elescopes are a technology that uses light to make faraway objects like the moon or the stars visible

to hu-
mans worldwide. Telescopes have been around for centuries and have significantly contributed to astron-
omy.

Telescopes as Mirror Technology:

There are two types of telescopes. One that uses a Lens called an objective Lens and is a refracting tele-
scope. Refracting Telescope uses the process of refraction, which is the bending of light as it travels from
one medium to another.The other is a reflecting telescope containing a primary mirror and a mirror plane.
This type of Telescope uses the process of Reflection in which light reflects off a smooth or plane surface.
Both Telescopes use curved surfaces to gather light from the night sky, which is refracted or reflected at a
rate of incidence, and the shape of the secondary mirror or Lens concentrates light which is what we see
when we look into a telescope.

Why are Telescopes considered Mirror Technology?

Although some telescopes use Lenses, they create many problems. The most common issue with refract-
ing telescopes is the phenomenon of chromatic aberration. A refracting telescope is unfavourably com-
pared to a reflecting telescope because it is easier to make mirrors smooth and without impurities that can
affect the light-gathering process, which is essential for science telescopes and observatories, which re-
quire mirrors as large as a detached house. When mirrors are built that big, using a mirror rather than a
lens is more straightforward and practical, as in the James Webb Telescope, which contains over 18 pri-
mary mirrors.

Mirrors are much easier to work with than glass, and when Lens is used in a telescope, the mirrors tend to
become heavier and more prominent in size and harder to hold in place, making them very vulnerable to
damage and cracks. The glass will also have to be made much thicker at larger sizes, impacting the refrac-
tion rate and causing the light to travel slower through the medium. Mirrors will gather more light with
size and will not cause as many issues.

Chromatic aberration is a problem for refracting telescopes which contains Lens. Since different light
colours are refracted at different rates, the wavelengths tend to have different focal lengths. If different
colours are found at different locations, the image will become blurred, which could also cause magnifi-
cation problems. The final image will result in fringes.

How do Reflecting Telescopes work?

A telescope contains two mirrors: a primary mirror and a secondary mirror. A primary mirror is a mirror
near the end of the Telescope, and a secondary mirror is near the eyepiece. Usually, these mirrors can be
either concave, convex or a combination.

The image seen through a telescope works interestingly, which occurs by a concentration of light. The
light will first enter through the primary mirror, which will be convex or concave shaped. The light will
be reflected upwards, preventing the light from being concentrated in front of the tube opening. That is
where the second mirror, a plane mirror inside the top or bottom of the tube, comes in handy as the light
continues. It will become deflected by 90 degrees and enter the focus area, where it enters the eyepiece
and will be concentrated enough to become viewable.
There are many different variations of this design. However, the Newtonian Telescope design is consid-
ered the most common reflector and, on some occasions, regarded as a classic design that has been modi-
fied and adapted to suit various needs.

Discovery of the Technology:

Telescopes have been around for a few centuries. The earliest telescopes have existed since the late
1600s. In the early days, they were not used for space but for voyages, military tactics and ground-based
distance viewing. In 1608 in Hague, Netherlands, Hans Lippershey was a lens maker who first invented
the design for a device that "aided in seeing faraway things as through nearby convex and concave Lens
in a tube. The original device only had a magnifying capability of 3 or 4 times.

Galileo Galilei had heard about this innovative design and proceeded to work on his Telescope in the
summer of 1609. Galileo created telescopes that would later play essential roles in astronomy. His first
design had been an instrument with three times viewing power and gradually would build into a telescope
that could magnify up to 9 times. His design was called the Galileo Optic Tube; the device would use a
combination of convex and concave lenses and be the first to use for astronomy. He would go on to reaf-
firm that the Earth and the planet circled the sun and go on to discover the stars in a milky way. Later, he
published many other discoveries in his book "The Starry Messenger."

Many designers would go on to create telescopes that would all contribute to science, astronomy and
technology.

The Newtonian Design is essential to mention as it is still a famous telescope used today. In 1668 Isaac
Newton created a reflector telescope with a concave primary mirror and a second plane mirror. Although
he is not credited with creating the first Telescope to use mirrors rather than lenses, he was able to create
a working model of high quality. This design was much more straightforward to make and did not create
the problem of distortion through a phenomenon called chromatic aberration. His invention has allowed
us to build much larger telescopes without obstruction or distortion, some of which are used in significant
space projects today.

Key People:

Hans Lippershey: Born in 1570 in Middleburg, Netherlands. He was a lens maker and has been credited
with inventing the first Telescope in 1608. He brought his design to the State General of the Netherlands,
where he went to have it patented. Although he was not awarded the patent because of how easily the de-
sign could be copied, the Dutch Government gave him a hefty sum for his device to make copies of his
instrument.

Jacob Metius: Born in 1571 in Noord Holland, Netherlands. He was a Dutch mathematician who was a ri-
val to Hans Lippershey. Only a few weeks after Lippershey filed his application for the Telescope, he also
submitted his patent for the device, which was later denied because of the simplicity of the design and
how easy it was to copy.

Galileo Galilei: In Pisa, Italy, on February 15, 1564. He was an Italian astronomer and mathematician
who made some significant discoveries in the sciences of astronomy. He is essential because he is cred-
ited with creating the Galilean Telescope, with which he was able first to study outer space. He discov-
ered how the Earth and other planets moved around the sun and observed and described the moons of
Jupiter, the rings of Saturn, the phases of Venus, sunspots, and the moon's slightly uneven oval shape.

Johannes Kepler: Born on December 17

 1571, in Weil Der Stadt in Holy Roman Empire (Modern Germany). He was a mathematician and as-
tronomer who made significant improvements to the designs of telescopes—three years after hearing
about inventions by Lippershey and Galileo, and he started working on improving the Telescope's design
called the Keplerian Telescope in the year 1611. His telescope design used a convex eyepiece lens that al-
lowed viewers to see a much larger field of view and provided much larger magnification levels than the
Galilean Telescope.

Isaac Newton: In Lincolnshire, England during the year of December 25, 1642, Isaac Newton was born.
He was a physicist and mathematician who played a significant role in optics and was widely known for
creating the Newtonian Telescope. He is responsible for creating the first working reflector telescope with
mirrors rather than Lenses. This invention was revolutionary because it solved the problem of colour dis-
persion, otherwise known as Chromatic Aberration. This design is still in use today and allowed for the
creation and building of larger telescopes that have made significant processes and contributions to space
exploration, astronomy and the study of physics.

John Hadley: Born April 16 April 16, 1682, in Hertfordshire, England. He was widely known for success-
fully improving reflecting telescopes, specifically the Newtonian Telescope. His improvements have al-
lowed for stronger magnification with sufficient accuracy and power for astronomy.

Current Uses: The Telescope is used by astronomers for observing outer space, and it allows for viewing
celestial objects like the stars, constellations and galaxies, to name a few. It can be used to study space, or
amateurs can use it to view the natural wonders of the sky.

Astrophotography: Telescopes can use by professionals and amateurs for astrophotography. Which is the
process of photographing an object in space Using a telescope with a camera. An astrophotographer can
capture beautiful images of the stars, galaxies and other celestial deep sky objects. It is possible to take
pictures of faraway galaxies and nebulas.

Telescopes in Space: Telescopes can be helpful for astronomy and studying various cosmic objects. They
can help give scientists a deeper understanding of areas of deep space and distant galaxies in the realms of
the universe. The main advantage is that these telescopes will sit over the horizons of the Earth and will
not be affected by light distorting and other blocking effects caused by the Earth's atmosphere and sur-
face. The atmosphere contains shifting air pockets captured as motion blurs on telescopes on the ground,
which also causes the appearance of the twinkling of the stars.

By exploring these cosmic objects, astronomers and scientist can gain a deeper understanding of the be-
ginnings of the Earth and answers questions about how the Earth was formed and when. They can also
gain an insight into how certain stars and galaxies first appeared.

The Earth's atmosphere can absorb or reflect many wavelengths on the electromagnetic spectrum. Space
telescopes can be a great tool to explore and view visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths which can
not reach the Earth due to atmospheric absorption.

Here are a few different types of telescopes that are being used for space study, which can be used to un-
derstand the cosmic universe from the entire spectrum of light, even the sources of invisible light, due to a
combination of telescopes and other modern technologies that have been invented along the way.

Hubble Space Telescope: Launched in 1990 and named after astronomer Edwin Hubble it is a sizeable
space-based telescope. It sits on the Earth's orbit and is far away from any issues caused by an Earth-
based telescope, such as obstructions such as rain clouds, light pollution and atmospheric distortion. Im-
ages produced by the Hubble Space Telescope can be much more transparent, brighter, and more detailed.
This optical observatory can reach some of the most distant areas of the universe to give us more informa-
tion about unknown galaxies and stars.

The Telescope is a large reflecting telescope which gathers light from space objects. The light will enter
through the primary mirror and reflect onward through a secondary mirror, but since this Telescope is so
much larger than telescopes on Earth and in space, it would not make sense to have an eyepiece. Instead,
it contains two cameras, a faint-object camera, a wide-field planetary camera, and two spectrographs. The
wide-field camera on the Telescope can take wide-field and high-resolution images of celestial objects. It
is said that this camera can capture up to 10 times or more significantly than any earth bases telescope.
The faint-object camera can detect objects 50 times fainter than anything an earth-based telescope could
view. The spectrographs will break the light from its single material into parts like a prism does to a rain-
bow. The faint object spectrograph will gather information about an object's chemical composition, while
a high-resolution spectrography can reach distant ultraviolet light that can not reach the Earth's atmos-
phere.

The Hubble Telescope has made significant contributions to the field of astronomy. Some of its accom-
plishments include the discovery of nearly 1500 galaxies, Hydra, Nix and the two moons of Pluto.

Chandra X-Ray Observatory: It is an X-ray telescope owned by NASA. It is currently the best because
the Telescope has eight times more image resolution and the technology to detect sources of X-ray emit-
ting rays close to twenty times fainter than any other X-Ray Telescope.

Launched in 1999, this x-ray observatory was launched by the Space Shuttle and named after Nobel prize
winner Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar. The Chandra X-Ray Observatory is a telescope that can detect in-
visible forms of light called X-rays produced in the cosmos.
The Telescope is placed 133,000 Kilometers away from the Earth from each electromagnetic wave re-
flected by the Earth's atmosphere. X-rays and other forms of radiation, like gamma, can be found when
space when stars burn or explode, which can produce sulphur, silicon and iron and will require X-ray tele-
scopes for viewing. This type of Telescope can obtain x-ray images of celestial objects that can show a
side of space that can not be seen by the human eye, such as events such as massive explosions, black
holes and neutron stars. X-Ray telescopes can add more dimensions to objects that give off visible light.

Chandra X-Ray observatory has an observing power of about half a billion times more than the first Tele-
scope created by Galileo. It has allowed a deeper understanding of black holes, supernovas and dark mat-
ter. It gives scientists a deep understanding of the distribution of radiation and its role in the habitability
of planets.

The Spitzer Space Telescope:

On August 25, 2003, The Spitzer Observatory was launched into space and was used by NASA to study
infrared wavelengths. The Telescope was named after Lyman Spitzer, an American theoretical physicist.
The spacecraft was decommissioned on January 30, 2020. It is in orbit to the sun and placed at a distance
that it would not pick up interfering infrared light from the Earth. Whereas X-rays can be produced in
warm temperatures, cold temperatures are ideal for this observatory to measure infrared light. The Spitzer
Space Telescope collects light emitted from colder objects and can identify molecules to determine the
temperatures of the atmosphere of different planets. Other uses for this type of Telescope are to see giant
molecular clouds brown dwarfs also known as stars that failed, organic space molecules, extrasolar plan-
ets from this and other universes and giant molecular clouds that form in space

Plans for the Future:

James Webb Space Telescope:

NASA's most giant and most powerful Telescope has been built to date.
A ten-million-dollar infrared observatory will pick up where the Hubble Space Telescope left off.

Although it was launched on December 25, 2021, it is still in the early stages of its launch and has yet to
accomplish any significant milestones in its early career.

The James Webb Telescope is NASA's largest and most powerful science telescope. It is a large infrared
telescope with a primary mirror consisting of 18 segments and is around 6.6 meters wide. This Telescope
has a larger aperture, diffraction-limited image quality and an infrared sensitivity not available to any
space or ground telescope currently in existence. One of the space crafts objectives is to understand the
outer origins of the universe by studying a distant galaxy's infrared signature to determine its age. This
Telescope will play an essential role in determining how stars are formed by studying stages of stellar
evolution and examining dense cold cloud cores where stars are first formed. Other objectives include
how planets are formed and if there is a possibility of life.

Giant Magellan Telescope:

Currently Under Construction in the Chilean Andes at the Las Campanas Observatory, ready for 2029.
When finished, it will be the largest Telescope in the world called the Giant Magellan Telescope. It con-
tains seven mirrors and will be 65 meters high; each is set to be 8.4 meters in diameter and will provide a
broad area of 3.691 square feet of the light collection area. Chile has ideal weather conditions where the
sky is dry and clear for most of the year. These weather conditions and ecological advantages will give
astronomers the ideal conditions for viewing space objects.

This earth-based Telescope will be paired with a spectrograph tool that can take signals and separate them
into component wavelengths. This tool will allow scientists to analyze light and discover the properties of
materials interacting with it. It will be able to detect visible and invisible forms of light. Harvard and
Smithsonian researchers developed this tool and will be able to measure the light spectrum at a very high
calibre. According to the Center For Astrophysics, the instrument will be able to determine the mass of a
planet and where liquids and water could be on a planet's surface. Other features include the ability to de-
tect molecules in the atmosphere of exoplanets like molecular oxygen.

Along with a powerful astronomical camera, the Telescope will be able to flight the issues caused by the
Earth's atmosphere using tools that employ adaptive optics, which can compensate for distortions caused
by the air; flexible secondary mirrors can change shape. As a result, astronomers can capture clearer and
sharper images.

It is set to create ten times clearer images than Hubble Space Telescope. One of this Telescope's objec-
tives is to study and observe the distant universe and look for exciting things, including life forms. This
Telescope will be making interesting contributions to astronomy by looking into the formation of planets
and the chemical composition of foreign planets, like the blanketing atmospheres of Venus and Jupiter.
With these new possibilities, it will help find a possibility of extraterrestrial lifeforms. Other objectives of
this Telescope are to look at supernovas, white dwarfs, and black holes and their effects on the space en-
vironment they surround and the origins of galaxies that are unknown to us.

Navy Grace Roman Space Telescope:

Set to launch in 2026 by NASA, it is a future infrared space observatory. It is predicted to have a 100
times better paranoiac view, creating the first wide-field maps from space. It is set to be located nearly 1.5
million kilometres from our planet. This Wide Field Infrared Survey Telescope was renamed in honour of
Nacy Grace Roman, NASA's first chief astronomer. It was built to study and understand space topics
ranging from the mystery of dark energy to surveying planets beyond our solar system. Other objectives
include observing stars, black holes and other features of faraway galaxies.

This Telescope is expected to contribute to the findings of previous space objects like The James Webb
Telescope and the deficient Hubble Telescope by using a combination of wide-field imaging and spec-
troscopy at a high resolution. This will allow scientists to view galaxies over a long interval of comic
time, allowing for a greater understanding of how galaxies are shaped and moulded over time. Through
galaxy studies, it will give astronomers and scientists a deeper understanding of the mysteries of dark
matter. Just as X-ray and infrared spectrography add more layers to the understanding of astronomy,
wide-view imaging will have similar effects by casting a comprehensive view of space rather than focus-
ing on one specific object.

Issues With Telescopes:

Although the technology has improved significantly from the early days of refracting telescopes, tele-
scopes, particularly common telescopes, still have issues that may cause issues with the image.

These issues are still common today. On larger and science, they are often fixed or corrected. Some issues
include:

Spherical Aberration:
Astigmatism:
Coma
Chromatic Aberration

All of these types cause images to come out blurred and distorted in some way or another. The failure of
the light to focus correctly is because of an issue with the angle of incidence or the incorrect curvature of
the convex or concave Lens or mirror.

When first launched, the Hubble Space Telescope ran into a few different issues. The Telescope was pro-
ducing spherical aberration and produced blurry images. The primary mirror was at the incorrect curva-
ture. The team of astronauts and scientists created a small mirror that was installed to correct the light
beams entering the primary mirror.

Parts of a Reflector Telescope:

Telescopes come in different shapes and sizes with many different variations, but all have the same stan-
dard fundamental design and parts.

Although there are many different designs, Newtonian Design is the simplest and easiest one that would
be considered essential.

Telescope Tube: This is the outer shell of the Telescope and holds the entire instrument together.

Primary Mirror: A convex mirror gathers light from its source.

Secondary Mirror: This plane mirror concentrates the light towards the eyepiece.
Eyepiece lens: Sometimes contains a magnification lens; this is where the image is viewable.

Name of Invention: Camera

How does it work?

Cameras work like a human eye. The main appeal of this lens technology is that it is possible to see what
is seen on a picture on a page, like a drawing, but more realistic and life-like. This device can control the
amount of light that enters a camera by bending and refracting it to a single sharp focal point using a com-
bination of convex and concave lenses.

Cameras need lenses because the device will only produce white light without them. Every camera has a
focal length; these numbers are displayed on the rim of a camera and can be adjusted according to the
specifications. The focal length on the camera is where the light will become the most focused on an im-
age to centre the subject. The greater the focal length of the camera, the higher the magnification. For ex-
ample, a focal length of 24 mm less magnification than a focal length of 200 mm. Since focal length can-
not be changed, focusing a camera lens is done by changing image distance. Moving away makes the ob-
ject distance smaller, and the image distance and size will improve.

The light will enter through the front of the camera into the aperture, at which point it will pass through
the Lens and form an actual image. Afterwards, this image will be sent to a film or sensor; in modern
cameras, it is easy to adjust these properties to bring the image into focus.

Film cameras work by sending light to a film strip, but in cameras like DSLR cameras or even Mirrorless
Cameras, the Lens will send the light to a digital mirror.

What is Focal Length:

Just like the human eye, objects in the distance will remain in the distance until we walk toward them. A
camera measures the distance between points of convergence of the Lens to the sensor recording the im-
age. The narrower the angle of view, the larger the number value.

More about the aperture:

Aperture is the concern of a camera regarding its depth of field. It determines the opening and how big it
is. The larger the opening, the shallower the depth of field. It is expressed in f stops, and the larger the f
stop, the smaller the opening. For example, f 2.8 allows more light than f4 and f 11.

Types of Camera Lenses:

Most cameras consist of two types of camera lenses today; many specialty lenses are either prime or
zoom lenses.

Prime Lenses:
These lenses are faster and sharper and produce better image quality. They are very portable because of
how lightweight and flexible they are. The downside is that there is a fixed focal length, and no zoom al-
lows for a focus on other features.
Zoom Lenses:

These camera lenses are more versatile and allow different focal lengths from a single lens. Although
flexible, they take longer to produce photographs and tend to be bigger and heavier because of how much
glass is contained within the lenses. These are best suited for professionals and people passionate about
photography who do not need to move from place to place.

Variety Of Lenses:

Macro Lenses:
These lenses are great for close-up photographs and can produce sharp images at a closer range by allow-
ing the camera to capture more details of smaller objects like bugs, birds and flowers, to name a few. This
type of Lens is prevalent in nature photography.

Telephoto Lenses:

These lenses are considered to be zoom lenses and have multiple focal points that can produce a narrower
point of view. It could isolate a subject that was located far away. Telephoto Lens can focus on distant ob-
jects without being up close to the object. Although this type of Lens is heavy and expensive, it is still fa-
mous for sports and wildlife photography.

Wide Angle Lenses:

This type of Lens can fit a large area into the frame. Everything stays in focus unless the subject is too
close to the Lens. It is famous for landscape, street and architecture photography.

Standard Lenses:
Standard lenses have a focal length between 35mm and 85mm. This Lens can be used as a general-pur-
pose lens for various photo projects, and standard lenses are great for beginners.

Parts of a Basic Camera:

Convex Lenses:

Convex lenses can form real and inverted images on a film or sensor. The image is produced when an ob-
ject's distance exceeds the focal length.

Real image:
The image exists and can be recorded on film, and the image will become inverted by the Lens.

Virtual Image:
It is a false image that can be seen but not recorded on film.

Diaphragm of F-Stop:

Controls the amount of light that will affect the final image. The smaller the f stop, the lighter the image
and the speed of the Lens. The size of the Lens is called the f stop and is the ratio of the focal length of
the diameter of the opening to the Lens. This ratio is expressed in f/d as seen on an ordinary camera.

Shutter Speed:
The length of the open shutter affects the amount of light that affects the film. Faster Shutter speeds are
needed when the amount of light is small, and it can also reduce blur in images. A camera is expressed in
seconds; for example, if the opening time for a shutter is smaller than the faster shutter speed, it will result
in less light hitting the film.

Film:

Although the film is no longer used, modern cameras are recorded with sensors and electronically. The
film was used to record the actual image formed by the camera lens, and these images were later pro-
cessed to produce pictures viewable on photo paper.

Film cameras are called analog cameras, and electronic cameras are called digital ones.

Discovery of the Technology:

The earliest forms of a camera and what started the photography revolution started in 391 bc by Han Chi-
nese scholar Mozi. Although it is unclear who was the actual inventor of this object called the Camera
Obscura. The name means dark room or dark chamber in Latin. The concept behind this device is a little
box with light entering through a small hole, and the adjacent wall would cast the image.

There are records of Aristotle, greek architects all using the camera obscura for light research and some
practical application.

It was not till the 11 century when an Arab physicist named Ibn Al-Haytham published a book about op-
tics and wrote extensively about a device with light entering through a tiny hole in a darkened chamber.

There are records of Leonardo da Vinci in his book Codex Atlanticus containing thorough information
and explanations on this device and how it works with detailed diagrams.

This ancient technique has existed for centuries with men of prominent status and knowledge who have
used, studied and examined this device for light projects.

However, it was not until 1816 until Joseph Niecephore Niepce and his Brother Claude were determined
to work on improving the Camera Obscura.

In 1826, the first working prototype was used to take the first photo ever. Niepce took a picture of his
home in Le Gras in France called "View from the Window." He positioned a paper-like substance made
of silver chloride and placed it at the camera obscura to create an image. These images were called reti-
nas, and there were many issues with this image, as it was not permanent; it took eight hours to produce
and started to blacken in daylight.

This French camera innovator worked on various chemical solutions to create a permeant image. He
worked on creating a positive image by using compounds that bleached by light rather than blacked them,
and he used a chemical solution containing salt, manganese black iron oxide.

Over the decade, he tried a variety of different chemicals to invent the process of what he called heliogra-
phy or sun writing. Eventually, he created a solution using dissolved light-sensitive bitumen, which was
used for the film. This mixture was made from a tar-like oil and mixed with something called pewter. Af-
terwards, To preserve as much as the image as possible a polished pewter plate was taken and placed un-
der a paper used for flim that had been placed in a oil mixture made of lavender and a few other items.
Although Niepce was able to create the first permeant image, further improvements were still required.

In 1829 Nieceephore Niepce partnered with a French painter called Louis Jacques-Mande Deguerre. At
the time, she was well known for creating a theatre scene known as a diorama. Daguerre used the camera
obscura and improved the Lens during the production of his art project.

The duo shared the goal of reducing long exposure times and improving the camera obscura.

Niece died in 1833, but Daguerre continued improving well after his death. Two years later, the Da-
guerreotype was created. This type of camera uses a chemical process to produce an image using a chemi-
cal solution of silver iodide poured over a silver-plated sheet of copper. Then the plate was placed behind
a camera. Afterwards, the exposed plate containing the image was placed over a solution of warm mer-
cury, and the solution produced a chemical reaction that produced an image. Finally, the silver plate is
washed with water to prevent further exposure.

In 1839 a daguerreotype camera, the first image, was recorded. In that same year, the invention was
bought by the French Government to be shared with the public. Daguerre received 6000 francs yearly,
and Niepic's son Isidore received 400 francs yearly until they died in the late 1880s.

Shortly after, the product became available for wealthy households in France.

Different Types of Cameras:

Calotypes:

In 1830 an inventor named Henry Fox Talbot created and developed a type of early camera called Calo-
types.

The main benefit was that it took less time to produce images. Although it was a complex process, it
would first require making an early version of the film, which would require first by taking some writing
paper and placing in it a solution of water and table salt, secondly brushing it lightly with a chemical
called silver nitrate to from the final product. Once the light hit the film, it created a chemical reaction re-
sulting in image capture. The film paper with the captured image was often waxed with tallow or beeswax
to save the resulting image. Although, the images came out more blurred and produced negative images.

The Mirror Camera:

Created by Alexander S Walcott, these cameras created images with

Film Camera:

The Flim Camera was the first breakthrough moment for modern photography. In 1888 an American en-
trepreneur named George Eastman created the first working camera called the Kodak.
This camera used a single roll of paper and gradually moved towards using celluloid. These films cap-
tured the negative image like a calotype but were much sharper, like a Daguerreotype. With innovation
and invention, these only took a few seconds to develop. In order to create a final image, the film with
captured images would need to remain in a container and be sent back to the Kodak Company for image
processing. The first Kodak could hold 100 pictures.
The Kodak Brownie was the first camera available to the middle class. It was released in 1900 and was an
American box camera that was simple to use and came in high quality with a price point of only 25 dol-
lars. The release of this camera helped popularize the use of cameras for birthdays, vacations and family
gatherings.

35mm Flim Camera:

Called a 35mm or 135mm and was released in 1934 by the Kodak Flim Company. The name comes from
the film being 35mm, and the frame was a ratio of 1:1:5 and a height of 24mm within the borders and
used a cassette or roll.

The film was placed in a container or tube to protect it from light sources. The photographer would need
to place the film into the device and turn a handle to set the film into an area of the camera known as the
device spool. The handle would be retwisted after each picture was taken.

Once the roll was done, it would be placed back into the cassette. Each cassette contained 135 Flims with
36 exposures.

The Leica:
Invented In 1913 was the first camera with collapsible and detachable lenses. It was created by a German
engineer named Ernst Leitz, a director at the Optical Institute. By trade, he was a trained watchmaker, but
in 1930, he worked with Oskar Barack to create the perfect camera.
The same year, the company released another camera with a screw head attachment that allowed the user
to change between three lenses called Leica One.

The Leica Two contained a range finder and an operated viewfinder. In about 1932, the Leica Three was
released and had a shutter speed of 1/100th. These cameras were considered to be innovative and revolu-
tionary for their time. These cameras remained popular until the 1950s, when more manufacturers entered
the mass markets.

The Movie Camera:

In 1882 inventor Etienne-Jules Mary created the first cinematography camera called the chronophotogra-
phy gun, which in 1891 would trigger the beginning of the movie industry. The device produced only 12
images a second and ran around 20 to 40 images a second. The images were exposed on a single curved
plate that would capture all the images simultaneously. Today cameras can record up to thousands of
frames per second.

First Single-Lens Reflex Camera (SLR):

In 1861 inventor Thomas Sutton created a camera based on the camera obscura that used a reflex mirror
that would allow users to look through camera lenses to see the precise image being recorded on film
without any significant distortions.
The image recorded on the plate for the film was slightly different from the image that could be viewed,
which made the camera somewhat inconvenient. This technology could have been better in the early 19th
century and would only become useful in the 1970s and 1980s. The early SLR Cameras were mainly used
for professional photographers and special interest groups because, at that time, the price was not as rea-
sonable as cameras available for the mass market.

First Auto-Focus Camera:

This camera was invented in 1978, and the main benefit was that it contained a particular type of Lens
that would move the distance between the subject and the device without having to move physically.
These were the basis for early rangefinders because they could manipulate distance from the subject and
camera. The camera contained Lens and small motors to automate the process. At the time, autofocus was
only available for high-end SLR cameras.

Colour Photography:
IN 1961, Thomas Sutton created an image capture device that combined red, green and blue to create any
visible colour. Cameras previously would use three monochrome plates that would only produce images
in black and white or in one colour like white or grey. In 1935 colour photography became available
when the Kodak Company invented the Kodachrome Flim. The new camera used different emissions lay-
ered on the same film to record its colour. It was considered very expensive at its first release and was
mainly used by photography professionals. Today, the same three-colour system is used to record colour.

The three-colour system would also be the basis for how Polaroid cameras operate. In 1871, Richard
Leach Maddox created the first Polaroid camera, which used gelatine dry planets to create photographs of
instant exposure.

Although modern Polaroid would not be available for colour photography until 1948, a man named Ed-
win Land and his company, the Polaroid Corporation, released an instant exposure camera under the
name Polaroid which would be iconically known as we know it today. The camera was an instant camera
that could produce traditional cameras requiring the film to be developed later. However, this camera was
unique because it could produce a photograph within the device. The process was that the negative film
and the positive film were printed together. When the photograph was taken, the user would have to peel
the two pieces of film and throw away the negative part. Later versions of this camera would do this auto-
matically and only eject the positive. The film was three inches and contained a square border. It was
trendy in the 1970s and 80 and has seen a cultural revival in recent years as part of retro culture.

The Digital Camera:

The original concept was theorized by scientists in 1961. However, it would not come to fruition until
1975 when a Kodak Engineer named Steven Sasso created a device that would produce a monochrome
image that would be printed to cassette tapes rather than film. This early device would require a screen to
look at images rather than be able to print them. It had a resolution of only 0.01 megapixels. The first dig-
ital cameras could record an image that required 23 seconds of total exposure. The technology used a de-
vice that would use electrode technology that would change when exposed to light.

This camera would become available to the mass market at an affordable price in the 1990s when Log-
itech released a device called The Decal Model 1. Specifications for this device were that it could record
data onto internal memory and had 1 megabyte of ram. The camera required users to connect the camera
to a computer. At that point, the image could be downloaded onto the computer, where the image can be
seen and enjoyed or taken to a photo processing place for printing.

Digital Single Lens Reflex Camera (DSLR)

The first Camera Photo:

This first camera photo was released in 1999 when it was included with the Kyocera VP-210. At the time,
this camera was less useful for daily applications than a camera of its time could do, and the feature was
considered more of a gimmick than a tool like its today. It had a 110,000-pixel camera, and the images
could only be viewed on a 2-inch colour screen.

The camera photo became a revolutionary tool once the Apple company created a series of camera
phones. In 2007 founder Steve Jobs created the iPhone 1 or iPhone 2G. It was released on January 9,
2007. The digital phone had a 3.5-inch screen and contained a 2-megapixel camera. It can come in two
options: the 4G and the 8G models. Once this phone was released, digital photography was popularized,
and images could be comparable to digital cameras. They were also credited with the invention of sensing
and receiving images via cellular networks, a feature that is so commonly used today. Today, the iPhone
13 works like a primary camera, has multiple lenses with a video camera and contains up to a 12-
megapixel resolution.

Key People:

Joseph Niecephore Niepce

Louis Jacques-Mande Deguerre

Henry Fox Talbot

George Eastman

Ernst Leitz

Etienne-Jules Mary

Thomas Sutton

Richard Leach Maddox

Edwin land

Steven Sasson

Steve Jobs

Current Uses:

Photography:

Today the camera is widely available at many different price points and is used for photography by pro-
fessionals and amateurs alike. Photography creates images for commercial or artistic pursuits often used
in fashion, wedding wildlife and landscape photography. Cameras can also be used to preserve memories
and tell stories. Every time a family photo is shared on Facebook, credit can be given to the original cam-
era.

Videography:
Videography is capturing and creating moving images in the form of videos. Often, the content is used for
film, television and adverting. Other uses include corporate videos, weddings and other private events.
When a television show is watched or a YouTube video, it is mainly created with a video camera. Today,
many videos are uploaded to YouTube as a form of content. This new influencer social media marketing
industry has a significant influence because of how accessible the modern camera has become.

Wildlife:

Wildlife photography is documenting animals in a natural habitat using a camera or a video camera,
sometimes both. This process is usually done without disturbing the natural behaviour of the wildlife ani-
mals. The objective is to capture and document animals in movement or action. This type of observation
is helpful for scientists to document animal behaviour and migration patterns. The results sometimes lead
to the documentation of certain species of animals that are endangered or close to extinction. Wildlife
photography can help raise awareness and incentives to take action to create habitat protection and create
solutions for artificial disasters.

American Photographer James Balog created a documentary called Chasing Ice which he used cameras to
take photographs of glaciers. The documentary helped show the ecological and environmental effects of
human impact or ecosystem interference over periods.

Wildlife photography can show the changes taking place over a long period and create awareness of
events and natural disasters in inaccessible places.

Cameras in Space:

As the Hubble Telescope contained a camera that was used alongside the Telescope, it helped record and
study the cosmos. The camera contained a competent called a charged coupled device (CCD). They use a
tiny microchip rather than film or photographic plates to capture photographs. The microchip is similar to
a sensitive detector or protons that uses the light collected by the Telescope. The technology contains a
large grid of individual light-sensing components referred to as pixels, similar to the type found in camera
resolutions. These pixels can convert light patterns into numbers. The highest numbers are the brightest
parts of the scene, and zero represents darkness.

One of the primary cameras on the Hubble Telescope is called The Advance Camera for Surveying Space
(ACS). This camera can detect ultraviolet and near-infrared light. The camera was mainly designed for
wide-field imagery, and it can capture images with visible and infrared light, like visible light images and
ultraviolet images. Both the Telescope and the camera on the Hubble use a spectrograph to break down
light components like a prism. The spectrograph and the camera work together to form images on a wide
field of wavelengths.

Medical Cameras:

The endoscopic camera is a type of camera that is used for surgery. Similar to space cameras, it is sensi-
tive to visible and infrared spectra. The optical image is transferred from the body cavity being examined
to the camera head. It uses a ring and flexible scope attached to the camera head. This camera gives doc-
tors the ability to perform minimally invasive surgeries. Rather than cutting the patient up, the doctor can
make a small insertion to illuminate the internal cavity that needs to be observed. The light admitted from
the camera is transmitted into the human body through the transmission bean called an optic fibre.

Plans for the Future:

Infrared Camera:

There will be innovative and modern cameras that will not only be able to capture images in visible light
on the full spectrum of colour, but now with the invention of modern space cameras, they will be able to
capture images on the infrared spectrum and will be the infrared camera that will be focused on ignoring
visible light and seeking out electromagnetic radiation to see the temperature and the effects they have on
our celestial ecosystem. It will use some sensors and thermal detectors to determine the level of infrared
light, and the sensors will convert infrared signals into electrical currents.

3D camera:

It was invented by Chris Condon and his company Stereo Vision. The camera is based on Stereoscopic
imaging, enabling depth prediction in images in three dimensions. He originally invented 3D camera
lenses, and with the support of his team, he earned the patent for 3D motion picture lenses. Early 3D cam-
eras created 3D movie experiences using a system that sends light through an enclosed box and a unique
lens to record an image on a light-sensitive medium.

The device works similarly to how eyes work; it can see images in multiple dimensions of height, width
and depth through multiple angles and perspectives.

This product is helpful to product designers because it will allow them to design products in 3D and pro-
vide a better virtual sales experience. Customers will be able to view images of the product from all an-
gles and dimensions to situate an in-person sales experience.

It will also be helpful for real estate photos because it will make it easier to view homes virtually without
viewing individual properties in person.

Name of Invention: Optic Fibres

Discovery Of the Technology:

Two French brothers called the Chappe Brothers created and invented a device called the optical tele-
graph around the year 1790. The invention used a few different lights installed on the high points of tow-
ers. When operators use it, they pass the messages back and forth using light. There would be many ad-
vancements over the next several centuries before we came to modern optic fibre.

In the year of 1854 British physicist John Tyndall made a important discovery by proving that it is possi-
ble to bend light. He had demonstrated this effect to the Royal Society of Britiain by showing how light
would follow a curved stream of water.
He set up a water tank with a tube that dispersed the water from one side. The water would flow in the
stream of direction, at which point the physicist would shine a light on the flowing water. Once the water
fell out on one side, the light arc would follow the water down. These were the first steps in understand-
ing how light travels.

In 1880, American inventor Alexander Graham Bell patented an optical light telephone system called the
photophone.The device worked by using a mirror that could concentrate the outdoor light, and the user
would then talk into a device that vibrated the mirror. The person receiving the call would have a detector
that captures the vibrating beam and translates it into a voice, similar to telephone optics fibres. The de-
vice used a mirror that was able to concentrate outdoor light from the sun and send it along to the reciev-
ing user with his own mirror. Once the user had talked into the machine the mirror would vibrate. The
person recieving the call would have a detector to translate the beams back into a voice. Although, this
would eventually come back as optic fibre technology in a more complicated way. Telephone technology
was more realistic and useable at the time. The potential for light loss was high, and there were also issues
with light interference. For example, a cloudy day could prevent the light from travelling back and forth.

In 1895 a French Engineer, Henry Saint Rene, created a optical sytem for transferring light by using a se-
ries of glass rods.The idea was initially used as an early attempt for television which would prove unsuc-
cessful.

In 1920 a British inventor named John Logie Baird and American Clarence W Hansell obtained a patent.
The patent used arrays of transparent rods to transmit images for televisions and a device called facsimi-
les.

A British inventor named John Logie Baird and an American inventor team up together in the year 1920.
Together they created a device that used a system of clear transparent rods to help light travel. The device
was used to transmit images for television and other technologies, such as face smiles. They had received
a patent in that same year.

In the 1930s, scientist and inventor Heinrich Lamm was the first to transfer an image through a bundle of
optical fibres.

Scientist and inventor Heinrich Lamm created a device initially invented to look at inaccessible parts of
the body but found more success using the invention to carry images. Lamm assembled a bundle of opti-
cal fibres to use light to carry images. This was an important discovery in optical fibres, and it can be ar-
gued that modern fibres operate similarly. Lamm had some issues with his project. Firstly, the image pro-
duced was of poor quality. Secondly, since the device could not be used in a practical setting, it was
deemed similar to previous inventions and was denied a patent, thirty Heinrich Lamm would eventually
have to abandon this project and flee to America due to the rise of the Nazi Regime the project was never
realized to its full potential.

In 1951, a Danish inventor and scientist, Holger Moeller, created a device that would be important in the
early development of fibre optic imaging. The device worked with an explicit, transparent material made
from either glass or plastic. It was designed to reduce signal interference or what was known as
"crosstalk" between different modes of the fibre. Ultimately he was denied a patent because it was consid-
ered to be too similar to an earlier design by John Logie Baird.

In 1954 using the early work of John Tyndall, a UK-based Physicist, Narinder Sigh Kapany invented the
first actual fibre optical cable. He was responsible for coining fibre optics and would contribute to devel-
oping this field through his teachings and books, including the one he had published in the 1960s.

Charles Kuen Kao, in the 1960s, is considered the father of optical communication and, in 2009, won a
Nobel Peace Prize for his work. He was able to discover through his research the physical properties of
glass, and he proved that glass fibres were suitable for a conductor of information. Although this process
was only possible by purifying the glass over thin fibres, they could carry vast amounts of information
over long distances with minimal signal loss. Dr. Koas' work would be the groundwork for high-speed
data communication and the basis for how optic fibres for broadcast radio and television work.

In the 1970s, a group of researchers, Peter Schultz, Donald Keck and Robert Maurer, created an optical
fibre made out of Silica, a transparent material with a low refractive index. It was the first step towards
optical fibre communications because the scientists had discovered that Silica could carry information at
greater distances and more volume than traditional copper wire. Optical Waveguide Fiber could carry al-
most 65,000 times more information than its predecessor. The group had received a patent for their new
device and work.

In 1973 scientists at the Bell Lab created a way to mass manufacture and developed optical fibre at a mea-
gre cost making it more accessible to middle-class consumers. This process remains today; the material is
made from ultra-transparent glass with a low refractive index. Once the optic fibre became cheaper and
more convenient, many major telephone companies in the 1970s and 1980s began moving from copper
wires to optic fibres and changing communication infrastructure.

In the 1980s, Sprint's communication telephone company was the first to use a 100 percent digital fibre
optic network that would operate nationwide.

In the year 1986, a researcher and professor by the name of David Payne were working at the University
of Southampton alongside a fellow scientist and professor by the name of Emmanuel Besurivire at Bell
Laboratories. Together they invented a device called the Erbium-Dope Fiber Ampilfer which used the
process and technology of laser amplification. This invention was necessary because, by 1988, transat-
lantic telephone cable companies in the United States started using this technology. After all, this device
reduced the cost of long-distance fibre systems and removed the need to use optical-electrical repeaters.

In 1991 Optical Fibre Systems contained a built-in optical amplifier called Photonic Crystal Fiber. These
all-optical systems could carry 100 times more information than cable with electronic amplifiers vs tradi-
tional copper cables with amplifiers. These systems improved performance by guiding light by diffraction
from a periodic structure rather than a total internal reflection, allowing power to be carried more effi-
ciently than older cables.

By 1991, most optical fibre systems started having built-in optical amplifiers called Photonic Crystal
Fibers. These were considered to be all optical systems and were considered to be more effective than tra-
ditional copper cables with amplifiers. Electronic amplifiers were suggested to have over 100 times more
information capacity. Optic fibres released in earlier years would travel through the process of total inter-
nal Reflection, with new amplifiers allowing light to travel more efficiently using the process of guiding
light by diffraction from a periodic structure.

1997 infrastructure for the next generation of Internet applications was built. It was named Fiber Optic
Link Around the Globe (FLAG), the world's most extended single cable network.

In 1997 Fiber Optic Link Around the Globe was introduced. It is the world's most extended single cable
network and lays the foundation and framework for future internet communications and applications.
By 2000, over 25 km of cables carry most of the world's communication traffic from the internet, televi-
sion and telephones.

How does it work?

Fibre optic cables are similar to long thin strands of glass and have the diameter of a human hair. The
strands are arranged in bundles called fibre optic cables, and they can transmit light signals over long dis-
tances.

Fibre optic cables are made out of clear glass that has been shaped into long thin strands about the size of
human hair. Once these individual strains are arranged together, the bundles are called fibre optic cables.
Fibre optic cables can make it possible to help light travel over long distances in short amounts of time.

The light wants to move in all directions, but since the optic fibre cable will not allow it to escape, it will
bounce up and down the tube walls repeatedly and create a total internal reflection.

Internal Reflection worked and allowed for many internet, television and telephone invitations that we all
know and enjoy today. The light particles will move in a beam of light down the clear glass pipe; along
the way, they will hit a shallow angle of less than 42 degrees. The light will reflect into the pipe and cre-
ate what is known as total internal Reflection, which effectively keeps light inside the pipe.

The light particles bounce down the pipe with an internal mirror-like reflection. The Reflection can be
similar to a beam of light moving down in a clear glass pipe, and it hits a shallow angle of fewer than 42
degrees and reflects into the pipe again. The process is called total internal Reflection, which keeps the
light inside the pipe.

The Fiber optical System Consists of a Transmitter, an optical fibre and a receiver.

First electrical data input enters data into the finer optic system. Then the transmitter accepts and converts
inputs electrical signals to optical light signals and sends them by modulating a light source output by
lead or laser.

Inside an Optical Fiber:

A thin strand of glass the same size as glass which acts like a transmission medium. The light travels
through the fibre's core from one end to another by internal Reflection, and the light signal bounces down
the fibre's core.
through a series of reflections to the other end of the pipe
The receiver is the light-to-electrical converter at the end of the glass strands. Optical Signals are received
by photodiodes which convert the optical light signal back into a digital electrical signal. The electrical
data outputs results, which can be translated and processed by a router or network switch.

The cable is made up of two separate parts:

Core: The center part of the cable is where the fibre optic cables sit, where the light will travel through the
strands of glass.
Cladding: This is the second part of the cable and is the outer layer of glass wrapped around the core to
prevent the light signals from escaping before reaching the final destination.

Two Types of Fiber Optic Cables:

Single Mode Fiber:

The simplest structure has a small core, around 5 to 10 microns in diameter. The light travels down the
middle without bouncing off the edge. The small size prevents light from bouncing off the cladding even
when the fibre is bent or curved. It is mainly used for long-distance data transfer because of the minimal
signal loss and the lack of interference from adjacent modes. It is used for Internet and telephone applica-
tions that can send information over vast distances reaching over 100 KM. This type of fibre is excellent
for long distances because there are no dispersions (spreading out light), and it experiences lower attenua-
tion (loss of optical power).

Multimode Fiber:

Ten times larger than single-mode fibre. This type of fibre is when light beams travel through a core and
follow various paths; therefore, this is great for sending data over short distances in applications like link-
ing or interconnecting computer networks. Multimode Fibers can carry more than one frequency of light
simultaneously. Because there is a higher signal loss than multimode fibre, it is often used for communi-
cation over short distances because of less bandwidth-intensive applications. It is most commonly used in
local area networks like buildings, corporate networks or school campuses.

Gastroscope:

It is mainly used in endoscope technology and is a thicker type of fibre. Endoscopes are a medical tool
used to check for illnesses inside the stomach by going down the throat. On one end, there is an eyepiece
and a lamp. The lamp shines its light down now part of the cable into the patient's stomach, and once the
light reaches that area, the light will reflect off the stomach and into a lens at the bottom of the device. Af-
terwards, the light travels back up another part of the cable into the doctor's eyepiece.

The machine works in two parts one end of the machine is inserted into the mouth and will pass through
the body until it reaches the location that the doctor is interested in observing. The other end contains a
lamp, eyepiece, or screen where the doctor can view the cavity. The lamp will shine light into the patient's
stomach and reflect the body into the Lens at the bottom of the device. Through the optic fibre technol-
ogy, the light will travel back up where it is viewable.

There is also an industrial version of this machine, and it is called a fiberscope. It is used to examine ma-
chinery in airplane engines where it is impossible to physically enter through or view in a minimally inva-
sive process.

Key People:

John Tyndall:
He was an Irish Experimental physicist born in County Carlow in Ireland, on August 2, 1820. He was no-
table for the first practical demonstration of light propagation through a water tube via internal reflec-
tions, and he would call this device the light pipe. This early work would be the basis for modern light
technology and optic fibre communications many years later.

Narinder Sing Kapany:

Born in Punjab, India, in 1952, he was a UK-based physicist who would coin the term for optic fibre. He
would be the first to invent a fibre optic device by designing and manufacturing a glass wire cable for
transporting light based on the early demonstrations by John Tyndall. He has made many significant con-
tributions to optic technology through his books and teachings, specifically the book he published in
1967, Optical Fibre Principles and Applications. Many supporters consider him the father of optical fibre
technology, but he failed to produce a practical model and application.

Charles Kuen Kao:

He was born in Shanghai, China, on November 4, 1933; He would later study and work in the Uk, where
he proved that fibres made of ultra-pure glass could transmit light for distances of high KM without total
signal loss in the 1970s. Consider the father of optic fibre technology, who in 2009 received the Nobel
peace prize for discovering how light can be transmitted through fibre optic cables shared with two other
scientists. Kao's discoveries and inventions as had a significant impact on the way modern fibre optics op-
erate. Most of today's internet, television and telephone rely on fibre optic technology, which can be
traced back to Charles Kuen Kao's work.

Current Uses:

Before fibre optic technology, copper cables were used. Fibre optics have the advantage because they are
lighter, less heavy, flexible and can carry high amounts of data at very high speeds. There is less attenua-
tion and less signal loss. Other benefits include that information travels ten times further before it needs
electronic magnification or amplification. Optical cables are much easier and more cost effective than tra-
ditional Copper Wires.

Because of Fiber Optic Tehconoly, we now have this new invention called cloud computing.

Cloud computing is where people store and process their data remotely because internet speeds are almost
5 to ten times faster than traditional DSL broadband networks.

Since internet speeds are 5 to 10 times faster than traditional DSL broadband networks, it is easier for
computer users to store information and files online than on the computer itself. Optical fibre technology
has allowed people to store and process data and access information remotely.

Faster connections have also allowed for streaming movies, online games and made the internet much
more accessible than in previous years. The world is much more connected virtually than it has ever been
before. It is easy to share information, pictures and videos of events going on around the world issues like
war and famine can be alerted to the globe within seconds through the power of the internet.

Telephones also used fibre optic technology in 1980, ten years after the technology was born. Many
telecommunications companies started replacing their old infrastructure with new optic fibre technology.

In previous years for television and radio broadcasts, the networks have broadcast stations that use a sin-
gle transmitter to shoot out electromagnetic waves through the air until it reaches thousands of antennas.
To obtain more channels, a user must have coaxial bales installed. These cables consisted of material sim-
ilar to Cooper cables but had metal screening to prevent crosstalk interference; the issue was that the op-
eration would require more cables to obtain more channels. Today most of these cables have been re-
placed with modern fibre optic cables; one cable can carry enough data for serval hundred TV channels at
once. They also have less interference and better signal, picture, and sound quality. The optic fibre cables
can travel long distances and do not need as much amplification to boost signals as traditional copper
wires.

Optical fibres are also used in medical applications. For example, an endoscope uses this type of tech to
help doctors peer inside a patient's body without cutting them open through a treatment called endoscopy.
To view and observe the upper digestive tract, a flexible gastroscope tube is placed into the mouth and
travels down until it reaches the small intestine passing along the esophagus and stomach. The other end
of the gastroscope tube is connected to a light and a video camera which images can view by a doctor see
a doctor. It can monitor symptoms of indigestion, nausea or difficulty swallowing.

Plans for the future:

Lab-in-a-fiber:

Lab-in-a-fiber is a new device that inserts a thin hair of fibre optic cable with a built-in sensor into a pa-
tient's body. It has the same composition as a communication cable but is much thinner. This new tech-
nology contains a sensor using a laser to pass through the fibre and travels toward the part of the body
that the doctor wants to study. The result will be that the patient's body will alter its properties like light
intensity or wavelength, that the doctor will be able to measure how light changes using interferometry
techniques. This technique can measure things like the body temperature, blood pressure levels, the PH of
specific cells or if any medicine is working in the y bloodstream.

Pacific Light Cable Network:

This network is the first direct submarine cable using optic fibres built and owned by Google, Meta and
Pacific Light Data Communications, incorporated in 2015. The network was designed to connect and im-
prove internet speeds in Hong Kong, Taiwan, the Philippines and the US. The cables span a distance of
approximately 13000 km, and the shortest root is between Hong Kong and Los Angeles.

San Franciso:

San Franciso is looking to build a city-wide network using fibre optic technology designed to help im-
prove Internet access for residents who do not have high-speed internet at home. Residents need help with
applying for jobs, obtaining education and educating children. One in seven public schools in San Fran-
sico needs a computer with a high-speed Internet connection. The city aims to spend around 1.5 to 1.9 bil-
lion to improve public services. San Franciso believes that a strong internet connection can help in indus-
tries like healthcare, education and energy usage, leading to job booms and local economic growth.

Facebook Simba:

The Meta company is looking to build an all-optical network using new tech that allows for data transmis-
sion at high speeds without electrical processing. The project will be named after the lion king character
Simba the Lion. This project is meant to be built in Africa to strengthen links in the market where the use
of Facebook and Whatsapp is daily and hopes to drive down the bandwidth cost. The cables will be
placed around the shores of each nation involved and will link up at the beachhead of several countries.
The goal is to build a dedicated and reliable link in regions with poor internet access; there are still 3.8
billion people worldwide without internet access. ';