally the relationship between centres placed
early 1980s, in a work by Fujita and Ogawa in different locations on the hierarchical scale.
(1982) devoted to external economies in busi- An interesting conclusion in studying urban
ness location. In this model, the forming role development forces, making partial reference
of centripetal forces is taken into account, to the assumptions of the “new economic
along with mutual interactions of centripetal geography” has been proposed by Duranton
and centrifugal forces. and Puga (2000: 540): “The forces of agglom-
However, a real breakthrough came with eration (centripetal) decide on the rational
a classification by Krugman (1995) highlight- being of cities, while dispersion forces (cen-
ing the natural and socioeconomic attributes trifugal) determine their size”. Unfortunately,
subject to the impact of city- and region- any attempt to take reality into account tends
forming centripetal and centrifugal forces. to leave this thesis looking controversial. Both
In the “new economic geography”, these forces can determine the nature of cities, and
forces, that are in the nature of genetic in- their size.
teractions simultaneously constitute, a back- The concept from Krugman has met with
ground to fundamental questions about the lively discussion, and criticism of some of the
nature of economic existence of humankind explanations presented (e.g. from Henderson
on Earth (Fujita et al. 2001). Through scientific 1995; Isserman 1995; Dymski 1996; Fujita
discourse, these were referenced to seemingly & Thisse 2002; Olsen 2002). The criticism
centrifugal forces’ impact trajectories are pre- The evident attribute of a scientific metaphor
sented. This is clearly an important attribute is that it does not have to include all the char-
of the two discussed types of force, and one acteristics of the phenomenon or forms of exist-
which differentiates them from gravity and the ence to which it refers. However, by knowing all
recoil force (Fig. 2). the attributes of an element to which we refer
The facts indicated are of fundamental im- in a scientific metaphor, we can acknowledge
portance, especially if we treat them as the that they do not agree with the reality de-
basis for the construction of scientific meta- scribed by the metaphor, or that there is anoth-
phors; mainly in socioeconomic geography. er favourable element to which we can refer.
Figure 1. Activity of centripetal and centrifugal forces in the inertial and non-inertial (sub)systems
Symbols: M – direction of vehicle in motion; F – direction of force; Sn – phenomenon from the point of view
of the non-inertial frame; Si – phenomenon from the inertial frame point of view.
Figure 2. Model depiction of the action of centripetal and centrifugal forces from the point of view
of mechanics
Symbols: Fd – centripetal force, F – centrifugal force, M, m, m1, m2 – mass, v² – acceleration, r – radius,
v – speed of rotation.
forces in socioeconomic space? The ques- to the development of a city and its closest
tion is especially valid in the context of the surroundings (Figs. 4a and 4b).
two most famous graphic models showing The question of the concentricity and radi-
the direct effects of the impact of centripetal ance of zones in geographical space is signifi-
and centrifugal forces in a city subsystem, i.e. cant because trajectories for the impact of cen-
Colby model (1933) and Lawton model (Dan- tripetal and centrifugal forces in the physical
iel & Hopkinson 1996), that indicate clearly model are radial. This attribute should sug-
a concentric, rather than a radial, direction gest the similar shaping of the geographical
a b
Figure 4a. Centripetal and centrifugal forces as basic elements impacting on the city. An original redraw
Source: based on Colby, 1933.
Figure 4b. R. Lawton’s model of urban development in the nineteenth century
Symbols: 1 – stages in the concentric growth of the city, 2 – small town that has been engulfed by the
spread of a larger settlement, 3 – developing suburban villages and centres, 4 – a middle-class sector,
5 – the action of centripetal and centrifugal forces resulting from movement/ motion: people, goods and
some social-economic linkages, 6 – intra-urban movements.
Source: based on Daniel & Hopkinson, 1996: 137.
dimension to reality, but it is known that this in the role of thermodynamic attributes also
is not always the case, with the concentric needing to be emphasised is the weakening
models in fact being closer to reality. The potential for exerting an impact that charac-
resulting cognitive dissonance therefore rein- terises the forces discussed. This is weakening
forces the belief that if the geographical real- results from both the distance between two
ity disagrees with the mechanistic model, that points remaining in the interaction and the
model is perhaps inappropriate for its descrip- potential barriers or ‘filters’ located between
tion on an ontological level. This thesis has not them. Figure 5 presents the initial deviation
been truly justified either. Geographical reality phase to the trajectories showing interacting
is not merely an effect of the impact of the city-forming forces. The differentiation of geo-
determinants stimulated by the city-forming graphical (here socioeconomic) space reflects
forces discussed herein (Prigogine & Stengers deviation of the trajectory characterising in-
1997; Pulselli & Tiezzi 2009; Krzysztofik teracting forces, but also the direct impact
2014), but rather is also affected by elements of thermodynamic attributes.
described by definitions of thermodynamics
i.e. the flow of matter and energy, a system’s
Discussion and conclusions
entropy and negentropy, diffusion or, finally,
the phenomenon of dissipation in space The interpretation problems presented in the
(Domański 2001). In real geographical space, previous section with regard to centripetal and
these attributes have the ability to defragment centrifugal forces in socioeconomic space do
or disperse existing structures, to homogenise not constitute a comprehensive list, though
structures, to create zone systems, and to cre- are ones that may be deemed essential,
ate primary and secondary potential clusters. in the author’s opinion. However, doubts and
Thus centripetal and centrifugal forces, inconsistencies arising as the concept involv-
together with gravity and recoil, co-create ing centripetal and centrifugal forces is used
the material, energy and information reality as a metaphor for scientific geographical re-
in the geographical space at the elementary search (as indicated in the previous section) do
level. An important determinant of growth not in any way disqualify these from the gen-
eral discourse on socio-economic organisation
in space. Their nature inclines one to consider
the actual role of city-forming centripetal and
centrifugal forces in the genesis and develop-
ment of settlement systems.
It should first be noted how the definitional
scope of the concept entailing centripetal and
centrifugal forces is also transferred onto de
facto interactions involving gravity and recoil.
This means that, in the context of geographical
research, these describe both the interactions
typical for centripetal and centrifugal forces
and those characterising gravity and recoil.
Of the latter two, only the concept of gravity
is occasionally invoked at present. The concept
Figure 5. Activity of the city-forming centripetal involving the metaphor of recoil force is not
forces in the settlement subsystem used in the geographic sciences at all. Many
Symbols: 1 – directions in which city-forming forc- analyses thus de facto employ a ‘dual’ scien-
es act within the subsystem, 2 – the city-forming
point, 3 – limits of the subsystem, 4 – secondary tific metaphor. In this case, geographical real-
(urbanised) centres participating in subsystem in- ity is described as a physical model. In episte-
teractions conditioned by city-forming forces. mological terms, this is probably a significant
of centripetal and centrifugal forces referred The issue under discussion is thus by its
to in geographical research, herein focused very nature complex. Difficulties of interpre-
specifically on urban studies. tation arise largely as attempts are made
In fact analysis of achievements in this area to transfer clearly definable physical princi-
with an ‘averaging’ of the scope of proposed ples, with a view to diverse phenomena and
definitions and applications of these concepts geographical structures being described. Such
leads to the conclusion that: a procedure in fact moves beyond ‘difficult’,
– the centripetal force describes economic in the direction of ‘impossible’, in some re-
and social interactions, and those relating spects at least. Hence the contrast between
to spatial infrastructure, whose direction the physical and geographical realities is al-
is oriented from the hinterland or the im- leviated by applying a scientific metaphor
pact area of the city to the inner city, or the that need not always take full account of the
city itself; complete picture of a secondary assertion
– the centrifugal force determines the type in relation to the original statement. However,
of economic or social interactions, or inter- this truth denotes many ongoing research
actions involving spatial infrastructure, that challenges arising from issues of centripetal
are directed from the inner city, or the city it- and centrifugal forces discussed in this article.
self, towards a defined area of direct impact. A particular challenge is to improve methods
It is clear from these definitions, that what of spatial analysis to take the discussed ele-
socioeconomic research de facto investigates ments into account. This is particularly impor-
is closer to the attribute of impact (in the tant in the context of contemporary compli-
broader sense) or interaction, as opposed cating and differentiating socio-economic and
to the attribute of mechanical force per se. spatial structures.
If so, what is the causative agent behind this Further conceptualisation at the level of on-
conceptual gap? Firstly, it is the fact that the tological clarification is required where the
reality in physicalistic terms has what is pri- unification of the thermodynamic and mecha-
marily a mechanistically-thermodynamic di- nistic paradigms is concerned. Although cur-
mension. The role of metaphorical attributes rent achievements in explaining the specifics
of thermodynamics - diffusion, dissipation, of these two paradigms separately are sat-
flows, entropy and negative entropy – have isfactory, studies on co-dependence of the
been mentioned already. All of this ensures discussed elements explained using mecha-
that, in settlement systems, city-forming forc- nistic and thermodynamic metaphors remain
es exert an impact, not only on potential, but relatively under-represented. Functionalistic
also on structure. Beyond that, the human explanations should also play an important
social system is also superimposed onto this role (cf. Suliborski 2003), since these consti-
dimension. Its sociological, psychological and tute an expected keystone between typically
perceptual attributes lead to possible further empirical works and those referring to onto-
‘scattering’ of the role of impacts on a formed logical convention.
mechanistic level. A key consideration reflect- It would also be worthwhile popularising
ing the specific nature of geographical re- knowledge of the ontological basis underpin-
search, is that physical phenomena operate ning the development of cities and regions
in relation to attributes characterising solid, using developed case studies, in particular
liquid or gaseous forms. However, if they are in cases where the applicability of studies un-
to be studied academically, these forms will dertaken is made clear by their authors.
always need to be homogeneous, while in fact
geographical phenomena operate in geo- Editors‘ note:
graphical – (i.e. biotic, abiotic and anthropo- Unless otherwise stated, the sources of tables and
geographical) space that is both heterogene- figures are the authors’, on the basis of their own
ous vertically and variable in temporal terms. research.
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