Mapas Institute of Technology School of Civil, Environmental and Geological Engincering MAPUA INSTITU SCHOOL OF CIVIL, ENVIRONMENTAL AND GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING ENVIRONMENTAL LABORATORY COURSE & SECTION: STUDENT NO.: }| SEAT NO.: GROUP NO.; EXPERIMENT NO. 1 Composting TITLE DATE PERFORMED:. DATE SUBMITTED:. INSTRUCTOREXPERIMENT #1: Composting Composting is a microbial process used to treat biodegradable wastes, This is similar to aerobic wastewater treatment. Composting has several purposes: 1) to reduce waste mass; 2) to reduce pollution potential; 3) to destroy pathogens; and 4) to produce compost as nutrients for gardens, landscaping and agriculture (organic farming). This process is suitable for garden waste, food waste, paperboard, etc. Composting organisms equire four equally important things to work effectively: carbon (to produce heat by the microbial oxidation of carbon), nitrogen (to grow and reproduce more organisms), oxygen (for oxidizing the carbon as part of the decomposition process) and water (to maintain activity jout causing anaerobic conditions). The most efficient composting occurs with a carbon: nitrogen mix of about 30 t0 1. Nearly all plant and animal materials have both carbon and nitrogen, but amounts vary widely. When one waste is not compostable on its own, its mixing ‘with other materials may help to build a proper carbon : nitrogen mix, air porosity and pH. Composting requires making a heap of wetted organic mazter and waiting for the materials to break down into humus after 2 period of weeks or months. Modern composting is a multi-step, closely monitored process with measure inputs of water, air and well mixed organic materials, The decomposition process is aided by shredding the plant matter, adding water and ensuring proper aeration by regularly turning the mixture. Worms and fungi further break up the material. Aerobie bacteria manage the chemical process by converting the inputs into heat, carbon dioxide and ammonium, The ammonium is further converted by bacteria into plant-nourishing nitrites and nitrates through the process of nitrification. In addition to the traditional compost pile, various approaches have been developed to handle different composting processes, ingredients, locations, and applications for the composted product. Nowadays, industrial composting systems are increasingly being installed as a waste management altemative to landfills, (Concise Environmental Engineering by Prof. Dawei Han)Schoo! of Civil, Environmental and Geological Engineering. Rin 2a ie At the end of the experiment, the stucents should be able to identify what materials and methods to be used to produce good compost. TL ee If) Attheend of the experiment, the student should * To identify the greens and browns Ht * To identify what materials can/cannot be used for composting * Toestimate the carbon to nitrogen ratio (C:N) that will be used pinnae of Tehelogy | lI f * To construct a compost pile + To produce a good compost il | © Compost Bin | © Green/Fresh Leaves ‘* Brown/Dried Leaves + Stems © Leave Container © Scissors * Sprinkler © Shovel * Gloves 1. Gather as much as green leaves and dried leaves for the compost | 2. Cut the leaves into paricle/bite sized, Note: The proportion of the fresh and dried leaves should be 50:50 / equal, 3. Fill the compost bin with the bite-sized leaves. fll them in equal manner, 4. Add small branches and stems which will provide oxygen, 5. Mix the fresh leaves, dried leaves and stems thoroughly. 6. Add the Biodigester in the sample, {- 7. Mix the compostNe five examples of the greens and brovins that can be use o produce good compost, What are the possible sources of error in conducting the experiment? ‘What is the ideal range for the carbon to nitrogen ratio? Discuss, ‘What are the types of composting? Discuss each Does composting reduce global warming?‘Mapas Institute of Technology. School of Civil, Environmental and Geological Engineering EXPERIMENT # 1:CompostingMapii Institute of Technology School of Civil, Environmental and Geological Engin er ea * Concise Environmental Engineering by Prof. Dawei Han 253MAPUA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY SCHOOL OF CIVIL, ENVIRONMENTAL AND GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING ENVIRONMENTAL LABORATORY STUDENT NO.: GROUP NO.: EXPERIMENT NO. 2 Noise Level Survey TITLE INSTRUCTORMapai Instiute of Technology ‘School of Civil, Environmental and Geological Engi EXPERIMENT #2; NOISE LEVEL SURVEY | IEE Noise is defined as unwanted sound in environmental engineering. This is in contrast to noise definitions in other fields where noise usually means unwanted information or data that is not relevant to the hypothesis or theory being investigated. For example, in telecommunication, noise is the unwanted random addition to a signal. In relation to sound, noise is not necessarily random (e.g, loud music from neighbours). Noise’s effects include moderate annoyance to Permanent hearing loss and may be rated differently by different observers. Nowadays, noise is Pervasive and is almost impossible to escape from it. It is important for environmental engineers to understand noise so that its effect could be mitigated at design and operation of various buildings and machines, Noise can be from @ point source (e.g., a loudspeaker), a line source (e.g., power line under strong wind) or an area source (e.g., wind noise from a forest). They include sources from road trafic, aircraft, industrial plant, construction activities, sport and crowd activities, loud musie | from neighbours, etc. Poor urban planning may give rise to noise pollution, since side-by-side industrial and residesital buildings can result in noise pollution in the residential area. Inadequate "| sound proof of buildings also contributes to noise problems. 24 4m time, noise sounds can be classified as 1) continuous: an uninterrupted sound during the Period of observation; 2) intermittent: a continuous sound with interruptive gaps, such as dentist. x Grill 3) impulsive: a sound of a short duration, usually less than a second, such as gunfire, 4 1m contrast to water and air pollutions, noise pollution has some unique characteristics: 1) the ‘unwanted sound can be subjective so it may mean the wrong sound in the wrong place at the wrong time. Therefore, any sound could be noise; 2) noise pollution is usually local. Sound intensity follows an inverse square law with distance from the source; doubling the distance fom @ noise source reduces its intensity by a factor four, and 3) there is no residual pollution after the noise source reduces its intensity by a factor of four; and 3) there is no residual 255 cite nepollution after the noise source is removed. (Concise Environmental Engineering by Prof. Dawei Han) A Review of Noise Descriptors [Leg {8 the equivalent steady sound level of a noise energy-averaged over time, Because occupational noise often a complex signal, the noise level needs to be averaged over a minimum sample time, The sampling time can be as short as a few minutes if the noise signal is steady or repetitive over a short eycle; some jobs could require a full day's monitoring. Whatever the actual duration, it should be a representative sample of the entire exposure. Ifthe activity is not typical of the shift then cither more sampling is required when the condition is fulfilled or corrections to your measurements may be required. Corrections for some situations are given in the Examples later on in this booklet. Lex Lex is the noise exposure level. Lex is useful as a single number measure of the noise exposure in de same daily noise exposure dose as the varying noise over a typical full shift. It is closely related el form. Lex is the sound level, energy-averaged over 8 hours, which would give the to the Le which you actually measured In fact, Lex could be regarded as being the measured Le, with a small correction. Thus: Leq =Leq + correction for shifi length ‘where the correction is given by the chart below. 256Mapiia Insitute of Technology School of Civil, Environmental nd Geolog CORRECTION IN ADD TO buy TO GET Ley a ee 2 4 2 2 4 6 6 7 8 8 bh ne om we SHIFT CORRECTION IN HOURS al Engineering, Shift Time Correction to Leg Daa i ae At the end of the experiment, the students should be able to evaluate the different degree of noise ‘88 well as what sound level is acceptable to the workplace and how it can affeet the worker, | (er aE TEE J Attheend of the experiment, the student should * Acquite knowledge on how to operate the sound level meter tl + Identify which workers are exposed to noise hazard * Evaluate places where noise is present ll ‘* Record the maximum noise level of the area observed + Provide information to determine corrective actions Die an Se ee | IL © Sound level meter Calibrate the sound level meter by following the instructions written in the user's manual, ! { 2. Set the equipment to 4B(A) or slow meter response A for all the test areas, i 3 Place the sound level meter pointing towards souree, and avoid making any noise or any intesruption that can block the source of noise to the equipment, ' ‘4 Record the maximum ffequency every five minutes for thirty minutes (each locaton), and determine the shifting hours of employees for each location. 5. Find the average value foreach locaton in which it will be the value for Lg. 6. Compute Lausing the formula Lec Le + correction for shift length 2571, How can noise affect human's health? 2. How can you control noise? 3. What are the possible sources of error in conducting this experiment? 4, What are the exposure limit values? ‘S. What is peak sound pressure? PERIMENT # NOISE LEVEL SURVEY Date of Sampling :__ Location = Shifting Hours ‘NO. OF TRIALS TIME OF SAMPLING | MAXIMUM NOISE LEVE] (NL) 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 3 | 6 | ~YAVERAGE MNL: ] 258‘Mapua Institue of Technology School of Civil, Environmental and Geological Engineering Date of Sampling : Location : Shifting Hours : Nj ‘NO. OFTRIALS [TIME OF SAMPLING | MAXIMUM NOISE LEVEl) i (MNL) -\\] ! [ fa y 1 i +~— ; : - | 4 | 3 | Ni 6 | AVERAGE MNLMapiia Institute of Technology ‘School of Civil, Environmental and Geological Engineering © Concise Environmental Engineering by Prof. Dawei Han + Basic Noise Calculations by Work Safe BCMAPUA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY SCHOOL OF CIVIL, ENVIRONMENTAL AND GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING ENVIRONMENTAL LABORATORY STUDENT NO.: GROUP NO.: EXPERIMENT NO. 3 pH Level Measurement TITLE 262‘Mapda Institute of Technology School of Civil, Environmental and Geological Engineering EXPERIMENT #3; pH LEVEL MEASUREMENT The pH is an indication for the acidity of a substance. It is determined by the number of free hydrogen ions (H") in a substance.Acidity is one of the most important properties of water. Water is a solvent for nearly all ions. The pH serves as an indicator that compares some of the most water-soluble ions.The outcome of a pH-measurement is determined by a consideration between the number of H+ ions and the number of hydroxide (OH) ions. When the number of HY” ions equals the number of OH- ions, the water is neutral. It will have a pH of about 7. ‘The pH of water can vary between 0 and 14, When the pH of a substance is above 7, it is a bi substance. When the pH of @ substance is below 7, itis an acid substance. The further the pH lies above or below 7, the more basic or acid a solution is.The pH is a logarithmic factor; when a solution becomes ten times more acidic, the pH will fall by one unit. When a solution becomes a hundred times more acidic the pH will fall by two units. The common term for pH is alkalinity. ‘The word pH is short for "pondusHydrogenium”, This literally means the weight of hydrogen. pH is an indication for the number of hydrogen ions. It consisted when we discovered that water consists of hydrogen ions (H*) and hydroxide ions (OH). ‘The pH does not have a unit; it is merely expressed as a number, When a solution is neutral, the number of hydrogen ions equals the number of hydroxide fons. When the number of hydroxide ions is higher, the solution is basic. When the number of hydrogen ions is higher, the solution is acid, (http://www. lenntech.com/ph-and-alkalinity htm) At the end of the experiment, the students should be able to determine the pH of raw wastewater. 263Objective At the end of the experiment, the student should ‘+ Acquire knowledge on how to operate the pH meter + Measure the pH level of the sample + Identify which sample is acidic or basic + Beaker + Buffer solution © pH meter © Plastic bottle 1, Prepare the sample bottle with the sample in it, Place the sample into the beaker. 3. Calibrate the pH meter. 4, Place the clectrode into the beaker with sample in it. $. Record the pH reading and the temperature. 1. How do we compute for pH? 2, How should an electrode be reconditioned? 3. How should a pH electrode be cleaned? 4, How should an electrode be stored when not in use? 5. What are the po: le sources of error in this experiment? 264Mapiia Institute of Technology, School of Civil, Environmental and Geological Engineering ) EXPERIMENT # 3: 1H LEVEL MEASURE)Mapiia Institute of Technology . Environmental and Geological Engineering ‘© up://www-lenntech.com/ph-and-alkalinity. htm!MAPUA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY SCHOOL OF CIVIL, ENVIRONMENTAL AND GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING ENVIRONMENTAL LABORATORY STUDENT NO.: GROUP NO.: EXPERIMENT NO. 4 Dissolved Oxygen Measurement TITLE‘At the end of the experiment, the students should be able to measure the DO level of the wastewater sample using the DO meter. ‘At the end of the experiment, the siudent should ‘+ Acquire knowledge on how to operate the DO meter © Measure the DO level of the sample ‘Identify if the sample can sustain aquatic life Beaker * Buffer solution + DO meter + Plastic bole Getting the sample 1. Prepare the equipments to be used. 2. Make sure that the bottle is clean before getting the sample, 3. Get sample of the wastewater. 4. After acquiring the sample, seal it to avoid contamination, Laboratory Procedure | 1, Place a portion of the wastewater in a beaker. 2. Calibrate the DO meter by submerging the probe in a calibrating solution until it will reach the actual room temperature. | 270 lea eee io‘Mapa Institute of Technology ; School of Civil, Environmental and Geological Engineering 3. Submerge the probe in the sample. 4. Gently stir the sample using the probe until the reading remains constant. 5. Record the DO reading in mg/L as well as the temperature. 1, What affects oxygen solubility? 2. What are the typical dissolved oxygen levels? 3. What are the consequences of unusual DO levels? 4. Where does DO come from? 5. Give examples of freshwater organisms and their dissolved oxygen requirements, amEXPERIMENT #4: DISSOLVED OXYGEN MEASUREMENT. = 272Mapiia Institute of Technology School of Civil, Environmental and Geological Engineering 273+ htip:/Avww.fondriest.com/environmental-measurements/parameters/water- quality/dissolved-oxygen/ 2 274Mapia Institute of Technology School of Civil, Environmental and Geological Engineering MAPUA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY SCHOOL OF CIVIL, ENVIRONMENTAL AND GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING ENVIRONMENTAL LABORATORY NAME: ee ee COURSE & SECTION: STUDENT NO.: GROUP NO.: EXPERIMENT NO. 5 Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids TITLE | DATE PERFORMED: | DATE SUBMITTED: INSTRUCTOR| | | i | 4 EXPERIMENT #5: MIXED LIQUOR SUSPENDED SOLIDS (MLSS) The solids present in the aeration tank of an activated sludge process are termed ‘mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) while the liquid suspension is called mixed liquor. MLSS concentrations are measured and used by operators to monitor the biomass levels present in the aeration tank. Different activated sludge processes operate at different MLSS values for different process objectives. The MLSS concentration is usually measured by filtering a small sample of mixed liquor through fibre glass filter paper. This is a enide method of monitoring the microorganisms Present in the system. However, the test does not distinguish between the organic and 3norganic fraction of the solids. The convenience of the test, however, generally outweighs this disadvantage. The organic fraction can be analyzed by subsequently buming off the organic fraction of the filtered sample at 500 + S00C. This fraction is called the mixed liquor volatile suspended solids (MLVSS) and, like MLSS, is expressed as mg/L. For day to day monitoring of the wastewater treatment plant the use of MLSS is. sufficient, (oups://www.epaie/pubs‘advice/water/wastewater/EPA_water_%420treatment_manual_prima ry_secondary_tertiary! pdf) At the end of the experiment, the students should be able to calculate the Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids (MLSS) of the wastewater sample, At the end of the experiment, the student should * Determine the mixed liquor suspended solids of the wastewater sample raluate the MLSS of the sample * Be able to familiarize with the apparatus used in conducting the experimentMopiia Institute of Technology - ‘School of Civil, Environmental and Geological Engineering | For Sampling: | + Plastic Bottle + tee + Gloves * Styrofoam Box For Laboratory Experiment: + Oven © Filter Holder | + Digital Balance i © Filer Paper !) © Graduated Cylinder i! © Erlenmeyer Flask + Evaporating Dish A, Wastewater Sample Collection 4 1. Prepare the equipment needed for the collection of wastewater sample. These are: Plastic bottles, styrofoam box with ice, and gloves. q 2. From the aeration tank, fill the plastic bottles with wastewater using a bucket, Properly seal the bottles with cap to avoid spilling and contamination. d 4. Place the collected sample in the styrofoam box and fll the box with ice to preserve the sample B. Laboratory Procedures 1, Set-up all the necessary apparatus for the experiment, 2. Determine the weight of the filter paper. 3. Place the filter paper in the filter holder, 277 theta ee eo ea4. Pour 1L of wastewater sample in a graduated eylinder. 5, Make sure that the pump is turned on. Slowly pour the sample inthe filter holder with the filter paper. Avoid spilling the sample while pouring until all the sample is poured. 6. 7. Place the filter paper and filtered in an oven-dried evaporating dish. 8. Dry the sample in an oven pre-heated at 1050C for 1 hr. 9. ). After drying, weigh the dried sample and filter paper. 10. Determine the MLSS using the formula: MLSS=w of oven-dried sample/Volume 1. Why do we measure the MLSS of a wastewater sample? 2. What are the possible sourees of error for this experiment? 3. Define mixed liquor. 4, Differentiate MLSS (Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids) to MLVSS (Mixed Liquor Volatile Suspended Solids). 5. Discuss the food to microorganism ratio (F:M). 278Manda Insinte of Technology Schoo! of Cisil, Environmental and Geological Engineering EXPERIMENT #5: MIXED LIQUOR SUSPENDED SOLIDS (MLSS) Material Weight @) Filter Paper Evaporating Dish Evaporating Dish > Filter Paper + Residue (After Heated) Residue MLSS = SAMPLE COMPUTATIO! 279280|| ‘Mapua Institute of Technology School of Civil, Environmental and Geological Engineering © hutps:/voww.epa.ie/pubs/advice/water/wastewater/EPA_water_%20treatment_manual | _Primary_secondary_tertiary! pdfMAPUA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY SCHOOL OF CIVIL, ENVIRONMENTAL AND GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING ENVIRONMENTAL LABORATORY NAME: ———— COURSE & SECTION: ___ STUDENT NO.: SEAT NO.: GROUP NO.: EXPERIMENT NO. 6 Sludge Volume Index TITLE DATE PERFORMED: c DATE SUBMITTED: i INSTRUCTORMapia Institute of Technology Sctioo! of Civil, Environmental and Geological Engineering EXPERIMENT # 6; SLUDGE VOLUME INDEX (SV1) a i i ae The secondary clarifier following biological treatment must perform two functions: ~ Separation of Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids (MLSS) from the treated effluent ~ Thickening of sludge for subsequent recycling or wasting. The operation of the tank depends on how easily the activated sludge biomass settles, which is 2 property of the sludge and conditions in the reactor. A parameter to quantify sludge settleability is the sludge volume index (SV1). SV is the volume of the sludge occupied by a unit mass of MLSS after settlement: SVI= sludge volume (mi/l) x 1000 / MLSS (mg/L) The units of SVI are ml/g, ‘The measurement is typically done in a ! litre graduated cylinder or cone and allowing at least 30 minutes for setling. For good settleability, SVI should be in the range of 50-150. SVI outside this range indicates Poor settling and may require optimization of the upstream biological treatment process, Specifically, a high SVI may indicate what is called ‘sludge bulking’, wich is the prevalence of slow-settling filamentous bacteria which thrive in difficult growth conditions such as low FIM, low oxygen, low nutrients, low pH, or due to the nature of the organics in the wastewater (e.g. for industrial wastewater effluents with contaminants that are difficult to degrade). (Introduction to Wastewater Treatment by Dr. Michael R. Templeton and Prof David Butler) 283Sn a eee At the end of the experiment, the students should be able to measure the Sludge Volume Index (SV1 of the wastewater sample. Atthe end of the experiment, the student should * Determine the amount of sludge in the acration tank + Be able to compute for the SVI ofthe sample * Familiarize with the SVI values Re | Imhoff Cone + Gloves = ee + Plastic bole * Styrofoam box © Timer/Stopwaich + Ruler IL Wastewater Sample Ee A. Wastewater Sample Collection 1. Prepare the equipment needed for the collection of wastewater sample. These are: Plastic bottles, styrofoam box with ice, and gloves 2. From the aeration tank, fll the plastic bottles with wastewater using a bucket, Properly seal the bottles with cap to avoid spilling and contamination, 4. Place the collected sample in the styrofoam box and fill the box with ice to preserve the sample.Mepis Institue of Technology Schoo! of Civil, Environmental and Geological inesring B. Laboratory Procedures i 2. Set-up the necessary apparatus for the experiment. Shake the wastewater sample in the plastic bottle to thoroughly mix the sample before the test, Pour a IL sample wastewater in the Imhoff cone. Allow the solids in the wastewater to seitle for 30 minutes. Determine the volume of the setited solids using the Imhoff Cone. Calculate the SVI using the formula: SVI=(SV/MLSS)x1000 Given the data, calculate the sludge volume index (SVI) of the wastewater sample. a. GIVEN’ b. 30 minute seting test ¢. MLSS = 2500 my/L 250 mLiL ‘What are the possible sources of error in this experiment? What is the significance of measuring the SVI of the wastewater sample? Discuss. ‘Why do we get the sample from the acration tank? Differentiate viscous and filamentous bulking, 285EXPERIMENT # SLUDGE VOLUME INDEX (SV) y EB hy hy 286Mapii Institute of Technology School of Civil, Environmental and Geological Engineering Sludge Volume Index VOLUME OF SLUDGE, TRIAL TIME Sv SAMPLE COMPUTATIONS 287ry eens 288Mapda Institue of Technology Sehoo! of Civil, Environmental and Geological Engineering © Introduction to Wastewater ‘Treatment by Dr. Michael R. Templeton and Prof, David Butler 289MAPUA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY SCHOOL OF CIVIL, ENVIRONMENTAL AND GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING ENVIRONMENTAL LABORATORY NAME: | —_ COURSE & SECTION: _ STUDENT NO.: SEAT NO: GROUP NO.: EXPERIMENT NO. 7 Filtration TITLE DATE PERFORMED: DATESUBMITTED: INSTRUCTORMapas lastiute of Technology EXPERIMENT #7; FILTRATION Basic Terms Filtration involves the removal of insoluble substances (solids) from the water using a filter medium. The cleaned water is then known asfiltrate. We generally differentiate between surface filtration and depth filtration Surface filtration Surface filtration is based on a sereering effect. The solids are retained on the surface of the filer medium. The width of the flter medium pores must be smaller than the size ofthe solid particles. In the case of exke filtration, the water flows vertically to the [ | surface of the filer medium. For cross flow filtration, the water flows paralel to the surface. Depth filtration In depth filtration, the raw water flows through an immobile layer of filter medium. These layers are generally referred to as a fixed bed. The term "filter bed" is also commonly used in filtration. Sand and gravel are very often used as filters. The raw water flows through the gaps in the filter bed, where the solids are retained. ‘The water itself passes through the filter bed and emerges from the filter bed as filtrate Fig. 4.1 Surtaoettawon ane ‘Geotn tiraton Over time, more and more solids collect in the gaps in the filter bed. A backwash removes the deposited solids. This involves filtrate flowing through the filter bed in the opposite direction. Sand and gravel filters are very widely used as deep bed filters in water treatment, 291 aera aan as JP eSPressure loss A central parameter in the operation of deep bed filters is the pressure loss. Ina filter bed, the water can only flow through the gaps between the individual filter grains, The cross-sectional area available for the water to flow through in the filter bed is thus much smaller than with free pipe flow. As a result, the filter bed creates a resistance to the flow. Ls This resistance is expressed as a loss of pressure. The smaller the proportion of gaps, the greater the pressure loss. The increasing accumulation of solids in the filter bed causes an _|| | additional reduction in the proportion of gaps, causing the pressure loss to rise over time. To maintain the flow rate despite an increasing pressure lass, the pressure on the inlet side of the z filter must be increased -q A simplified illustration of this is shown in Fig. 4.2. Force is required to flow through the filter bed with a height AF. This force acts on the filter bed as pressure. The resistance of the filter bed reduces the force. As a result, the pressure on the filtrate side of the filter bed is lower. This pressure difference Sp (shown in Fig. 4.2 as i the gauge level 4h) is the pressure loss. The amount of pressure loss essentially depends on the following factors + Flow rate + Filtration velocity + Filter bed dimensions temperature) Past muusonspesseian — * Properties of the filter medium (e.g. porosity, permeability) 292 eeMapia Institut of Technology ‘School of Civil, Environmental and Geological Engineering Filtration velocity ve The filtration velocity does not represent a veloc n the physical sense. Instead, itis a flow rate relative to ared, Which after reduetion of the units has the same unit asa velocity: Q= Flow rae in’ /h im ross-sectional area of filter bed in m? Darey Equation The Mow rate that can be conveyed through @ porous medium (filter bed) is directly Proportional to the area that the flow passes through rand the hydraulic gradient i. This relationship is described by the empirical DARCY equation: 3 om Qe hy Apt in Q = Flow rate in m?/s ky= coefficient of permeability in m/s Ag = Cross-sectional area flowed through (cross. rydraulic gradient in m /m sectional area of filter) in m? ‘The DARCY equation only applies to laminar flows, Hydraulic gradient 7 ‘The hydraulic gradient ispecify the pressure difference between two locations in a filter bed with a flow passing through it. The pressure difference is specified as the difference in the gauge Sh levels (Fig. 4.2). The following applies; 293Ah m in = rot Ie mm Ah = Different in gauge levels in m be= height of filter bed with flow passing through in m Coefficient of permeability kr The coefficient of permeability is the proportionality factor in the DARCY equation, The i ‘eefficient of permeability is a measure ofthe permeability of a porous medium (e.g. sand or 4 gravel). The coefficient of permeability is defined us follows: “go 2 m ex PS 2B yak PS im D K = specific permeability in m* p= density of liquid in kg/m? = acceleration due to gravity, g= 9.81 m/s? | n= dynamic viscosity of liquid in (Ns) /m? or kg / (ms) ‘The k; values for gravel and sand have the following magnitude (relative to water): Gravel: 10? m/s Sand: 10°...10? m/s Specific permeability K For the specific permeability K: Q= flow rate in m/s | 11= dynamic viscosity of fluid in (N - s) / m? or kg /(m - s) 294 SE eaeMaptia Institute of Technology School of Civil, Environmental and Geological Engincering, he= height of filter bed with flow passing through in m Ah jfferent in gauge levels in m Ap = cross-sectional area flowed through (cross-sectional area of filter) in m? Operation of deep bed filters The operating time of a deep bed filter corresponds to the time interval between two backwashes. (Fig. 4.3). The time for a backwash is primarily determined by the following parameters: + Filtrate limiting values (e.g. solid concentration) + Differential pressure (pressure loss) of filter f Someone?) The maximum possible differential pressure panien ii 5 ‘ & % | normally occurs earlier than the maximum permitted limiting values in the filtrate ere | exceeded. Thus, in most cases the pressure Time t @ Backwash The level of the maximum possible pressure Fig. 4.9 Backwash and operating ime {for deep bed fitraion loss depends primarily on energy and thus on economic issues. The greater the differential pressure, the more energy needs to be applied to overcome this differential pressure, However, this is only possible with very powerful pumps, Ideally, the maximum possible differential pressure Ap* and the limiting value for the filtrate quality should occur at the same time. Fig. 4.4 shows this situation, The period between to and t* corresponds to the interval between two backwashes. The solid concentration is used as a measure of the filtrate quality. 295Citorertia pressure ao" Solis concentration Solid concentration cy Pressure loss 1p Fig. 4.4 Ideal pressure loss and solic concenttation characteristics in fitrate | Three phases can be distinguished: j The filter is fully effective. The solid concentration in the filtrate is significantly below the | ~ Phase A ‘The filter may still contain slight deposits (e.g. from the previous backwash). These are first | washed out of the filter. | limiting value ¢,*. At the same time, the pressure loss rises. | Phase C i At the time ¢*, the solid concentration in the filtrate has reached the limiting value c,*. At the same time, the maximum permitted differential pressure Sp* has been reached. The filter now needs to be backwastied again, 296tt Mapua Institute of Technology i School of Civil, Environmental and Geological Engineering -H For comparison, Fig. 4.5 shows the same graph for an unfavourable situation. eae | ; 1) s | so k § | 2 it | ge 3 ° Time t Fig. 4.8 Unfavourable pressure loss characteristics in deep bed fiter At the time 1", the maximum possible pressure loss has already been reached. However, at | this point the solid concentration in the filtrate is still significantly below the limiting value ce. Although the filtrate quality would allow operation to continue until f3*, the filter already needs to be backwashed. In this case, therefore, the rise in the pressure loss is the critical parameter for defining the operating time, The capacity of the filter would thus be unnecessarily high. In practice, great effort is constantly being made to make the period between two backwashes (operating time) as long as possible. (CE $81 - Water Treatment Plant 1 by Gunt | Hamburg) 297Orrmtsy ‘At the end of the experiment, the students should be able to appreciate the importance of filtration in the water treatment process. Paar ‘At the end of the experiment, the student should © Familiarize with the basic processes of filtration © Familiarize with the function of filter back washing | © Observe and determine the pressurelosses in filtration Detar 1 - © CE 581 ~ Water Treatment Plant | eases | uidelines ‘There are a variety of possible compositions of the raw water. The materials added to the raw water depend on the selected processes (variations): 1. For filtration only (option |), the raw water onlyneeds to contain solids that can be filtered. Ash or diatomite are examples of suitable materials here. The raw water can contain both of these subsiances. Experience has shown that the solid concentration in the raw water should be in the magnitude of 1,0...2,5 g/ltr. 7 Preparing the equipment ' ‘The following steps need to be carried out to prepare the equipment: 1, Detach the pipe fittings above and below the filters and adsorbers. 2, Set up the filters and adsorbers in a stable position and ‘open the upper flange connections, Pp ing Fig 52 Phos fing above ser? 298 a ID Se TST WPSMapa Institute of Technology Schoo! of Civil, Environmental and Geologicel Engineering 3. Add the corresponding filter media and adsorbents: Filter 1 (II): Gravel Filter 2 (IV): Sand Adsorber | (V): Aluminium oxide (AlOs) Addsorber 2 (VI): Granulated activated carbon 4, Make sure that a clearance of around 20...30 cm is left above the gravel and sand layers. During backwashing, the filter beds are stired up and occupy a larger volume than during normal operation. 5. We recommend providing around the same clearance in the adsorbers. However, this is not absolutely essential, as backwashing is not normally carried out in the adsorbers. 6 Close the upper flanges on the filters and adsorbers. Make > ssure thatthe seal in the flange cover is clean [S 7. Replace the filters and adsorbers in the trainer and lock kK the pipe fittings. 8. Plug the sampling taps V13-VI7 into the designated connections on the filters and adsorber 2 (V1), 9. Start the CE 581 software. F953 lnabng be samping aps 10. Connect the unit to the PC with a USB eable. 11. Adjust the electrically powered taps V1 to V4 according to the selected options 12, Fill the raw water tank with tap water. 13. Check the position of all manually operated taps on the trainer. Make sure that no water can unintentionally escape. 14, Use the sofiware to enter a value greater than zero forthe — @-(} filtration velocity. Otherwise, the raw water pump cannot be started, 1S, Start the raw water pump. The pump symbol switches qs. sonwaye grova ura from red to green. Make sure that V10 in the bypass line is ears vaste closed. 16. Wait until all plant components are filled with tap water, 29917. The hose lines to the differential pressure transducers must be bled. To do this, the hoses need to be disconnected ftom the hose nozzles in tum during operation, Push the ends of the hoses back onto the hose nozzles as soon us a constant flow of water emerges. Performing the experiment Starting the experiment The activities below immediately follow the equipment preparation described in the previous chapter. 1. Add tap water to the raw water tank 2. Slowly open the tap V10, so that the water cireulates in the bypass line. 3. Add the master solution for the raw water. 4, Pour the desired quantity of solids into the raw water tank. 5. To support mixing, you can also blow compressed air into the raw water tank. To do this ‘open the solenoid valve V5 (software) and the control valve V20. y 6. Enter the desired values for the filtration velocity and the limit 1g values for the cifferential pressures in the software. 7. Slovily close the tap V10 as soon as the raw water is uniformly mixed. If a proportion of the raw water is to continue flowing through the bypass line during the experiments (for mixing), only half close V10. | 8, Representative samples can only taken when there is no more pure tap water in the unit Depending on the selected experiment option, the concentrations of the substances contained in the raw water should be determined regularly. The following values should also be logged regularly: + Flow rate: Measuring point 1 | + Filter 1 differential pressure: Measuring point 5 Filter 2 differential pressure: Measuring point 6 + System pressure: Measuring point 13, + Conductivity: Measuring points 2, 3, 4 + Ternperature: Measuring points 2, 3, 4 300 hg ese(Mapis Institute of Technology Schoo! of Civil, Environmental and Geological Engineering The time intervals should be in a magnitude of 30...120 min. Note: It may be necessary to top up the raw water during the experiments. Make sure that the concentrations of substances remain as constant as possible. (CE $81 - Water Treatment Plant 1 by Gunt Hamburg) 1, How does filtration clean water? Discuss 2, How are filters cleaned? 3. What are the factors affecting filter efficiency? 4, What ate the classifications of filters? Discuss each, Give examples of filter media that can be used in filtration. Discuss each. 301- EXPERIMENT #7: FILTRATION - Time response for differential pressures andsolid concentrations in filtrate from bothfilters 302Mapiia Instiute of Technology School of Civil, Environmental and Geological Enginecring Ca i ee ee . Ee 303© CE 581 (Water Treatment Plant 1) by Gunt Hamburg 304‘Mapia Institute of Technoloay School of Civil, Environmental and Geologi 1 Engnesring MAPUA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY SCHOOL OF CIVIL, ENVIRONMENTAL AND GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING ENVIRONMENTAL LABORATORY _ STUDENT NO.: GROUP NO. EXPERIMENT NO. 8 Adsorption TITLE DATE PERFORMED: ___ DATE SUBMITTED:, INSTRUCTOR- EXPERIMENT #8: ADSORPTION Basic Terms, ‘an der Waals forces” emanate from the surfaces of solids. Attraction forces, known as ‘These can lead to an accumulation of substances dissolved in an adjacent liquid. This process is referred to as adsorption and is bascd primarily on physical interactions between the dissolved substances and the surface of the solid Adsotate 4 The solid is referred to as the adsorbent, and the dissolved NS Ve. substance as the adsorbate. The mass transfer takes place in the boundary layer between the adsorbent and the liquid, The loading of an adsorbent refers to the mass of adsorbate that is adsorbed by a gram of adsorbent, Loading is stated in the unit me/e. F548 Fundamental princi of . seinen Adsorbent The principal adsorbent used in water treatment is activated carbon. Activated carbon is a very porous material, which has a very large pore volume. The pore surface of activated carbon (BET surface) is in the magnitude of 800...1200 m’/g. Activated carbon is available in powder form or in the form of a granulate with a grain size of around 2 mmm. If the liquid contains several different substances (adsorbates) that can be adsorbed, these substances compete for the available adsorption space. This means that molecules already adsorbed on the solid can be displaced by other molecules. Adsorption equilibrium If adsorbent is brought into contact with adsorbate for long enough in a closed system, a state of equilibrium is established. No more adsorbate is then adsorbed, which means that the + adsorbate concentration in the liquid remains constant. We will look at two causes of this effect here: | 306 2 cesMapia Institute of Technology School of Civil, Environmental and Geological Engineering + The total amount of adsorbate coniained in the water has been adsorbed. The residual adsorbate concentration is therefore zero. The maximum possible loading of the adsorbent (loading capacity) has not necessarily been reached. + The maximum possible loading of the adsorbent has been reached. Thus, the water still contains adsorbate, which means that the adsorbate concentration in the liquid is greater than zero. This state of equilibritin is referred to as the adsorption equilibrium. If the adsorption equilibrium has been reached, the residual adsorbate concentration is referred to as the equilibrium concentration cA,eq. The associated loading is referred to as the equilibrium loading qeq. The loading of the adsorbent q is generally calculated as follows: Cro = 6 ng | Vy Min We 5 g | : Vwy = water volume in L 2 Cao= initial adsorbate concentration in mg/L. 5 | C4 = adsorbate concentration in mg/ E | | ° boomer 0 ‘ma = mass of adsorbent ing Equilibrium concentration cg Fig.4.7 Typical characteristics of an With the same water volume and the same initial adsorbate ‘adsorption isotherm concentration, different adsorption equilibriums arc established depending on the mass of the adsorbent used. The more adsorbent that is used, the lower the equilibrium concentration coq and the equilibrium loading qeq. The graphical representation of this relationship is referred to as the adsorption isotherm. The qualitative shape of an adsorption isotherm is shown in Fig. 4.7. This kind of curve shape can be described very effectively using a power function, A very widespread approach was developed by Freundlich: ne ig HD. og = Ke chhy in TE 307mg/g Kr = Freundlich constant Caxeq™ equilibrium concentration in mg/L, ns = Freundlich exponent Me ‘The Freundlich isotherm is a purely empirical equation and isnot a physiclfchemical or thermodynamic law 2 7 2 ‘ Freundlich isotherms are normally shown using double = logarithiie coordinates. Taking the logarithm of the J Cy A ees Freundlich isotherm enables it to be shown as 2 Tineer p55 preundiehegtermin equation with the slope ne: deutl again ne In|creql + LalKel In| ‘The Freundlich exponent ngallows us to state whether the adsorption equilibrium attained is favourable or unfavourable, If we are aiming to produce treated water with a defined residual concentration of c4eg*, different loading ‘figures can be achieved depending on the Freundlich exponent (Fig. 4.9). The lower neis, the higher the achievable adsorbent loading. provided the required residual concentration Equilbsumfoacing tay (equilibrium concentration) is low. From a practical perspective, ions and high loadi low residual concentr re generally desired, Therefore, we refer to afavourable adsorption equilibrium at Freundlich exponents of n< 1. If 1, the adsorption equilibrium Fig. «9 is unfavourable. Equifortum concentration 649g Froundich isotherms. depending on ne Adsorption dynamics ee The adsorption equilibrium is not established spontaneously but is a function of time as a result of the transport resistances to be 4.10). overcome by the adsorbate (Fis Asta encetan ex ° In water treatment, adsorption is normally carried out with continuous-flow adsorbers. Here, the water flows through an fig. «10 Conct me serves adele Sr sctamea ‘Characteristics of adsorbate concentration overtime] 308 EeMapas Institute of Technology School of Civil, Environmental and Geological En immobile layer of adsorbent (fixed bed). The adsorbent extracts adsorbate from the water until the adsoxption cquilibrium is established. If the adsorption equilibrium were to be established suddenly (in }- other words, infinitely fast mass transfer), there would only be ‘completely loaded and unloaded adsorbent in the fixed bed. However, as the mass transfer is a function of time, the concentration profile-shown in Fig. 4.11 occurs in the adsorbent. This concentration profile is divided into three zones: + Zone A Jess The adsorbent is fully loaded, and can absorb no more 041! cemwaerpateie ence adsorbate. Thus, the adsorption equilibrium has been reached. The adsorbate concentration in the water corresponds to the inlet concentration (¢4 + Zone B ; The adsorption equilibrium has not yet been reached, so adsorbate is still being adsorbed. This zone is therefore referred to as the mass transfer zone + Zone C Since the adsorbate has been fully removed ftom the water in zone B, the adsorbent is still completely unloaded here. As a result, theadsorbate concentration is zero. A concentration profile represents a snapshot of the adsorption process. Over time, the concentration profile moves through the fixed bed in the direction of flow. If the associated adsorption isotherm corresponds to a Freundlich isotherm, the Freundlich exponent necan be used to describe the migration of the concentration profile through the fixed bed. For favourable adsorption equilibriums (ng< 1), the concentration profile migrates through the fixed bed in the direction of flow at a constant filtration velocity, The shape of the concentration profile, however, remains the same. Z 309If the lower end of the mass transfer zone has reached the lower end of the fixed bed, adsorbate occurs in the outlet. As soon as a maximum permitted adsorbate concentration in the outlet (limiting value) is reached, the adsorbate begins to break down, Plotting the adsorbate concentrations in the outlet of an adsorber over time gives us the so- called breakthrough curve. The time at which the maximum permitted adsorbate concentration in the outlet of the adsorber cA* is reached for the first time is known as the time of breakthrough t*. In practice, the adsorbent would then have to be replaced or regenerated, Fig. 4.12 shows the creation of a breakthrough curve in a continuous flow adsorber. Fig £12 Creation ofa breakevougn curve m an adsorber + Time At time ¢,,a concentration profile with the three zones A, B and C has been established in the fixed bed (Fig. 4.11). The lower end of the mass transfer zone has not yet reached the lower end of the fixed bed. In the lower section of the fixed bed, the adsorbent is still completely unloaded. As a result, the adsorbate concentration in the adsorber outlet ¢4 is zero, 310Mapia Institute of Technology Schvol of Civil, Enviroamentai and Geological t ering *Timet The mass transfer zone has reached the lower end of the fixed bed. There is no longer any unloaded adsorbent anywhere in the fixed bed. As a result, the adsorbate concentration in the adsorber outlet c4 is greater than zero. ‘The adsorbate begins to break through the adsorber. If ¢4.:were the maximum permitted adsorbate concentration in the outlet ¢,* (limiting value), 1: would correspond to the time of breakthrough /*. + Time ty ‘The mass transfer zone has completely migrated through the fixed bed. The adsorbent has reached the equilibrium loading throughout the fixed bed. No more adsorbate can be adsorbed at any point in the fixed bed. As a result, the adsorbate concentration in the adsorber outlet ¢,.2 is equal to the inlet concentration c,», Complete breakthrough of the adsorber has been reached. ‘The shape of the concentration profile indicates how well the capacity of an adsorbent is utilized until the breakthrough is reached ase b Sase2 The narrower the mass Favourable sha °° wansfer zone, the more foes oy effectively the capacity utilized (Fig. 4.13). In the example, breakthrough of the adsorber is beginning is in both cases. 1 Equorum iosaing 2B Meas nanos zone Fig. 33 Untovoursbie 3 lavourasleconcentawon pol shaoee 311Case 1: Unfavourable shape ‘The mass transfer-Zone is very long. Equilibrium loading is established slowly and is only achieved in a very small section of the fixed bed (he.1). | Case 2: Favourable shape ‘The mass transfer zone is very narrow. Equilibrium loading is established more quickly and | is achieved in a considerably larger section of the fixed bed (he.2). Scale-up A scale-up enables results obtained in laboratory scale to be transferred to an industrial scale. To apply the time of breakthro igh determi ned using a small adsorber to an industrial seale adsorber, the parameter BY (BV = bed volume) is used, BV sets out the relationship between the volume of water that flows through the adsorber up to a particular time ¢ and the fixed bed volume. BV is a three-dimensional variable and is defined es follows: G= average flow rate in L/ hr Vw = water volume in L Ve = fixed bed volume in L nhord As the average flow rate @ and the fixed bed volume Veare constant, BV is a direct Function of time, The breakthrough curve is then plotted against BY, rather than against ¢ (Standardization of time axis). at 4 ae Adsorbale concentration ¢ av Fig. 4.14 Breakthrough curve with, standardised time axis heof Technology ironmental and Geological Engineering For a s ssume that both adsorbers have the same BV value at the time of le-up, we breakthrough, However, this only applies if the influence of the fixed bed dimensions on the mass trans/er is negligible. At the end of the experiment, the students should be able to appreciate the adsorption in the water treatment process. At the end of the experiment, the student should ‘+ Familiarize with the basic processes of adsorption ‘© Be able to identify the different adsorbent materials (adsorbers) * CE 581 ~ Water Treatment Plant 1 Guidelines There are a variety of possible compositions of the raw water. The materials added to the raw water depend on the selected processes (variations): 1. If adsorption is also to be performed (option 2), the raw water should contain ion to the solids. The CE 581 has two adsoroers with different adsorbents (aluminium oxide and activated carbon), dissolved substances that can be adsorbed, in ad ‘Thus, it is capable of being used for two different substances with different adsorption properties. Whether a substance can be effectively adsorbed by a particular adsorbent should be investigated in advance. Furthermore. it is important to ensure that the substances are not adsorbed by the solids intendedfor filtration, Otherwise, the measured results foradsorption will be falsified, 3132. Option 2 (filtration, adsorption) ~ Evaluation as for option 1 ~ Time response for outlet concentrations ofdissolved adsorbable substances loproduce breakthrough curves. ~ Definition of limiting values and determination of time of breakthrough Conversion of time of breakthrough for alarge industrial scale adsorber Preparing the equipment The following steps need to be carried out to prepare the equipment: 1, Detach the pipe fittings above and below the filters and adsorbers. 2. Set up the filters and adsorbers in a stable position and open the upper flange connections. 3. Add the corresponding filter media and adsorbents: Filter 1 (1D): Gravel Filter 2 (IV): Sand Adsorber I (V): Aluminium oxide (AlsOs) Adsorber 2 (Vi): Granulated activated carbon 4. Make sure that a clearance of around 20...30 em is left above the gravel and sand layers. During backwashing, the filter beds are stirred up and occupy a larger volume than Fig 52 Poe inng above ier during normal operation 5, We recommend providing around the same clearance in the adsorbers. However, this is not absolutely essential, as backwashing is not normally carried out in the adsorbers, 6. Close the upper flanges on the filters and adsorbers. Make sure that the seal in the flange cover is clean. 7. Replace the filters and adsorbers in the trainer and lock the pipe fittings. 8. Plug the sampling taps V13-VI7 into the designated connections on the filters and adsorber 2 (VI). 9, Start the CE 581 software. 314Mapa Insitute of Technology School of Civil, Environmental and Geological Engineer 10, Connect the unit to the PC with a USB cable, 11. Adjust the electrically powered taps V1 10 V4 according, to the selected options 12, Fill the raw water tank with tap water. 13, Check the position of all manually operated taps on the trainer. Make sure that no water can unintentionally eseape. F023 intang tyson 14, Use the sofiware to enter a value greater than zero for the way filtration velocity. Otherwise, the raw water pump eannot be started. 15, Start the raw water pump. The pump symbol switches from red to green. Make sure that V10 in the bypass line is closed. 16, Wait until all plant components are filled with tap water. 17. The hose lines to the differential pressure transducers ‘must be bled. To do this, the hoses need to be disconnected from the hose nozzles in tur during operation. Push the ends Fig £4 Sonera: Enty ot anon of the hoses back: onto the hose nozzles as soon as a constant eta we pare flow of water emerges. tea: Performing the experiment Starting the experiment The activities below immediately follow the equipment preparation described in the previous chapter. 1. Add tap water to the-raw water tank 2. Slowly open the tap V10, so that the water circulates in the bypass line. 3. Add the master solution for the raw water. 4, Pour the desired quantity of solids into the raw water tank. 5. To support mixing, you ean also blow compressed air into the raw water tank. To do this ‘open the solenoid valve VS (software) and the control valve V20. 6. Ener the desired values for the filtration velocity and the limiting values for the ifferental pressures in the software, 3157. Slowly close the tap VIO as soon as the raw water is uniformly mixed. Ifa proportion of the raw water is to continue flowing through the bypass line during the experiments (for mixing), only half close V10. 8. Representative samples can only be taken when there is no more pure tap water in the unit, Activities alongside the experi Depending on the selcoted experiment option, the concentrations of the substances contained in the raw water should be determined regularly. The following values should also be logged regularly: + Flow rate: Measuring point 1 + Filter 1 differential pressure: Measuring point $ + Filter 2 differential pressure: Measuring point 6 + System pressure: Measuring point [3 * Conductivity: Measuring points 2, 3, 4 + Temperature: Measuring points 2,3, 4 ‘The time intervals should be in a magnitude of 30...120 min, Note: It may be necessary to top up the raw water during the experiments. Make sure that the concentrations of substances remain as constant as possible. (CE 581 - Water Treatment Plant 1 by Gunt Hamburg) 1. What can be accomplished using adsorption? 2. What is the difference between adsorption and absorption? What are the possible sources of ervor in this experiment? Discuss the Van der Waals forces.\ Diseuss the adsorption equilibrium and adsorption dynamics, 316‘Mapia Institute of Technology School of Civil, Environmental and Geological ineering EXPERI SORPTION + Time response for differential pressures and solid concentrations in filtrate from both filters + Time response for outlet concentrations oftiissolved adsorbable substances to produce breakthrough curves, * Definition of limiting values and determination of time of breakthrough * Conversion of time of breakthrough for a large industrial scaleadsorber 317||MAPUA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY SCHOOL OF CIVIL, ENVIRONMENTAL AND GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING ENVIRONMENTAL LABORATORY STUDENT NO.: GROUP N EXPERIMENT NO. 9 Ton Exchange TITLE DATEPERFORMED: DATESUBMITTED: INSTRUCTORMapis Institue of Technatogy School of Civil, Environmental and Geological Engineering. EXPERIMENT #9: TON EXCHANGE, rosea Ne oar aa Cee | alae Baie Terms Ton exchange is a physical-chemical process in which a solid id and, in exchange, gives up an absorbs ions from a Ii equivalent quantity of identically charged ions to the liquid. Positively charged ions are Known as cations, and negatively charged ions as anions. lon exchangers can be natural materials (e.g. Zeolite) or synthetic resins (e.g. polystyrene or polyacrylate). ‘An ion exchanger consists of a matrix with permanently bonded ions and inversely charged counterions (Fig. 4.15). Theyare with the ions being removed fiom the water. Jon iH exchahge is besed on the pringiple that the higher the ion valence (charge), the more strongly) the ions are bonded to an ion exchapger, exchahged for monovalent counterions. il Ton ejehange is primarily used for softening and desalination. The following occ fe iN} involved. | | } | + Sofipning: Cation exchange | | i + Deshlination: Cation exchange and anion exchange means bivilent ions are capable of being Ton ekchangers can also be used to remove heavy metals (detoxification). These are normally preset in the form of ionsRegeneration of ion exchangers Ton exchangers can only exchange a certain quantity of ions. When the exchanging capacity is exhausted, ion exchangers are regenerated. Regeneration utilizes the fact that ion exchange is a reversible process. The direction in which ion exchange occurs depends not only on the valence of the ions involved but also on their concentration. Thus, a large number of low valence ions are able to displace a small number of| er valence ions from the ion exchanger. In simple terms, regeneration entails returning the original counterions to the exhausted ion exchanger in a high concentration. For cation exchangers, this is done using acids (counterions e.g. H), for anion exchangers using alkalis (counterions e.g. OH. Softening When unsoftened water is heated, furring forms. This is particular the caseat temperitures higher than 65¢C. Furring can lead to damage in pipes and machinery (e.g steam feneration or household appliances). Soft g involves exchanging calcium io takes place. | [KCaton exchanger Fig 4.16 Fundamental principe ol solteningMaptia Insitute of Technology Schoal of Civil, Environmental and Geological Engineering Desalination When removing salt (sodium chloride; NaCl), Na” ions are exchanged for H’ ions by a cation exchanger. In an anion exchanger, the CI’ ions in the salt are exchanged for OH ions. The released H" and OH" ions combine to form water (H2O). The two processes ean run consecutively or at the same time, If anions and cations are exchange simultaneously, so- called mixed bed ion exchangers are used, These contain both anion and cation exchangers. ‘changer 8 fon tne‘Mapa Institute of Technology ‘School of Civil, Environmental and Geological Engineering Desalinatis ‘When removing salt (sodium chloride; NaCl), Na” ions are exchanged for H* ions by a cation exchanger. In an anion exchanger, the CI’ ions in the salt are exchanged for OH" ions. The released H’ and OH" ions combine to form water (H,O). The two processes can run consecutively or at the same time. If anions and cations are exchange simultaneously, so- called mixed bed ion exchangers are used. These contain both anion and cation exchangers. A. Cation bxchanger | _B. Anion exchanger Fig. 4.17 Fundamental principle of desalination of the experiment, the students should be able to appreciate the importance of idn| in the water treatment process. of the experiment, the student should able to conduct cation exchange process in water softening, able to conduet anion and cation exchange process in water desalination 323© CE S81 ~ Water Treatment Plant 1 Guidelines ‘There are 0 variety of possible compositions ofthe raw water. The materials added to the raw water depend on the selected processes (variations): 1. If an ion exchange is also to be carried out (option 3), the raw water should also be enriched with ions. The CE $81 can be used for softening and desalination of the ‘water, Depen i on the hardness of the fresh water used, it may be necessary increase the-water hardness. This can be done using calcium sulphate CaS (eypsum), for example. Lil wise, the salt concentration of the raw water may n: to be increased by adding sodium chloride NaCl (common salt). the equipment steps need to be carried out to prepare the equipment: 1. Detach the pipe fittings above! and below the filters and adsorber. | 3. Add the corresponding filter media and adsorbents: sorber 1 (V): Aluminium oxide (Als05) dsorber 2 (VI): Granulated activated carbon pe ning Fig.52 Pepe tng above er 2