Progettazione di veicoli

aerospaziali (AA-LZ)

D o ce n t e t i t o l a r e : Pr o f. E . C a r r e ra

Le c t u r e s e r i es :
Conceptual Design of subsonic commercial
aircraft

Dr. Davide Ferretto

davide.ferretto@polito.it

Lesson 7: Tail Design

Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto)
 6.2 Where we left...

7.1 Tail Design Procedure

Table of Contents 7.2 Tail Configuration Alternatives for conventional layout

7.3 Horizontal Tail sizing

7.4 Vertical Tail sizing

Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto)

 Frequently asked questions: Lesson 5

If you cannot find a consistent airfoil within original Xfoil database,

remember that you can always import a generic profile using the <load>
command in the XFOIL root line.

It is sufficient to have a .txt parametrization of the airfoil, such as

Lesson 5 those available at https://www.airfoiltools.com or similar

e.g. HQ2.0/9 aifoil

Some From website
feedbacks

In XFoil

Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto)

 Frequently asked questions: Lesson 6

Which number of passengers shall be selected for the sizing of the

cabin volume?
Think about your requirements, and the operational aspects specified
within the payload-range diagram

Lesson 6
For sure, the maximum number of
passengers (points 1 or 2) is crucial to
determine the volume.
Some
Also, consider which combination can
feedbacks be more critical in terms of number of
passengers and type of service offered
(economy, business, first...). The
volume per passenger can be different!

Economy → 1.5 m3/pax

Business → 2-2.5 m3/pax
First → 3-4 m3/pax

Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto) Volume refers to pax compartment only
 Case Study: Define your 3D Fuselage Geometry

Where we left...

Assignment 6.1: Design your fuselage following the suggested

methodology
6
Fuselage design

Assignment 6.2: 2D and 3D CAD Modelling

ASSIGNMENT Proceed with the implementation of the isolated fuselage geometry
in the CAD environment. The report shall include:
- 3D view of the fuselage [assonometria]
- 2D view of the fuselage with measures (only main ones)
(3-views [proiezione ortogonale])

Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto)

 Aircraft and Components configurations

7.1
Ta i l D e s i g n P r o c e d u r e

[1] Sadraey, Mohammad H. Aircraft design: A

Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto) systems engineering approach. John Wiley &
Sons, 2012.
 Aircraft and Components configurations
For what concerns the purpose of our study, we simply talk about «tail»,
but different aircraft configurations exists:
Conventional

7.1
Ta i l D e s i g n P r o c e d u r e

Airbus A350 family McDonnel Douglas MD 80 family

Dassault Falcon 2000

Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto)
 Aircraft and Components configurations

For what concerns the purpose of our study, we simply talk about «tail»,
but different aircraft configurations exists:

Canard

7.1
Ta i l D e s i g n P r o c e d u r e

Eurofighter Tupolev Tu-144

Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto)

 Aircraft and Components configurations

For what concerns the purpose of our study, we simply talk about «tail»,
but different aircraft configurations exists:

Three-surfaces

7.1
Ta i l D e s i g n P r o c e d u r e

Piaggio P-180

Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto)

 Aircraft and Components configurations

For what concerns the purpose of our study, we simply talk about «tail»,
but different aircraft configurations exists:

Tail-less

7.1
Ta i l D e s i g n P r o c e d u r e

Northrop Grumman B2

Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto)

 Aircraft and Components configurations

For what concerns the purpose of our study, we simply talk about «tail»,
but different aircraft configurations exists:

Incomplete tail – coupled tail

7.1
Ta i l D e s i g n P r o c e d u r e

Concorde Beechcraft Bonanza V-Tail

Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto)

 Aircraft and Components configurations

For what concerns the purpose of our study, we simply talk about «tail»,
but different aircraft configurations exists:

Unconventional Antonov 225

7.1
Ta i l D e s i g n P r o c e d u r e

Cessna F337 F Skymaster

Fairchild A-10 Thunderbolt

Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto) Beechcraft Starship
 Empennages, together with
wing are referred to as lifting
surfaces.

Why it is not possible to directly

apply the wing design
procedure?

7.1 Because Wing and empennages

play a different role. Different
Ta i l D e s i g n P r o c e d u r e
set of requirements and
different functionalities

Empennages Functionalities:
• Trim
• Stability

Control Surfaces Functionalities

• Control
[1] Sadraey, Mohammad H. Aircraft design: A
Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto) systems engineering approach. John Wiley &
Sons, 2012.
 Unknown Design variables

7.1
Ta i l D e s i g n P r o c e d u r e

Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto)

 Procedure makes use of
stability and trim concepts
from flight mechanics theory

7.1
Ta i l D e s i g n P r o c e d u r e

[1] Sadraey, Mohammad H. Aircraft design: A

Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto) systems engineering approach. John Wiley &
Sons, 2012.
7.1 [2] Raymer, Daniel. Aircraft design: a conceptual
approach. American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics, Inc., 2012.
Ta i l D e s i g n P r o c e d u r e

[1] Sadraey, Mohammad H. Aircraft design: A

Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto) systems engineering approach. John Wiley &
Sons, 2012.
 Conventional Configuration: inverted-T shape

The simplest and most used tail configuration is the so-called

conventional configuration or inverted-T shape configuration.

This configuration consists of a horizontal plane (split into a left and

a right section) and a vertical plane both mounted on the fuselage
aft cone.
7.2
Ta i l C o n f i g u ra t i o n • More than 70% of the operating
a l t e r n a t i ve s f o r aircraft are equipped with a
Lateral trim and conventional configuration
c o n ve n t i o n a l l a yo u t
stability
requirements • Trim and stability behaviours are very
well known and therefore easy to
predict since conceptual design stage

• This configuration results to be a

relatively lightweight and it performs
well in nominal flight conditions.
Longitudinal trim
and stability
Suggestion: if you are developing a new
requirements
aircraft design and you do not have long
design experience, please start from
here.
Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto)
 Conventional Configuration: T shape
This configuration consists of a tail arrangement that looks like a
letter T and which implies that the horizontal tail is located on top of
the vertical tail.

Longitudinal trim
and stability • More than 25% of current aircraft
requirements configuration adopts this solution
7.2
• Heavier that a conventional tail having
similar size. This is mainly due to the need
Ta i l C o n f i g u ra t i o n of the vertical tail to support the horizontal
a l t e r n a t i ve s f o r tail
c o n ve n t i o n a l l a yo u t • The horizontal plane can be smaller with
reference to conventional tail config.
thanks to its higher and cleaner location in
the flow field.
Lateral trim and • This configuration may allow to install aft
stability
requirements
fuselage mounted engines.
• This configuration may suffer from deep
stall conditions

Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto)

 Conventional Configuration: cruciform shape

Configuration suggested by designers (mainly in the past) to account

for the advantages of conventional and T-shape tails, reducing as
much as possible the disadvantages.

7.2 Lateral trim and

Ta i l C o n f i g u ra t i o n stability
requirements
a l t e r n a t i ve s f o r
c o n ve n t i o n a l l a yo u t

Example from Mirage 2000D

Longitudinal trim
and stability
requirements

Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto) Example from Falcon 2000

 Let’s start from the
longitudinal plane
→ horizontal tail

7.3
H o r i zo n t a l Ta i l s i z i n g

[1] Sadraey, Mohammad H. Aircraft design: A

Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto) systems engineering approach. John Wiley &
Sons, 2012.
 Horizontal Tail sizing – Airfoil selection

Symmetric airfoil are

suggested for the
horizontal plane, to
7.3
ensure similar
H o r i zo n t a l Ta i l s i z i n g behaviour in both
positive and negative
angles of attack.

See afterwards to
determine reference lift
coefficient required

[1] Sadraey, Mohammad H. Aircraft design: A

Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto) systems engineering approach. John Wiley &
Sons, 2012.
 Horizontal Tail sizing – Volume coefficient

Design guidelines start

from the the analysis of
the stability (longitudinal
one in this case)

7.3 𝑐 ҧ → Mean Aerodynamic Chord

H o r i zo n t a l Ta i l s i z i n g

𝑀0 𝑤𝑏 + 𝐿𝑤𝑏 ℎ − ℎ𝑛𝑤𝑏 𝑐ҧ − Lt lt = 0

Hypotheses:

𝐷𝑤𝑏 ≪ 𝐿𝑤𝑏 Longitudinal equilibrium

𝐷𝑡 ≪ 𝐿𝑡
sin 𝛼 ≈ 𝛼 cos 𝛼 ≈ 1
𝑧𝐶𝐺 1 , 𝑧𝐶𝐺 2 ≈ 0
𝑀𝑜 𝑡 ≪ 𝑀𝑜 𝑤𝑏

Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto)

 Horizontal Tail sizing – Volume coefficient

In order to counteract a potential perturbation of the angle of attack

(perturbation of equilibrium condition) it is necessary that:

Δ𝐿𝑡 𝑙𝑡 > Δ𝐿𝑤𝑏 (ℎ − ℎ𝑛𝑤𝑏 )𝑐ҧ

Moreover,
7.3
𝑙𝑡 = 𝑙ഥ𝑡 − (ℎ − ℎ𝑛𝑤𝑏 )𝑐ҧ
H o r i zo n t a l Ta i l s i z i n g
Δ𝐿 = Δ𝐿𝑤𝑏 + Δ𝐿𝑡

It is then possible to find a point ℎ𝑛 for which it is possible to make Δ𝑀 = 0

Δ𝑀 = Δ𝐿𝑡 𝑙ഥ𝑡 − Δ𝐿 ℎ − ℎ𝑛𝑤𝑏 𝑐ҧ = 0
Δ𝐶𝐿 𝑡 𝑆ℎ 𝑙ഥ𝑡
𝑆ℎ 𝑙ഥ𝑡
ℎ𝑛 = ℎ𝑛𝑤𝑏 + 𝑉ℎ =
Δ𝐶𝐿 𝑆𝑐ҧ 𝑆𝑐ҧ
This volume ratio, or coefficient, is an important non-dimensional parameter in the horizontal tail design. The
name originates from the fact that both the numerator and denominator are volumes (i.e., m3). Thus, the
parameter is the ratio of the horizontal tail geometries to the wing geometries.
Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto)
 Horizontal Tail sizing – Volume coefficient

𝑆ℎ 𝑙ഥ𝑡
𝑉ℎ =
𝑆𝑐ҧ
7.3
H o r i zo n t a l Ta i l s i z i n g

Where
𝑆ℎ is the horizontal tail surface

𝑙ഥ𝑡 distance between the application points

of lift on tail and wing, or in general, the
distance between the two aerodynamic
centres (tail arm)

𝑆 is the wing surface

𝑐ҧ is the wing mean aerodynamic chord

Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto)

 Horizontal Tail sizing – tail arm

Two basic tail parameters which interact most are the tail arm and tail area.
As the tail arm is increased, the tail area must be decreased, while as the tail arm is
reduced, the tail area must be increased, for a fixed configuration. Both short arms (as
in fighters) and long arms (as in most transport aircraft) are capable of satisfying
longitudinal trim requirements, given the appropriate necessary tail area. But the question
is, what tail arm is optimum? To answer this question, one must look at the other design
requirements.

7.3
𝑐ҧ 𝑆𝑉ℎ
𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑓𝑡 = 𝜋𝐷𝑓 𝑙𝑓 +2
𝑐𝑦𝑙 𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑙ℎ
H o r i zo n t a l Ta i l s i z i n g
1 𝑐ҧ 𝑆𝑉ℎ
𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑓𝑡 = 𝜋𝐷𝑓 𝑙𝑓 +2
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 2 𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑙ℎ

Hyp: 𝑙𝑓 ≈ 𝑙ℎ
𝑎𝑓𝑡

In order to minimize the zero-lift 𝑙ℎ

drag of the aft part of the aircraft:

𝛿𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑓𝑡
=0 2𝑐ҧ 𝑆𝑉ℎ
𝛿𝑙ℎ 𝑙ℎ 𝑜𝑝𝑡 =
𝑐𝑦𝑙 𝜋𝐷𝑓
𝐷𝑓 - Reference fuselage diameter [m]
4𝑐ҧ 𝑆𝑉ℎ
𝑙ℎ 𝑜𝑝𝑡 = 𝑘𝑐 𝑘𝑐 = 1.4
Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto) 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝜋𝐷𝑓
 Horizontal Tail sizing – tail arm

2𝑐ҧ 𝑆𝑉ℎ
𝑙ℎ 𝑜𝑝𝑡 =
𝑐𝑦𝑙 𝜋𝐷𝑓

4𝑐ҧ 𝑆𝑉ℎ
7.3 𝑙ℎ 𝑜𝑝𝑡 = 𝑘𝑐 𝑘𝑐 = 1.4
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝜋𝐷𝑓 𝑙ℎ
H o r i zo n t a l Ta i l s i z i n g

The optimal length of the tail

arm shall be selected in order
to guarantee the minimum
wetted surface of the
horizontal tail.

However, fuselage needs

shall be taken into account!
Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto)
 Horizontal Tail sizing – Cruise lift coefficient 𝐶𝐿 ℎ

In order to select a proper airfoil, a first evaluation on 𝐶𝐿 ℎ can be done:

𝐶𝑚 0 = 𝐶𝑚 + 𝐶𝐿 𝑤𝑏 ℎ𝑛 − ℎ𝑛𝑤𝑏 − 𝐶𝐿 ℎ 𝑉ℎ
0 𝑤𝑏
Tail incidence (to be identified iteratively)

7.3 𝐶𝑚 𝛼 𝐴𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 Λw 2𝑊𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛

𝐶𝑚0𝑤𝑏 = + 0.01 𝑖ℎ 𝐶𝐿𝑤𝑏 ≈ 𝐶𝐿 =
H o r i zo n t a l Ta i l s i z i n g 𝐴𝑅 + 2 cos Λ𝑤
𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝜌𝑉𝐶2 𝑆

Reducing the moment to the center of gravity:

To be hypothesized according to
𝐶𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚 0 + 𝐶𝐿 𝛼 𝒉 − 𝒉𝒏 𝛼 references and configuration

To obtain static stability, it is necessary that:

𝐶𝑚 0 > 0
The correct value of 𝑖𝐻 shall be selected
𝐶𝐿 𝛼 ℎ − ℎ𝑛 < 0 in order to provide the desired 𝐶𝐿 ℎ
(downwash neglected)
[iterations required]
Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto)
 Horizontal Tail sizing – Cruise lift coefficient 𝐶𝐿 ℎ

Some suggestions

7.3
H o r i zo n t a l Ta i l s i z i n g

Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto)

 Horizontal Tail sizing – Aspect ratio 𝐴𝑅

This parameter has an impact on:

• Aircraft lateral stability and control
• Aircraft performance
• Tail aerodynamic efficiency
• Aircraft CoG
7.3
H o r i zo n t a l Ta i l s i z i n g Like the theory behind the selection of an adequate AR for the Wing,

𝑏ℎ2
𝐴𝑅ℎ =
𝑆ℎ

However, in the case of horizontal plane

• it is not necessary to achieve a fairly-elliptical lift distribution,
and

• 𝐴𝑅ℎ < AR w to reduce bending moments and to postpone stall

𝟐
conditions. Approximately, 𝑨𝑹𝒉 = 𝟑 𝐀𝐑 𝐰

Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto)

 Horizontal Tail sizing – Taper ratio 𝜆

This parameter has an impact on:

• Aircraft lateral stability and control
• Aircraft main performance
• Tail aerodynamic efficiency
• Aircraft weight and CoG position

7.3
H o r i zo n t a l Ta i l s i z i n g

Differently from the wing, where the main

reason behind the introduction of a tapered
𝐶ℎ𝑡𝑖𝑝 shape aims at closing as much as possible the
𝜆ℎ =
𝐶ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 elliptical lift distribution, in the horizontal tail,
taper ratio is introduced to minimize the
associated mass.

For civil transport aircraft, 0.4 < 𝜆ℎ < 0.6

Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto)

 Horizontal Tail sizing – Dihedral and sweep angles 𝚪𝒉 , 𝚲𝐡

This parameter has an impact on:

• Aircraft lateral stability and control
• Aircraft performance
• Tail aerodynamic efficiency
From statistical analysis - summary

7.3
H o r i zo n t a l Ta i l s i z i n g

Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto)

 Let’s start move to
the lateral plane
→ vertical tail

7.4
Ve r t i c a l Ta i l s i z i n g

[1] Sadraey, Mohammad H. Aircraft design: A

Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto) systems engineering approach. John Wiley &
Sons, 2012.
 Vertical Tail sizing – volume coefficient

7.4
Ve r t i c a l Ta i l s i z i n g

Similarly to horizontal tail, it is possible to define a volume coefficient as:

σ 𝑁𝑐𝑔 = 0 → 𝑁𝑣 = 0 𝑙𝑣 𝑆𝑣
𝑉𝑣 =
𝑁𝑣 =
1 2
𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝑣 𝐶𝑌 𝑣 𝑙𝑣 𝑏 𝑆𝑤
2
Lateral equilibrium Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto) b is the wingspan [m]
 Vertical Tail sizing – Volume coefficient

𝑙𝑣 𝑆𝑣
𝑉𝑣 =
𝑏 𝑆𝑤
7.4
Ve r t i c a l Ta i l s i z i n g

Where
𝑆𝑣 is the vertical tail surface

𝑙𝑣 distance between the application points

of force on tail and wing, or in general,
the distance between the two
aerodynamic centres (tail arm)

𝑆𝑤 is the wing surface

𝑏 is the wing span

Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto)

 Vertical Tail sizing – airfoil and tail arm

Airfoil is symmetrical, with

similar t/c with reference
to horizontal tail, but
usually thicker

7.4
Ve r t i c a l Ta i l s i z i n g

A fair assumption is to
consider the horizontal tail
arm as reference, since
the distances are very
close to each other

Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto)

 Vertical Tail sizing – aspect ratios and taper ratios

𝑏𝑣2
𝐴𝑅𝑣 =
𝑆𝑣

𝐶𝑣𝑡𝑖𝑝
𝜆𝑣 =
𝐶𝑣𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡
7.4
Ve r t i c a l Ta i l s i z i n g
0.4 < 𝜆𝑣 < 0.7

Particularly, high AR produces a higher directional control, while

higher taper ratio reduces lateral stability and directional control. A
compromise between structural, aerodynamic and flight mechanics
issues shall be made.

Dimensions will impact also operational procedures and aerodynamic

efficiency of the tail.

Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto)

 Vertical Tail sizing – dihedral and sweep angles

Γ𝑣

Λ𝑣
7.4
Ve r t i c a l Ta i l s i z i n g

An aircraft with single vertical tail has no dihedral angle (symmetry).

Sweep angles reproduces similar value of wing sweep, according to

aircraft category (think about the definition of volume coefficient for
the vertical tail!).

Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto)

 Conventional configuration
inverted-T shape

A350 example

Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto)

 Case Study: Define your aircraft tail

Assignment 7.1: Tail Configuration

Select and briefly justify the most appropriate tail configuration for
your case study

Assignment 7.2: Horizontal Empennage Sizing

Follow the procedure reported in these charts and size your
7 horizontal tail plane.
Ta i l d e s i g n
Assignment 7.3: Vertical Empennage Sizing
Follow the procedure reported in these charts and size your vertical
ASSIGNMENT tail plane.

Assignment 7.4: Empennages on CAD

Proceed with the implementation of the isolated tail assembly
geometry in the CAD environment. The report shall include:
3D view of the tail assembly [assonometria]
2D view of the tail assembly with measures (only main ones)
(3-views [proiezione ortogonale])

Lesson 7: Tail Design (D. Ferretto)