Self-Regulation

{Professor Ravi Thiruchselvam

 Emotion
Regulation

“The Scream” by Edvard Munch

 Emotion Regulation

GOAL

Decrease Increase

Negative
emotion

EMOTION
TYPE

Positive
emotion
 Emotion Regulation

Change causes of emotion Change relationship to emotion

Cognitive Reappraisal Mindfulness meditation

 Cognitive Reappraisal

There is nothing either good or bad,

but thinking makes it so.

-- William Shakespeare
Langeslag and Sanchez (2018)
Peh et al. (2016)
 Cognitive Reappraisal

This woman is receiving painful chemotherapy

OR

This woman is receiving a life-saving treatment

Foti and Hajcak (2008)

EEG: The Late Positive Potential
Regulation EffectsUnpleasant Image
Neutral Image
Negative-Attend
10 Neutral-Attend

Microvolts
5

0
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

Time (ms)

Thiruchselvam et al., Biological Psychology (2011)

Adapted from Thiruchselvam et al. (2011)
 12

8
Microvolts

Adapted from Foti and Hajcak (2008)

Cognitive Reappraisal Of Arousal
 Journal of Educational Psychology © 2017 American Psychological Association
2018, Vol. 110, No. 3, 395– 406 0022-0663/18/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/edu0000219

Reappraising Test Anxiety Increases Academic Performance of First-Year

College Students
Shannon T. Brady, Bridgette Martin Hard, and James J. Gross
Stanford University

The idea that test anxiety hurts performance is deeply ingrained in American culture and schools. However,
researchers have found that it is actually worry about performance and anxiety—not bodily feelings of anxiety
(emotionality)—that impairs performance. Drawing on this insight, anxiety reappraisal interventions encourage the
view that anxiety can be neutral or even helpful. Initial evidence—largely from laboratory studies—suggests that
these kinds of reappraisal interventions can improve student performance in mathematics. But can they do so in
nated broadly.

other domains and within the constraints of everyday classroom activities? If so, for whom and how? In an
publishers.

intervention study, we tested whether a minimal reappraisal message embedded in an email from course instructors
could improve students’ academic experience and performance in an introductory college course. The night before
their first exam, students received an e-mail that either did or did not include a paragraph designed to lead them to
 Standard Message

As you know, your first midterm is tomorrow. We know that taking an exam can be a stressful experience, so we wanted to
remind you of exam details, and provide a note of encouragement.” (Four logistical reminders about room location,
necessary supplies, and exam format were included here.) “We hope your studying is productive and we look forward to
seeing how much you’ve learned tomorrow!

Reappraisal Message

We know that taking an exam can be a stressful experience, and so before reminding you of exam details, we wanted to
provide a note of research-based encouragement: People think that feeling anxious while taking a test will make them do
poorly on the test. However, recent research suggests that arousal doesn’t generally hurt performance on tests and can even
help performance. People who feel anxious during a test might actually do better. This means that you shouldn’t feel
concerned if you do feel anxious while studying for or taking tomorrow’s exam. If you find yourself feeling anxious,
simply remind yourself that your arousal could be helping you do well.
 These analyses were conducted using the structural equation mode

This document is copyrighted by the American Psycho

This article is intended solely for the personal use of the i
modeling R package lavaan (Rosseel, 2012). Significance was suppl
82% tested for using bias-corrected bootstrappedCondition
confidence intervals. 95%
Exam 1 Final Grade Exam 1 Final Grade 0.02
We specified a 95% confidence interval (CI) and 10,000 resa-
First-Year Students mples. Mediation
Upper-Year was observed (! " .05) if the resulting 95% CI
Students
of the indirect
BRADY,effect didAND
not include
Figurezero.
3. Previous
First-year performance
students in Study 2: M
402 HARD, GROSS A
Standard Reappraisal indirect effect of condition on final grade with
Exam 1 worry and Exam 1 grade. Previous from
5
Figure 2. Study 2: Course performance by condition 92% and cohort.* was* predictive
Error a covariateofofworry,
worry (# Exam 1 grade,
" $.26, and
impro
p ' .001),
d = .32 d = .29 d = .07 d = .04 as a covaria
*
bars represent 95% confidence
Rating (7-point scale) intervals.* Means and confidence Exam
intervals 1, andand
.001), thus it grade
final was included
without Exam 1(#introd
" .3
d = .11
are adjusted d =for.32
and control previous dperformance.
= .30 ! dp=' .13
.05. variables in the relevant
standardized. !!
p ' models.
.01, !!!
p ' .001. mess
90% For the first analysis (testing the indirect exam
eff
4 ing o
Exam 1 via worry), we found evidence that wo

Grade (Out of 100%)

perfo
ated the effect of condition on Exam 1. Conditi
88% of te
(# " $.16, p " .02), and worry predict
3 (# " $.16, p " .02). The point estimate of the
86% .42, with a 95% CI ranging from .02 to 1.08. B
does not include 0, the indirect effect is signifi
level. (The model was saturated, so fit stati
2
84% obtained.) The direct path from condition to
significant (# " .11 p " .04). Possible explana
disseminated broadly.

effect are addressed in the online supplementa

82%
ts allied publishers.

1 For the second analysis (testing the indirect

Emotionality Worry Emotionality WorryExam 1 Final Grade Exam 1 Final Grade
First-Year Students on final grade without Exam 1 via the sequ
Upper-Year StudentsFirst-Year Students Upper-Year Students
worry and Exam 1 grade), the model with no i
2 Figur
data
Standard well, % (2,
Reappraisal N " 222) " 3.40, p" .18, com
indire
Standard Reappraisal .99, (root mean squareBradyerror
et al.of(2018)
approximation
Exam"
Graduate Record Examination (GRE)

Jamieson et al. (2010)

 Were you worried about feeling anxious?
Were you unsure of your performance?
Graduate Record Examination (GRE)
Note: Different subscript letters indicate significant mean differences within the
row.
Fig. 3. Actual GRE performance as a function of appraisal condition and test section.
Scores could range from 200 to 800. Error bars represent ± standard error of the
mean.
2.46a 1.43 3.54a 1.86 but had no effect on verbal performance, nor
2.75a 1.36 4.39b 1.89 ated with verbal scores in the control conditio
of consistency may result from characteristi
found in each section. Math problems generally
to use executive resources to actively process
mation, whereas the verbal section is domi
(e.g., antonyms and analogies) requiring the r
tion from long-term storage with fewer active
ments (e.g., Halpern, 2004). Since resea
reappraising arousal improves executive funct
2008), it may not be surprising that appraisal i
performance. Additionally, our reappraisal m
have facilitated performance on the math, but
tion because students tend to exhibit more ne
tudes toward math domains relative to verb
Banaji, & Greenwald, 2002).
Importantly, our findings are consistent wit
the effects of SNS activation, specifically catec
on cognitive performance. Across several large
er catecholamine increases were associated w
formance (see Dienstbier (1989) for a r
Dienstbier’s seminal review he concluded tha
difficulty level of . . . these tasks . . . these data
ear relations; naturally evoked peripheral ca
seem to be too high for optimal performance” (
Although this research demonstrates that r
math performance beyond the laboratory, the
makes it difficult to isolate mechanisms. On th
sal might have improved performance by incr
arousal cued an approach orientation towards
avoidance. Alternatively, reappraisal partic
remembered and reinterpreted the arousal th
Jamieson
the day of the actual GRE test.et al. (2010)
Future research
Nonconscious Cognitive Reappraisal?
 Dorm Assignments
7 For Undergraduates Predicted
6
Actual

Happiness
5
4

Rating
3
2
1
Desirable Undesirable
Affective House House

Forecasting Tenure Decisions For

6 University Professors
Predicted
5

Happiness Rating
4 Actual

3
2
1
Tenure Tenure Denied
Accepted
 Unconscious Cognitive Reappraisal

The free-choice paradigm:

• rank the 6 pictures from least liked to most liked

• choose between #3 and #4

• after a delay, re-rank the pictures

1 2 3 4 5 6
Most liked Least liked

Slide Credit: Dan Gilbert Adapted from Lieberman et al. (2001)

 Unconscious Cognitive Reappraisal

The free-choice paradigm:

• rank the 6 pictures from least liked to most liked

• choose between #3 and #4

• after a delay, re-rank the pictures

1 2 3 4 5 6
Most liked Chosen picture becomes more liked Least liked
Non-chosen picture becomes less liked
Slide Credit: Dan Gilbert Adapted from Lieberman et al. (2001)
 Unconscious Cognitive Reappraisal

Anterograde Amnesia:

Individuals are unable to form new episodic (autobiographical) memories

1 2 3 4 5 6
Most liked Least liked

Slide Credit: Dan Gilbert Adapted from Lieberman et al. (2001)

 Unconscious Cognitive Reappraisal

100
90

Memory for chosen picture

80
70
60
50 Chance level
40
30
20
10
0
Normal Controls Amnesics

Slide Credit: Dan Gilbert Adapted from Lieberman et al. (2001)

 Unconscious Cognitive Reappraisal

1.25
4
3

Preference Change
2
1
Chosen
00
Normal Controls Amnesics Non-Chosen
-1
-2
-3
-4
-1.2
-5

Slide Credit: Dan Gilbert Adapted from Lieberman et al. (2001)

 Unconscious Cognitive Reappraisal

1.25
4
3

Preference Change
2
1
Chosen
00
Normal Controls Amnesics Non-Chosen
-1
-2
-3
-4
-1.2
-5

Slide Credit: Dan Gilbert Adapted from Lieberman et al. (2001)

 Dorm Assignments
7 For Undergraduates Predicted
6
Actual

Happiness
5
4

Rating
3
2
1
Desirable Undesirable
Affective House House

Forecasting Tenure Decisions For

6 University Professors
Predicted
5

Happiness Rating
4 Actual

3
2
1
Tenure Tenure Denied
Accepted
Coldplay – Fix You
 Coldplay – Fix You

When you try your best, but you don't succeed

When you get what you want, but not what you need
When you feel so tired, but you can't sleep
Stuck in reverse

And the tears come streaming down your face

When you lose something you can't replace
When you love someone, but it goes to waste
Could it be worse?

Lights will guide you home

And ignite your bones
And I will try to fix you

When things don’t work out as you want,

non-conscious processes will shape your
emotional responses so that you can be happy anyways
Your brain has your back
 The Paradox of Worry
Bob Marley

Don’t worry about a thing

Every little thing is gonna be alright
 Emotion Regulation

Change causes of emotion Change relationship to emotion

Cognitive Reappraisal Mindfulness meditation

 Articles containing “mindfulness” or “meditation” in the title or abstract

Fig. 1. Scientific and news media articles on mindfulness and/or meditation by year from
1970 to 2015. Empirical scientific articles (black line) with the term mindfulness or
Van Dam et al. (2017)
meditation in the abstract, title, or keywords, published between 1970 and 2015 were
searched using Scopus. Media pieces (dashed gray line) with the term mindfulness or
What is Mindfulness?
 Mindfulness Meditation Technique

Attend closely to a bodily sensation

When a mental event arises, simply notice it without judgment or elaboration

Return attention back to the bodily sensation

Present-moment attention

Awareness of the changing nature

(i.e., arising and passing) of mental events

Nonjudgmental awareness of mental events

(“bare attention”)
Rumination
 Rumination

A Randomized Controlled Trial of Mindfulness Meditation Versus Relaxation Training:

Effects on Distress, Positive States of Mind, Rumination, and Distraction
Shamini Jain, M.S.
SDSUIUCSD Joint Doctoral Program, Clinical Psychology

Shauna L. Shapiro, Ph.D.

Department of Psychology, Santa Clara University

Summer Swanick, B.S.

Department of Psychology, University of Arizona

Scott C. Roesch, Ph.D.

Department of Psychology, San Diego State University

Paul J. Mills, Ph.D.

Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego

Iris Bell, M.D. Ph.D. and Gary E.R. Schwartz, Ph.D

Department of Psychology, University of Arizona

ABSTRACT Baer (2009);

significant effects Jainforetspiritual
were found al. (2010); Teasdale
experience. et al. (2000)
Conclu-
 Mindfulness training for smoking cessation: Results from a randomized
controlled trial
Judson A. Brewer ∗ , Sarah Mallik, Theresa A. Babuscio, Charla Nich, Hayley E. Johnson,
Cameron M. Deleone, Candace A. Minnix-Cotton, Shannon A. Byrne, Hedy Kober,
Andrea J. Weinstein, Kathleen M. Carroll, Bruce J. Rounsaville
Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA

a r t ic l e in f o a b s t r a c t

Drug and Alcohol Dependence 119 (2011) 72–80 Article

history: Background: Cigarette smoking is the leading cause of preventable death in the world, and long-term
Received 26 January 2011 abstinence rates remain modest. Mindfulness training (MT) has begun to show benefits in a number of
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Received in revised form 18 May 2011 psychiatric disorders, including depression, anxiety and more recently, in addictions. However, MT has
Accepted 22 May 2011
not been evaluated for smoking cessation through randomized clinical trials.
Drug and Alcohol Dependence Available online 1 July 2011
Methods: 88 treatment-seeking, nicotine-dependent adults who were smoking an average of
20 cigarettes/day were randomly assigned to receive MT or the American Lung Association’s freedom
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t eKeywords:
/drugalcdep
from smoking (FFS) treatment. Both treatments were delivered twice weekly over 4 weeks (eight ses-
Tobacco
Nicotine dependence
sions total) in a group format. The primary outcomes were expired-air carbon monoxide-confirmed 7-day
Mindfulness point prevalence abstinence and number of cigarettes/day at the end of the 4-week treatment and at a
Behavioral treatment follow-up interview at week 17.
Mindfulness training for smoking cessation: Results from a randomized
Addiction Results: 88% of individuals received MT and 84% of individuals received FFS completed treatment. Com-
controlled trial pared to those randomized to the FFS intervention, individuals who received MT showed a greater rate
Judson A. Brewer ∗ , Sarah Mallik, Theresa A. Babuscio, Charla Nich, Hayley E. Johnson, of reduction in cigarette use during treatment and maintained these gains during follow-up (F = 11.11,
Cameron M. Deleone, Candace A. Minnix-Cotton, Shannon A. Byrne, Hedy Kober, p = .001). They also exhibited a trend toward greater point prevalence abstinence rate at the end of
Andrea J. Weinstein, Kathleen M. Carroll, Bruce J. Rounsaville treatment (36% vs. 15%, p = .063), which was significant at the 17-week follow-up (31% vs. 6%, p = .012).
Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA Conclusions: This initial trial of mindfulness training may confer benefits greater than those associated
with current standard treatments for smoking cessation.
© 2011 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
a r t ic l e in f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Background: Cigarette smoking is the leading cause of preventable death in the world, and long-term
Received 26 January 2011 abstinence rates remain modest. Mindfulness training (MT) has begun to show benefits in a number of
Received in revised form 18 May 2011 psychiatric disorders, including depression, anxiety and more recently, in addictions. However, MT has
Accepted 22 May 2011
Available online 1 July 2011 1. Introduction
not been evaluated for smoking cessation through randomized clinical trials.
Methods: 88 treatment-seeking, nicotine-dependent adults who were smoking an average of
Habitual smoking begins in part from the formation of associative
Keywords:
20 cigarettes/day were randomly assigned to receive MT or the American Lung Association’s freedom memories between smoking and both positive (e.g., after a good
from smoking (FFS) treatment. Both treatments were delivered twice weekly over 4 weeks (eight ses-
Tobacco Cigarette smoking along with other tobacco use is the leading
sions total) in a group format. The primary outcomes were expired-air carbon monoxide-confirmed 7-day meal), and negative (e.g., when “stressed”) affective states (Bevins
Nicotine dependence
Mindfulness cause of preventable death in the world, associated with approx-
point prevalence abstinence and number of cigarettes/day at the end of the 4-week treatment and at a and Palmatier, 2004; Brown et al., 1996; Kandel and Davies, 1986;
Behavioral treatment follow-up interview at week 17.
Addiction imately five million people annually, and accounting for 10% of
Results: 88% of individuals received MT and 84% of individuals received FFS completed treatment. Com- Leknes and Tracey, 2008; Piasecki et al., 1997). Subsequently, cues
pared to those randomized to the FFS intervention, individuals who received MT showed a greater rate
all deaths (Jha et al., 2006). In the US, smoking costs more than
of reduction in cigarette use during treatment and maintained these gains during follow-up (F = 11.11,
that are judged to be positive or negative can induce positive or
$193 billion in health care and lost productivity per year (Center
p = .001). They also exhibited a trend toward greater point prevalence abstinence rate at the end of negative affective states, which can then trigger craving to smoke
treatment (36% vs. 15%, p = .063), which was significant at the 17-week follow-up (31% vs. 6%, p = .012).
for Disease Control, 2007). Although over 70% of smokers want to
Conclusions: This initial trial of mindfulness training may confer benefits greater than those associated (Baker et al., 2004; Brandon, 1994; Carter and Tiffany, 1999; Cox
with current standard treatments for smoking cessation. quit, fewer than 5% achieve this goal annually (Center for Disease et al., 2001; Hall et al., 1993; Huston-Lyons and Kornetsky, 1992;
© 2011 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
Control, 2007). Kassel et al., 2003; Perkins et al., 2010; Shiffman and Waters, 2004;
As outlined in models previously (Baker et al., 2004; Curtin et al., Strong et al., 2009; Zinser et al., 1992). Though the centrality of
Social Perception and Cognition
 seated experimenter. The arrangement can be seen in Figure 2.
Preferential tracking of face-like stimuli 5
Procedure
Figure 2. The arrangement of experimenter. baby. stimltlus. protractor Testing
and camera
was(drarr,-
carried
out on the labour ward in a centrally sited room to wh
ing by Alani). the newborns were brought as soon after birth as possible. Informed consent w
obtained from at least one parent of each subject in the study. If the father w
present at the delivery he was invited to view the testing on a small televisi

Figure 1. The three stimuli used in Experiment 1.

Q Q Q
FaCe Blank

monitor in the experimental room which displayed the newborn’s behaviour.

When the baby had been placed in a supine position on the experimenter’s Johnson et al. (1991)
 F = 46.3, df = 2, 46, p < .OOOl. A Tukey test (alpha = 0.05) was then used
to determine the critical differences (in degrees) between responses to the three
stimuli. With q = 3.44 the critical difference was found to be 6.2”. Thus responses

Figure 3. Mean head and eye turning for the face, scrambled and blank stimuli.

s 40
‘3
m
g 30
a
c
8 20
0

5
= 10

Q Q Q
Face Scrambled Blank

Johnson et al. (1991)

Non-conscious Conscious
 Do Subliminal Emotional Cues
Non-conscious Face Perception
Influence Our Preferences?
2000ms

2000ms

Rate how much you like this Chinese

letter
Murphy and Zajonc, 1993
Do Subliminal Emotional Cues
Non-conscious Face Perception
Influence Our Preferences?

Liking Ratings

N N P S
o e o h
g s a
C a i p
u t t e
e i i
v v
e e
Murphy and Zajonc, 1993
Cortical Blindness

Pegna et al. (2004)

 Evidence for the Low Road: Brain
Lesions
Cortical Blindness and Social Perception
2) Patient  TN’s  Performance:  

A) First, had to guess which geometric shape (either circle or

square) was presented: performance was at chance level

B) Then, had to guess the gender of a neutral face (male versus

female): performance was at chance level

C) Finally, had to guess the emotionality of a face (angry versus

happy): performance was better than chance

Pegna et al., 2004

Pegna et al. (2004)

 Evidence for the Low Road: Brain
Lesions
Cortical Blindness and Social Perception
2) Patient  TN’s  Performance:  

A) First, had to guess which geometric shape (either circle or

square) was presented: performance was at chance level

B) Then, had to guess the gender of a neutral face (male versus

female): performance was at chance level

C) Finally, had to guess the emotionality of a face (angry versus

happy): performance was better than chance

Pegna et al., 2004

Pegna et al. (2004)

 Evidence for the Low Road: Brain
Lesions
Cortical Blindness and Social Perception
2) Patient  TN’s  Performance:  

A) First, had to guess which geometric shape (either circle or

square) was presented: performance was at chance level

B) Then, had to guess the gender of a neutral face (male versus

female): performance was at chance level

C) Finally, had to guess the emotionality of a face (angry versus

happy): performance was better than chance

Pegna et al., 2004

Pegna et al. (2004)

The Amygdala
 Evidence for the Low Road: Brain
Cortical BlindnessLesions
and Social Perception
2) Patient TN

• Researchers also examined amygdala

response to emotional versus neutral faces
by using fMRI

• Right amygdala showed a strong

response to emotional faces

Pegna et al. (2004)

Pegna et al., 2004
Facial Electromyography (Facial EMG)
Larsen et al. (2003)
Larsen et al. (2003)
 Tamietto & Degelder (2010)

corrugator supercilii zygomaticus major

What is the purpose of consciousness?
“Hell is other people”

Jean-Paul Sartre
Direct gaze Averted gaze

Burra et al. (2013)

Burra et al. (2013)
Amygdala Damage Impairs Eye-Contact During Social Interactions

Spezio et al. (2007)

 analyze fixations that occurred during the very
tor, and not the participant, was speaking, because
Amygdala
ixations obtained Damage
during thisImpairs Eye-Contact
time (typically, N! During Social Interactions
discriminate fixations, we set a threshold of 0.1° of
Is were defined for the face, eyes, and mouth, based
tomated face detection software. Each fixation was
I by calculating theControl
mean subjects
ROI coordinates across Patient with amygdala damage
ation of the fixation. SDs for these means were
both directions. Fixations falling within the ROIs,
were included for the ROI-specific analyses. The
nt fixating a given ROI was calculated by summing
within that ROI and dividing by the total trial time,
tional dwell time. Fractional dwell times within the
were further normalized by the face-specific frac-
2e).

of amygdala lesion on the overall time taken Spezio et al. (2007)

Automatic Social Cognition: Use of Heuristics
Are there more English words that…

begin with the letter K

OR

have K as the third letter?

Kahneman & Tversky (1970)

 The Availability Heuristic:

Judging an event’s frequency by how easily it comes to mind

Kahneman & Tversky (1970)

Are you assertive?

Schwarz et al. (1991)

The Availability Heuristic

Schwarz et al. (1991)

The Availability Heuristic

Schwarz et al. (1991)

Facebook Use Predicts Declines in Subjective Well-Being
in Young Adults
Facebook Use Predicts Declines in Subjective Well-Being
Ethan Kross1*,inPhilippe
Young Adults
Verduyn 2
, Emre Demiralp1, Jiyoung Park1, David Seungjae Lee1, Natalie Lin1,
1 1 1
Holly Shablack
Ethan, John
Kross1Jonides
*, Philippe ,Verduyn
Oscar2,Ybarra
Emre Demiralp1, Jiyoung Park1, David Seungjae Lee1, Natalie Lin1,
1 1 1
HollyUniversity
1 Psychology Department, Shablack , John Jonides
of Michigan, , Oscar
Ann Arbor, Ybarra
Michigan, United States of America, 2 Psychology Department, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
1 Psychology Department, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America, 2 Psychology Department, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

Abstract Abstract
Over 500 millionOver 500 million people interact daily with Facebook. Yet, whether Facebook use influences subjective well-being over time
people interact daily with Facebook. Yet, whether Facebook use influences subjective well-being over time
is unknown. We addressed this issue using experience-sampling, the most reliable method for measuring in-vivo behavior
is unknown. Weand addressed
psychological thisexperience.
issue using experience-sampling,
We text-messaged people five times thepermost
day forreliable
two-weeksmethod to examine forhow
measuring
Facebook use in-vivo behavior
and psychological experience.
influences We text-messaged
the two components of subjective people
well-being:five howtimes
people per day for two-weeks
feel moment-to-moment to examine
and how satisfied theyhoware Facebook use
with their lives. Our results indicate that Facebook use predicts negative shifts on both of these variables over time. The
influences the two components of subjective well-being: how people feel moment-to-moment and how satisfied they are
more people used Facebook at one time point, the worse they felt the next time we text-messaged them; the more they
with their lives. used
Our Facebook
results indicate
over two-weeks, that the Facebook
more theiruse predicts levels
life satisfaction negative shifts
declined over ontime.both of these
Interacting variables
with other people over time. The
more people used Facebook
‘‘directly’’ did not at one these
predict timenegative
point, outcomes.
the worse Theythey
werefeltalsothenot next timebywe
moderated thetext-messaged them; the more they
size of people’s Facebook
networks, their perceived supportiveness, motivation for using Facebook, gender, loneliness, self-esteem, or depression. On
used Facebook the over two-weeks, the more their life satisfaction levels declined over time. Interacting with other people
surface, Facebook provides an invaluable resource for fulfilling the basic human need for social connection. Rather than
‘‘directly’’ did not predict
enhancing these however,
well-being, negative theseoutcomes.
findings suggest They thatwere
Facebookalsomay not moderated
undermine it. by the size of people’s Facebook
networks, their perceived supportiveness, motivation for using Facebook, gender, loneliness, self-esteem, or depression. On
the surface, Facebook provides
Citation:Kross E, Verduyn P,an invaluable
Demiralp E, Park J, Leeresource
DS, et al. (2013)for fulfilling
Facebook theDeclines
Use Predicts basicin Subjective
humanWell-Beingneed infor social
Young Adults. connection.
PLoS ONE 8(8): Rather than
e69841. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0069841
enhancing well-being, however, these findings suggest that Facebook may undermine it.
Editor:Cédric Sueur, Institut Pluridisciplinaire Hubert Curien, France
Received January 31, 2013; Accepted June 12, 2013; Published August 14, 2013
Citation:Kross E, Verduyn
Copyright: ! 2013 Kross
P, Demiralp E, et
Park J, Lee
al. This is anDS, et al. (2013)
open-access article Facebook Use the
distributed under Predicts Declines
terms of in Subjective
the Creative Well-Being
Commons Attribution in which
License, Young Adults. PLoS ONE 8(8):
permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
e69841. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0069841
Funding:The authors have no support or funding to report.
 The Anchoring Effect:

Exposure to prior values biases numerical estimates

 The Anchoring Effect

30 300
The Anchoring Effect in the Courtroom

Englich et al. (2006)

The Anchoring Effect in the Courtroom

Englich et al. (2006)

The Anchoring Effect in the Courtroom

Average Prison Sentence (Years)

7

2
High Anchor Low Anchor

Englich et al. (2006)

Representativeness Heuristic

Kahneman & Tversky, 1972

 Linda is 31 years old, single, outspoken & bright.
She majored in philosophy and was concerned
about social justice as a student. She
participated in antinuclear demonstrations.

Which is most likely? Linda is–

A: A bank teller

82% B: A bank teller who is active in the feminist

movement

Tversky & Kahneman

(1983)
 People who are
active in the feminist
Bank Teller
movement

Bank tellers who are active in the

feminist movement
 200 Students in 200 Students in
Social Psychology Clinical Psychology

10 Students in Social Psychology

AND Clinical Psychology
Decision Biases
 Status Quo Bias
Neutral Version (No Status Quo):

“You are a serious reader of the financial pages but until recently you have had few
funds to invest. That is when you inherited a large sum of money from your great-uncle.
You are considering different portfolios. Your choices are to invest in: a moderate-risk
company, a high-risk company, treasury bills, municipal bonds.”

Status Quo Version:

"A significant portion of this portfolio is invested in a moderate risk company .

Samuelson & Zeckhauser (1988)

 to be, and in explicit-consent
obody is an organ donor with-
ng to be one.
g to a classical economics view,
xist and are available to the de-
Organ Donation Rates by Country
—people simply find too little
an donation. This view has led
he establishment of a regulated
e organs of the deceased (8 , 9 ),
fault (18 ). Finally, defaults often represent cantly lower.
the existing state or status quo, and change In the last two decades, a number of
usually involves a trade-off. Psychologists
have shown that losses loom larger than the
equivalent gains, a phenomenon known as
European countries have had opt-in or opt-
out default options for individuals’ deci-
sions to become organ donors. Actual deci-
loss aversion (19 ). Thus, changes in the de- sions about organ donation may be affected
fault may result in a change of choice. by governmental educational programs, the

Effective consent percentage

99.98 98 99.91 99.97 99.5 99.64
ent of donors or donors’ fami- 100
and even for suggestions that 90 85.9
d become public property upon 80
Calls for campaigns to change 70
es (13 ) are widespread. In clas- 60
ics, defaults should have a lim- 50
when defaults are not consistent 40
nces, people would choose an 30 27.5
lternative. 20 17.17
12
nt hypothesis arises from re- 10 4.25
ing preferences as constructed, 0
Denmark

Netherlands

United Kingdom

Germany

Austria

Belgium

France

Hungary

Poland

Portugal

Sweden
yet articulated in the minds of
ave not been asked (14–16 ). If

at the Center for Decision Sciences,

rsity, New York, NY 10027, USA.
orrespondence should be addressed: Effective consent rates, by country. Explicit consent (opt-in, gold) and presumed consent (opt-
edu out, blue).

21 NOVEMBER 2003 VOL 302 SCIENCE www.sciencemag.org

Johnson & Goldstein, 2003

 Status Quo Bias
401 (K) Enrollments (Retirement Savings Plan)
FIGURE 1. Automatic Enrollment for New Hires and
Savings Plan Participation: Company A
100%

80%
Fraction ever
participated
60%

40%

20%

0%
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42
Tenure (months)

Hired and observed before automatic enrollment

Hired under automatic enrollment (3% default)
Hired under automatic enrollment (6% default)

Source: Authors’ calculations.

Beshears et al., 2007

 Status Quo Bias
Do people prefer the status quo even when:

1) Doing so is clearly worse than the other option

2) There is no loss in switching away from the status quo

Would people allow themselves to receive

electric shock in order to stick to the status
quo?

Suri et al. (2013)

Patient Inertia nificant, 2(2, N = 40) = 10.29, p = .005. Neither 1767 sex nor
average levels of anxiety were predictive of a participant the SQB

The Status Quo Bias

being in the low, medium, or high subgroup. Studies 1 and 2 demonstrated th
condition chose to reduce the probability of being would frequently press the button
In postexperiment that reduced
debriefings, 100%theofshock
the subjects stay with default options despite
shocked in only 52.1% of the trials (Fig. 2). The between- probability. They could not explain why they themselves
acknowledged that they expected that almost everyone have been better off by proactiv
conditions difference was significant, t(38) = 3.3, p = .002. had not used this option on every trial.
pressing a button). This paralle
To better understand the effects of our manipulation, Like our participants, we too were puzzled at this
suggests that the SQB could und
we divided participants in each group into low (0–4 but- unexpected result. It seemed that the SQB existed not
ton presses), medium (5–9 button presses), and high a
only in cases with slightly inferior default options, but
patient inertia. It is thus important
ulations that were successful in re
(10–14 button presses) button pressers. The proactive- also that it extended toAccept
options
Statusakin
Quo to those found in
One such manipulation could
choice group consisted of 40% low button pressers, 10% medical noncompliance, in which
Reduce sticking to the default
Shock Probability pants to press the button that redu
medium button pressers, and 50% high button pressers. led to personally harmful outcomes. In Study 3, we
Status Quo condition
The forced-choice group consisted of 0% low button
pressers, 10% medium button pressers, and 90% high
Forced choice condition
sought to find ways to reduce the SQB.
ity early in the experiment. This wo
resting-state inertia and thereby re
for the potential effectiveness of s
button pressers. The between-groups difference was sig-
nificant, 2(2, N = 40) = 10.29, p = .005. Neither sex nor
Study 3: An Intervention to Reduce found in the pattern of early butto
Default is to get shocked. Must
average levels of anxiety were predictive of a participant the SQB No default. 52.1 Must choose between reducing 47.9 and 2: Participants who pressed t
actively
being press
in the low, button
medium, to reduce
or high subgroup. Studies 1(versus not reducing)
and 2 demonstrated probability
that participants
times in the first four trials were m
chose to of shockto press the button in subsequen
In postexperiment debriefings, 100% of the subjects
probability
acknowledged of shock
that they expected that almost everyone
stay with default options despite the fact that they could
have been better off by proactively taking action (i.e.,
participants who pressed the butto
the first four trials (74% vs. 12%,
pressing a button). This parallel with patient inaction Further, the likelihood of choosin
suggests that the SQB could underlie some instances of tive increased with trial number:
a b
patient inertia. It is thus important to demonstrate manip-
ulations that were successful in reducing the SQB.
of button presses for participants
Accept Status Quo Accept Status Quo group on the trial number yielded
One such manipulation could be to require partici- (95% confidence interval = [0.07,
Reduce Shock Probability Reduce Shock Probability
pants to press the button that reduced the shock probabil- tions suggest that button presses
ity early in the experiment. This would remove participants’ a reduction in the SQB.
resting-state inertia and thereby reduce their 14.7SQB. Support
for the potential effectiveness of such a manipulation was
found in the pattern of early button pressing in Studies 1 Method
52.1 47.9 and 2: Participants who pressed the button three or four Forty-three students (22 women,
times in the first four trials were more than 6 times likelier a study involving electrical stimu
to press the button in subsequent 85.3 trials, compared with (11 women, 9 men) were random
participants who pressed the button less than two times in lication group, in which proced
the first four trials (74% vs. 12%, respectively, p < .001). used for the proactive-choice g
Further, the likelihood of choosing the “change” alterna- used. The remaining 23 students
tive increased with trial number: Regressing the number were assigned to the mandato
b Fig. 2. Results from Study 2: mean percentage of trials on which par-
of buttonticipants
pressesin for participants
(a) the in the
proactive-choice proactive-choice
group and (b) the forced-choice The mandatory-button-press grou
Accept Status Quo group ongroupthe trial
chosenumber yielded
to either press a positive
a button slope
that would of 0.39
reduce the probability identical to those of the replic
Reduce Shock Probability (95% confidence interval
of being shocked = [0.07,
on that trial or 0.71]).
allow theThese Suri
observa-
trial to continue (i.e.,et al., 2013
accept
important exception, namely tha
Why do we rely on cognitive shortcuts?