Progettazione di veicoli

aerospaziali (AA-LZ)
Docente titolare: Prof. E. Carrera

Le c t u r e s e r i es :
Conceptual Design of subsonic commercial
aircraft

Dr. Davide Ferretto

davide.ferretto@polito.it

Lesson 5: Wing Design

Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)
 4.2 Where we left...

5.1 Aircraft and Elements Configuration Alternatives

Table of Contents 5.2 Wing Configuration

5.2.1 Wing Design Procedure

5.2.2 Wing Vertical Location
5.2.3 Airfoil: design and selection
5.2.4 Wing Geometry

Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)

 Case Study: Matching Chart

4
H i g h - l eve l p e r fo r m a n c e
a n d c o n f i g u ra t i o n
c h a ra c t er i s t i c s

[2] Sadraey, Mohammad H. Aircraft design: A systems engineering approach. John Wiley & Sons, 2012.

ASSIGNMENT Assignment 4.1: Performance equations

Describe the five equations just shown, specifying assumptions and data
used to derive their trends for the considered case study.

Assignment 4.2: Matching Chart

Build the Matching Chart for the case study and define Wing Surface and
Engine Thrust values coming from the identification of the design point in
terms of (W/S, T/W) coordinates.

Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)

 Aircraft and Components configurations

5.1
A i r c ra f t a n d E l e m en t s
C o n f i g u ra t i o n
A l t e r n a t i ve s

[1] Sadraey, Mohammad H. Aircraft design: A

Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto) systems engineering approach. John Wiley &
Sons, 2012.
 Aircraft and Components configurations

To define the aircraft configuration it is worth starting from the identification of the major
aircraft components and their design alternatives. Some ideas are reported in the following
table.

5.1
A i r c ra f t a n d E l e m en t s
C o n f i g u ra t i o n
A l t e r n a t i ve s

[1] Sadraey, Mohammad H. Aircraft design: A

systems engineering approach. John Wiley &
Sons, 2012.
Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)
 Aircraft and Components configurations

Start imagining your aircraft

5.1
layout and the configuration of
A i r c ra f t a n d E l e m en t s its main component.
C o n f i g u ra t i o n
In the coming lectures, you will
A l t e r n a t i ve s
be guided through the selection
of the best architecture and
preliminary sizing of main
aircraft components.

[1] Sadraey, Mohammad H. Aircraft design: A

systems engineering approach. John Wiley &
Sons, 2012.
Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)
 Aircraft and Components configurations: the wing

The scheme summarizes the main

steps suggested to properly design
an aircraft wing.

Different textbooks may report

slightly different order in the
5.2 execution of these tasks. However, all
procedures start from the
W i n g C o n f i g u ra t i o n
identification of the requirements
with a higher impact!

Thanks to the preliminary estimations

carried out in the previous design
steps, and in particular thanks to the
estimation of 𝑚 𝑇𝑂 , 𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑓 , 𝑇 we are now
able to shape our wing.

[1] Sadraey, Mohammad H. Aircraft design: A

systems engineering approach. John Wiley &
Sons, 2012.
Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)
 Wing Design Objectives

Please, remember!

From Lesson 1: maths

behind design process!

5.2.1
Origin of the wing design process Unknown variables
Wing Design Procedure (Already known
from preliminary
estimations)
1) The wing shall produce sufficient lift throughout
all flight operations and missions
2) The wing shall generate minimum drag
throughout all flight operations and missions

Thus, important set of requirements may

come from the Concept of Operations
envisaged for the aircraft.

Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)

 Number of Wings
Besides the fact that in the last decades, only monoplane have been designed and
developed, it would be important to understand advantages and disadvantages of three
different aircraft categories

5.2.1
Wing Design Procedure

PROs
The most significant benefit of having more than a wing is related to the aircraft controllability,
considering that a fast rolling capabilities will be reached with a shorter wing-span and this would
match with lifting requirements only increasing the number of lifting surfaces.

CONs
Conversely, these options would have a higher weight and lower lifting capabilities with respect to a
comparable single wing architecture. Moreover, the adoption of more wing would seriously limit the
pilot visibility and reduce the maintainability of the overall aircraft.

Therefore, it is intuitive that for modern commercial transportation, approaching the speed of
sound, the only feasible architecture would be the monoplane architecture
Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)
 (Single) Wing Design
Users$interface Search$in$the$database Reference$configuration$
The$user$shall$select: • Select$the$right$data$in$
selection
• Aircraft$type the$database; • Propose$possible$
• Speed • Build$statistics$depending$ reference$aircraft
• Operative$environment on$the$inputs$ • Identify$reference$
aircraft

Wing$Vertical$Position$
suggestion

Wing Vertical Location 1 st solution

Advantages
….
Disadvantages
….

5.2.1
Wing Design Procedure Airfoil'selection

• Number'of'different'airfoils

Airfoil (2D) • Aerodynamic'characteristics'

evaluation
• Selection'from'Airfoil'Database

Wing)geometry)
definition
Estimation)of: • Taper)ratio
Wing Geometry (3D) • Aspect)ratio •
0.2

Wing)span
0
-0.2

• Sweep)angle • Root)chord
6

4
5

3 4

3
2

• Dihedral)angle •
2

Tip)chord
1
1

0 0

Wing Model Requirements

Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)

 Wing Vertical location

Requirements impacting on wing vertical

location
1. The volume available to host passengers shall be maximized.
2. The volume available to accommodate payload shall be maximized.
3. The landing gear weight shall be minimized.
4. The landing gear length shall be minimized.
5. The fuselage weight shall be minimized.
5.2.2 6. The number of cuts in the fuselage structure shall be reduced.
7. The aircraft configuration shall facilitate the loading and unloading
Wing vertical location operations.
8. The aircraft configuration shall guarantee the proper on-ground
clearance to the ground.
9. The aircraft configuration shall facilitate the refuelling operations.
10. The aircraft frontal section shall be minimized.
11. The ground effect shall minimized/maximized.
12. The aircraft configuration shall minimize the overall drag.
13. The aircraft configuration shall maximize the lifting capabilities.
14. The aircraft configuration shall enhance STOL capabilities.
15. The aircraft shall be operated from un-prepared fields
16. The aircraft configuration shall guarantee a proper pilot visibility.
17. The aircraft configuration shall allow proper floating capabilities in
case of emergency landing on waters.

Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)

 Wing Vertical location: trend for passenger transportation

5.2.2
Wing vertical location

Let’s see why the low-wing

configuration seems so promising
for this family of aircraft!

Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)

 Wing Vertical Location: Low wing

Main advantages

5.2.2
Wing vertical location

Main disadvantages
Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)
 Wing Vertical Location: outsiders

Turboprops
ATR 42/72 family
5.2.2
Wing vertical location Bombardier Dash-8 Q series

Regional STOL

Antonov An-148

Avro RJ family
Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)
 Wing Airfoil Design

Before going into the detail of the geometry definition, it is important to define
the airfoil. Two different options would be possible:

1. Design a new airfoil (ad-hoc for a specific application) starting from

aerodynamic characteristics directly required by the stakeholders or imposed
by the mission profile.

2. Select existing airfoil on the basis of the envisaged aerodynamic

5.2.3 characteristics.
A i r fo i l: d e s i g n a n d Recommended for conceptual design phases and
selection traditional aircraft

General
Characteristics of
an airfoil

Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)

 Wing Airfoil Design: designation recap

For the purpose of our study, the use of NACA basic airfoils can be a good starting
point. Here is a list with a recap of main NACA airfoils designations:

Four digits
- First digit → maximum camber as percentage of the chord;
- Second digit → distance of maximum camber from leading edge, in tenths of the
chord;
- Third and fourth digits → maximum thickness as percentage of the chord;
5.2.3
A i r fo i l: d e s i g n a n d Example: NACA 3415 has a maximum camber of 3% located at 40% (0.4 chords)
selection from the leading edge with a maximum thickness of 15% of the chord.

Five digits (non reflex)

- First digit → this number, multiplied by 0.15 is the design lift coefficient of the
airfoil
- Second and third digits → divided by 2, this is the distance of the maximum
camber from leading edge, in tenths of the chord;
- Fourth and fifth digits → maximum thickness as percentage of the chord;

Example: NACA 22012 has a design lift coefficient of 0.3, max camber located at
10% of the chord and maximum thickness equal to 12% of the chord.

Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)

 Wing Airfoil Design: Leading Edge selection

Large or Sharp Leading Edge?

1. The aircraft should be able to operate
at moderately high angle of attacks.
2. The wing contribution to the overall
drag shall be minimized during the
cruise speed.
3. The aircraft lifting capabilities during
5.2.3 take-off and landing operations shall
be maximized.
A i r fo i l: d e s i g n a n d
selection

Leading Edge radius Pros Cons

Large • helps the air stay • high aerodynamic drag,
attached at the higher especially at high speed
angles of attack
• stall angle increased
• enhanced lift in take-off
and landing
Sharp • Prevent from bow shock • Stall angle is decreased
formation. • Reduced lift in take-off
• Suitable for supersonic and landing phases.
and hypersonic aircraft.

Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)

 Wing Airfoil Design: Camber selection

The camber characteristic refers to the curvature

of the airfoil. From the geometrical point of view, it Camber Selection
is possible to define the mean camber line that is a
1. The wing shall be able to generate
line equidistant from the upper and lower surfaces.
sufficient amount of lift at zero
Also, the total airfoil camber is the maximum angle of attack.
distance of the mean camber line from the chord 2. The wing contribution to the overall
line, as a percentage of the chord. drag shall be minimized especially
during the cruise phase
Remember that camber gives lift at zero angle of
5.2.3 attack and can increase the maximum lift of an
airfoil. However, camber contributes to increase
A i r fo i l: d e s i g n a n d drag and pitching moments as well.
selection

Camber Pros Cons

Flat bottom airfoil • Flat bottom wing surface,
diminishing the aero-
thermodynamic heating.
Double cambered • Lift generation at zero angle
of attack
• Increased maximum lift of
the airfoil
• Obsolete and used in
at the very beginning
of the fight era.
• Increase in drag
• Increased pitching
moment

Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)

 Wing Airfoil Design: Thickness distribution
Thickness
1. The wing shall maximize the lift
The thickness distribution of the airfoil can be
defined as the distance from the upper surface, generation.
measured perpendicular to the mean camber line 2. The wing lifting performances shall be
and it is defined as a function of the distance from maximized especially during the cruise
the leading edge. phase.
Commonly, the thickness-over-chord ratio is 3. The wing contribution to the overall drag
used. The t/c parameter can affect both shall be minimized during the cruise
aerodynamic and operational performances.
phase.
Indeed, the possibility of having a higher internal
wing volume will facilitate the integration of 4. The wing architecture shall maximize the
5.2.3 important subsystems such as, fuel tanks, under available internal volume to maximize the
carriage, avionics equipment and so on. room for systems integration.
A i r fo i l: d e s i g n a n d
selection
Thickness Pros Cons
Thin profile • Good aerodynamic • Limited available
characteristics internal wing volume
Fat profile • Not optimal from the • Enhanced free
aerodynamic point of view. internal wing
volume.

Suggested value Comments

Low subsonic 0.15 < (t/c)max<0.18 Usually, high lift
speed requirement is required for
cargo transportation
systems
High subsonic 0.09 < (t/c)max<0.12 Low lift requirements,
speed as in case of passengers
transportation
Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)
 Wing Airfoil Design: Existing Airfoil selection

Hypothesis 1:
the wing designer is planning to select the best airfoil from an existing wing
airfoil database. (NACA and Eppler are some possible examples).

Hypothesis 2:
5.2.3
the major characteristics of the aircraft have been already estimated in
A i r fo i l: d e s i g n a n d previous design steps; In particular, it is important to have idea of the
selection
average aircraft weight, Wmean (under the assumption of selecting the best
profile optimized for the cruise phase), the cruise speed, VC, a and the wing
surface, S.

The same is applicable to Take-Off conditions (with proper mass and speed)

The step-by-step approach suggested in the

following charts can be applied
Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)
 Wing Airfoil Design: Existing Airfoil selection

Mean values (or cruise values)

Step Formulas Comments
2𝑊𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 This first step allows estimating a first
𝐶𝐿𝐶 = value for the requirements of the overall
𝜌𝑉𝐶2 𝑆
Calculate the aircraft in an intermediate point of the cruise.
aircraft ideal Where:
cruise lift 𝐶𝐿𝐶 is the aircraft ideal cruise lift coefficient;
𝜌 is the air density (at cruise altitude) [kg/m3];
coefficient
𝑆is wing surface [m2].

5.2.3
𝐶𝐿𝐶 𝑊 = 𝐶𝐿𝐶 /𝑘𝑤 This step allows the designer to move from
A i r fo i l: d e s i g n a n d aircraft-level to the wing-level.
Calculate the Where:
selection wing lift 𝐶𝐿𝐶 is the wing cruise lift coefficient;
𝑊 If the wing contribution to the generation
𝑘𝑤 is a margin factor to be considered in case the wing
coefficient of lift is known 𝐶𝐿𝐶𝑊 can be directly estimated.
contribution is not known
Conversely, this formulation can be applied
with 𝑘𝑤 =0.95
𝐶𝐿𝑖 = 𝐶𝐿𝐶 𝑊 /𝑘𝑎 This step allows moving from a 3D
problem at wing level, to a 2D investigation,
𝐶𝐿𝑖 is the wing cruise lift coefficient; focusing on the airfoil.
𝑘𝑎 is the wing airfoil lifting contribution to the wing lifting
Calculate the coefficient.
wing airfoil ideal The parametric coefficient ka present in this
equation can be set at 0.9 in conceptual and
lift coefficient
preliminary design evaluation. This allows
considering the fact that the wing span is
limited, and the possible presence of sweep
angle and non-constant chord.

Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)

 Wing Airfoil Design: Existing Airfoil selection

The lift coefficient in the design point during cruise is not the only aspect
to be considered for the selection of an airfoil. In fact, at high speed, it is
crucial to evaluate the critical Mach number (i.e. Mach number of the
incoming flow at which transonic phenomena occur on the airfoil).

A simple way to estimate this relies on the correlation between

pressure coefficient of the airfoil and the Mach number itself.
5.2.3
Actually, the pressure coefficient which is representative of the critical
A i r fo i l: d e s i g n a n d
Mach number, can be estimated as follows:
selection

𝛾
1 2 𝛾−1
𝑝 − 𝑝∞ 2 𝑝 2 1 + 2 𝛾 − 1 𝑀𝑐𝑟
𝑐𝑝 = = 2 𝑝 −1 𝑐𝑝 𝑐𝑟 = −1
1 2 𝛾𝑀 2 1
∞ ∞ 𝛾𝑀𝑐𝑟
2 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 2 (𝛾 + 1)

So, once the characteristics of the airfoil are known, it is possible to

iteratively obtain the value of critical Mach number as function of the
coefficient (i.e. cp must be known).

Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)

 Wing Airfoil Design: Existing Airfoil selection

Xfoil tool can be used to characterize airfoils belonging to NACA 4-digits

and 5-digits families.

https://web.mit.edu/drela/Public/web/xfoil/

Otherwise, values of cp from literature can be found (for esample, for

other types of airfoils).
5.2.3
A i r fo i l: d e s i g n a n d
Quick procedure to use Xfoil tool in appendix...
selection

Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)

 Wing Airfoil Design: Existing Airfoil selection

Max values (or take-off values)

Step Formulas Comments
2𝑊𝑇𝑂 This step is absolutely similar to the
𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = very first one, but allows deriving the
𝜌0 𝑉𝑆2 𝑆 maximum aircraft lift coefficient.
Calculate the Following the same top-down approach it
aircraft Where:
will be possible to estimate the wing airfoil
𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the aircraft maximum lift coefficient;
maximum lift maximum lift coefficient.
𝜌0 is the air density (at sea level) [kg/m3];
coefficient
5.2.3 𝑆is wing surface [m2].
𝑊𝑇𝑂 is the maximum take-off weight;
A i r fo i l: d e s i g n a n d 𝑉𝑆 is the stall speed [m/s]
𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑊 = 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 /𝑘𝑤 This formulation can be applied
selection
with 𝑘𝑤 =0.95 as before
Calculate the Where:
wing maximum CLmax W is the maximum wing lift coefficient;
lift coefficient k w is the wing contribution percentage to the overall aircraft lifting
characteristics.

Calculate the 𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑊 /𝑘𝑎 The parametric coefficient ka

wing airfoil gross present in this equation can be set at
CLmax−gross is the wing airfoil gross maximum lift coefficient ; 0.9 in conceptual and preliminary
maximum lift
k a is the wing airfoil lifting contribution to the wing lifting coefficient. design evaluation.
coefficient

... Continues

Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)

 Wing Airfoil Design: Existing Airfoil selection
Step Formulas Comments
Calculate the Where the contribution to the to the
wing airfoil net wing maximum lift coefficient depends
𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − ∆𝐶𝑙 𝐻𝐿𝐷
maximum lift on the geometry, type and maximum
coefficient deflection of the selected HLD.

Identify the airfoil selection alternatives that deliver the desired Cl_i and Clmax

5.2.3
A i r fo i l: d e s i g n a n d
selection 𝑪𝑳 𝒎𝒂𝒙 is the maximum lift coefficient.
Usually,

1.2 ≤ 𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≤ 1.5 for no-flap wing

1.5 ≤ 𝐶𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≤ 4 for flap wing

[2] Raymer, Daniel. Aircraft design: a conceptual

approach. American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics, Inc., 2012.

Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)

 Wing Airfoil Design: Existing Airfoil selection

http://airfoiltools.com/search/airfoils?m=a

Ready for CAD

implementation

5.2.3
A i r fo i l: d e s i g n a n d
selection

Ready for finer

Aerodynamic analysis

Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)

 Case Study: Define your Airfoil Profile

Assignment 5.1: Airfoil Profile

Following the procedure suggested in the previous charts, and on
the basis of the parameters estimated in previous assignments,
define your own wing airfoil.

5
Wing design

ASSIGNMENT Assignment 5.2: Lift, Drag and Pitching moment coefficients

Once the airfoil has been selected, look for reference materials
showing aerodynamic coefficients trends. Are they in line with your
expectations (and requirements)?

Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)

 (Finite) Wing geometry: Definitions

5.2.4
W i n g G e o m et r y

[2] Raymer, Daniel. Aircraft design: a conceptual approach. American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics, Inc., 2012.

Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)

 Wing geometry: Incidence

One of the first parameters that should be selected at the beginning of the wing
geometry definition procedure is the wing incidence. Referring to the literature, this
parameter could be defined as the angle between the fuselage centre line and the wing
root chord. In literature, this angle is also referred to wing settling angle (set).

Two different architecture alternatives can be envisaged: a variable wing incidence and
a fixed one.

5.2.4
W i n g G e o m et r y

Wing
Pros Cons
Incidence type
Easy maintenance
Easy operations Cannot be optimized all along the
Fixed Less structural weight mission
Easy integration of the wing with the fuselage
Safer
Increased structural weight
Reduced available internal volume
Aerodynamically optimized Increased power consumption
Variable
Enhanced stability Complex maintenance
Complex operations requiring ad
hoc controls
Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)
 Wing geometry: Incidence
Sizing Approach 1: A first way to select the best value of set is to exploit, if available, the airfoil
lifting curve coefficient. In this case the wing settling angle shall correspond to that angle for which the
selected airfoil is able to generate the design lift coefficient.

Sizing Approach 2: In case the confidence level in the airfoil aerodynamic data would be limited,
a statistical approach may be implied.

5.2.4
Examples of Wing
W i n g G e o m et r y incidence values.

If statistical data is
available, finer estimations
can be carried out.

[1] Sadraey, Mohammad H. Aircraft design: A systems

engineering approach. John Wiley & Sons, 2012.

Aircraft Type Wing Incidence

Supersonic fighters 0 – 1 deg For passenger aircraft, steep
General Aviation 2 – 4 deg angles might be avoided, to
Jet transportation 3 – 5 deg guarantee adequate comfort!

Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)

 Wing geometry: Aspect Ratio
𝑏2
𝐴𝑅 = (Formulation for conceptual design)
𝑆

Effect 1) Moving from a 2D to a real 3D wing, the air

that escapes around wing tips causes a reduction of the
lift. The area of the wing affected by this phenomenon
increases for low-aspect-ratio wings.

Effect 2) Moving from a 2D to a real wing, stalling

angle has to be considered. Indeed, the vortex
5.2.4 generated at the tip of the wing implies a reduction of
the effective angle of attack at the tips. Consequently,
W i n g G e o m et r y low-aspect-ratio is beneficial to postpone stall at higher
angles of attack.

[2] Raymer,
Daniel. Aircraft design: a
conceptual approach.
[1] Sadraey, Mohammad H. Aircraft design: A American Institute of
systems engineering approach. John Wiley & Aeronautics and
Sons, 2012. Astronautics, Inc., 2012.

Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)

 Wing geometry: sweep angle

Effect 1) the introduction of sweep angle is primarily due to reduce the adverse
effects of transonic and supersonic speed regimes. In order to properly carry out a
first estimation of a suitable wing sweep angle, the major constraint is the need of
being compliant with the critical Mach of the airfoil (considering the effect of the
sweep on the incoming flow) and, for high-speed aircraft, with the Mach cone
aperture.

5.2.4
W i n g G e o m et r y

Effect 2) Adequate sweep angles shall

be adopted to guarantee adequate weight
and balance characteristics (mutual
positions of CoG and AC)

Effect 3) Adequate wing sweep angles

[2] Raymer, Daniel. Aircraft design: a conceptual
approach. American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics, Inc., 2012.
Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)
improve lateral stability characteristics.
Indeed, a swept wing has a natural
dihedral effect.
 Wing geometry: sweep angle

Please, consider the

combined effects of AR
and Sweep angle

5.2.4
W i n g G e o m et r y

Please, consider the

effect of sweep angle
onto the lift distribution.

[1] Sadraey, Mohammad H. Aircraft design: A

systems engineering approach. John Wiley &
Sons, 2012.

Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)

 𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑝
𝜆= Wing geometry: Taper Ratio
𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡
Effect 1) Taper affects the lift distribution along the span
𝜆=1 of the wing.
Prandtl demonstrated that minimum drag due to lift occurs
for an elliptical lift distribution. Elliptical distribution can be
achieved through planforms shaped like ellipse.

Tapered wings ae designed to be as closer as possible to

the ideal distribution.

Effect 2) Taper reduces the wing weight, thanks to

5.2.4 𝜆=0 beneficial effect of a lower bending moment.
W i n g G e o m et r y Effect 3) Taper improves lateral control thanks to the
reduction of moment of inertia along x-axis

[1] Sadraey, Mohammad H. Aircraft design: A

systems engineering approach. John Wiley &
Sons, 2012.

Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)

 Wing geometry: Dihedral angle

The dihedral angle is usually defined as the positive angle between the chord line plane
of a wing with the xy plane. In case the wing tip is lower than the xy plane, this angle is
called negative dihedral or anhedral angle.

5.2.4
W i n g G e o m et r y

The main effect of dihedral angle is on lateral stability.

Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)

 Wing geometry: Dihedral angle

A positive dihedral angle is beneficial for the lateral stability but it

decreases the Duch-roll damping ratio.

Thus, one of the most exploited way of approaching the wing

design is to define the above mentioned parameters with a greater
impact on the overall design and performances, such as the wing
5.2.4 sweep angle(s) and the wing vertical location and then, in a
following iteration, try to find the best dihedral angle to cope with
W i n g G e o m et r y
stability, controllability and operations.

Low Wing Mid Wing High Wing

Un-swept
5 to 10 deg 3 to 6 deg -4 to -10 deg

Low-subsonic
2 to 5 deg -3 to 3 deg -3 to -6 deg
swept
High subsonic
3 to 8 deg -4 to 2 deg -5 to -10 deg
swept

Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)

 Case Study: Define your 3D Wing Geometry

Assignment 5.3: Wing Geometry

Once the wing airfoil is selected, please, try to identify the main
parameters for a 3D wing in terms of:
- Incidence
- Aspect Ratio
- Sweep angle
- Taper Ratio
- Dihedral Angle
5
Wing design
Assignment 5.4: 2D and 3D CAD Modelling
ASSIGNMENT Proceed with the implementation of the isolated wing geometry in
the CAD environment. The report shall include:
- 3D view of the wing [assonometria]
- 2D view of the wing with measures (only main ones) (3-views
[proiezione ortogonale])

We will have a look into CAD modelling procedures

during next lectures...

Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)

 Quick guide to Xfoil.exe
Xfoil tool can be used to characterize airfoils belonging to NACA 4-digits
and 5-digits families.

Xfoil tool can be downloaded from:

https://web.mit.edu/drela/Public/web/xfoil/
5
Wing design Select the version which suits your operating system (last version 6.99
for Windows).

Appendix Extract the .zip within a dedicated folder and run the executable xfoil.exe

The following prompt window will appear.

Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)

 Quick guide to Xfoil.exe
→ Simply write the name of your airfoil under the root section (XFOIL c>):

e.g. NACA 2412

→ Press enter
5
Wing design

Appendix

Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)

 Quick guide to Xfoil.exe
→ You can view and modify your airfoil within the GDES (Geometry Design)
subrutine

→ In the root section (XFOIL c>) type gdes. The window with the 2D view of
the selected airfoil appears. It is important to keep this window open for
5 further steps (do not minimize it).
Wing design
→ From the GDES c> subroutine it is also possible to apply modification to the
airfoil and to add movable surfaces (if needed)
Appendix

Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)

 Quick guide to Xfoil.exe
→ Press enter to go back to the root XFOIL c>

→ Type oper to enter the computation subroutine. The inviscid routine opens
(OPERi).

5
→ Type Mach <space> the Mach number at which you want to run the
analysis.
Wing design

→ Type a <space> the angle of attack at which you want to run the analysis.

Appendix → The pictorial view of the cp trends is shown

Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto) e.g. NACA 2412 , Mach 0.6, alpha 3°
 Quick guide to Xfoil.exe
→ If you want to switch to viscous routine (OPERv), simply type v in OPERi c>
subroutine (you can always go back by typing visc)

→ Enter the Reynolds number (e.g. 250000 for this example)

5 → Change Mach and alpha depending on your needs as before

Wing design
→ The pictorial view is updated with viscous results

Appendix
e.g. NACA 2412, Mach 0.6, alpha 3°

Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)

 Quick guide to Xfoil.exe
→ It is also possible to plot results for a set of angle of attack values.

→ In the OPERi c> subroutine type aseq

→ Set minimum, maximum and alpha steps

5
Wing design → Press enter and see the results

The same can be done for viscous routine

Appendix

Inviscid Viscous

Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)

 Quick guide to Xfoil.exe
→ It is possible to ask Xfoil to save data on text file. For example, let’s
consider the sequence of angles of attack just mentioned.

→ Within the OPERi or OPERv subroutines, type pacc

5 → Enter the file name with .txt extension (e.g. Results.txt)

Wing design
→ You can skip the dump filename

Appendix
→ Subroutine is changed to OPERia or
OPERva

→ Type aseq to set the sequence of

angles of attack

→ Press enter, the file is generated

within the working folder

Lesson 5: Wing Design (D. Ferretto)