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Microwave applications in the food industry: an overview of recent

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Article  in  Critical Reviews In Food Science and Nutrition · May 2021

DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2021.1922871

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 1 Title: Microwave Applications in the Food Industry: an Overview of Recent
2 Developments

4 Paulina GUZIKa*, Piotr KULAWIKa, Marzena ZAJĄCa, Władysław MIGDAŁa

5 Published in: Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition

6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2021.1922871

a
8 Department of Animal Products Technology, Faculty of Food Technology, University of
9 Agriculture in Cracow, ul. Balicka 122, 30-149 Krakow, Poland

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11 *Correspondence should be addressed to:

12 Paulina Guzik (MSc)

13 Department of Animal Products Technology,
14 Faculty of Food Technology,
15 University of Agriculture in Cracow,
16 Poland
17 Phone: +48 500 752123
18 e-mail: paulina.guzik@urk.edu.pl
19

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27

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29 Abstract
30 Microwave radiation has the ability to heat a material with dielectric properties.
31 Material absorbs microwave energy and then converts it into heat, which gives the possibility
32 of a wide use of microwaves in many industry sectors or agricultural sciences. Microwaves
33 are especially widely used in food industry. The main objective of this paper is to present an
34 overview of recent development regarding microwave applications in food industry. Many
35 techniques in food processing (pasteurisation, sterilisation, drying, thawing, blanching and
36 stunning) are assisted by microwave energy. It should be mentioned also the use of
37 microwaves in nutrients and nutraceuticals production. Waste generation is an integral part of
38 food production. Microwaves have also application in wastes management. The results of
39 experiments, factors affecting heating and their practical application have been discussed.
40 Many cases have been compared with conventional process methods. The use of microwaves
41 shows many advantages. The most important aspect is shortening the time of the thermal
42 process (even by 50%) and reducing the costs of the operation. In addition, it allows to
43 increase the efficiency of processes while maintaining high quality. The examples of
44 microwave applications given in the article are environmentally- friendly because the
45 conditions of thermal processing allow for reducing the use of solvents and the amount of
46 sewage by decreasing the demand for water. It is anticipated that microwaves will become
47 increasingly popular, with the development of new microwave technologies solving many
48 problems in the future.
49 Keywords: microwaves applications; food industry; engineering; dielectric properties.

50

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51 Introduction
52 Thermal processing is used in almost every industry, with many available techniques
53 to obtain the thermal effect. This includes electro-thermal technologies such as induction,
54 direct resistance, radio frequency, or by the properties of electromagnetic field. Microwaves
55 are in the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, and the lengths of microwaves are between
56 infrared and radio waves. The spectrum range is from 0.001 to 1 m, corresponding to
57 frequencies from 300 MHz to 300 GHz, respectively. The Federal Communications
58 Commission (FCC) manages and reserves the frequencies of microwaves at a national and
59 international level to avoid interference with waves used in industrial or research equipment,
60 medical equipment and even in domestic environments. The frequency of domestic
61 microwave ovens is 2.45 GHz. Although the FCC allocated four different bands designated
62 for industrial applications (Table 1), the industrial microwaves used for heating operate at
63 frequencies of 915 MHz or 2.45 GHz. ( Thostenson and Chou 1999; Menéndez et al. 2010; S.
64 Singh et al. 2015).(Thostenson & Chou, 1999)

65 Microwave radiation raises considerable interest due to its potential application in

66 many industries (Figure 1). In mining, microwave radiation simplifies the mining process
67 thanks to the thermophysical properties of the hard rocks. The induction of thermal stress
68 through microwaves softens the rocks by generating cracks in their structure ( Lu et al. 2019;
69 X. Li et al. 2020; Zhao et al. 2020; Zheng et al. 2020). Microwave heating is also used in
70 metallurgy, for example, to dissolve or extract metals or remove impurities from them (Bhatt
71 et al. 2019; Z. Liu et al. 2019; Luo et al. 2020; Sabzezari et al. 2019). The use of microwaves
72 within the ceramics industry has made it possible to significantly reduce the process
73 temperatures, thus, allowing for the generation of new composites (W. Chen et al. 2020; A.
74 Kumar and Pandey, 2021; H. Tang et al. 2021; H. Wang et al. 2021; Xinxin Wang et al.
75 2021). Within the forestry industry, microwaves have shown their influence on the
76 germination capacity of cones and provide a faster alternative for wood drying. Moreover,
77 they can be used for wood disinfection and larvae removal (Abrar 2017; Balboni et al. 2018;
78 Ouertani et al. 2018; Lv et al. 2019; Aniszewska, Zychowicz and Gendek 2020; Erchiqui et al.
79 2020). Although all of the above industries utilise microwaves, the industry in which
80 microwaves are used the most is food technology, where the advantages of microwave energy
81 often creates a viable alternative to conventional, more inconvenient methods of thermal
82 treatment. The most well-known industry where microwaves are used is food technology. The
83 positive approach to the convenience of food processing with the use of microwaves resulted

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 84 in the microwave oven being present in almost every household (Wray and Ramaswamy
85 2015; Ekezie et al. 2017).Through the advantages of using microwaves in the household, a
86 number of applications have been found to be used on an industrial scale. Microwaves are
87 used, among others, for pasteurisation, sterilisation, drying or thawing of food products. Many
88 industries use microwaves support in combination with conventional thermal methods. In the
89 food industry, the support of microwaves reduces the process time and costs, while retaining
90 high sensory quality and causing minimal changes in the nutritional value of food compared
91 to using only conventional methods (Ekezie et al. 2017).When used in the chemical industry,
92 in obtaining active compounds, microwaves allow for limiting the use of solvents in
93 hydrodistillation or extraction processes, particularly by plant oils extraction (Golmakani and
94 Rezaei 2008a; Heng et al. 2010; Ciriminna et al. 2017; Solà et al. 2017). Microwave radiation
95 has also gained attention in waste management. It can be used for the pre-treatment of sludge
96 or sewage and for restoring the matter as a renewable energy source while maintaining an
97 environmentally-friendly influence (Rani et al. 2013).

98 Heating of food products using microwaves is a result of the transfer of electricity

99 from the electromagnetic field in the chamber of the device, with the mechanism taking place
100 at the molecular level. In a variable electric field, polar particles rotate and collide with each
101 other. The second occurring mechanism is ionic conductivity, which is based on the
102 acceleration of ions. They move in the direction of the electric field and collide with the water
103 molecules, transmitting kinetic energy. Within every second, many millions of such collisions
104 occur. The result is a friction that emits thermal energy (Alslaibi et al. 2005).

105 Although microwaves have been utilisd and have been well-known by the food
106 industry for decades, this technology develops very rapidly, with new data and knowledge
107 appearing each year. Therefore, the aim of this study was to review and collate recent
108 developments in microwave applications within food industry, including food processing,
109 nutrients and nutraceuticals development as well as food waste management systems.

110 Applications of microwaves in food industry

111 One of the widest applications of microwave technology is food technology and
112 engineering. The use of high temperature treatment is one of the most common process within
113 this industry. Heat preservation has been an important processing technology in the food
114 sector since the appertisation process was discovered. Industrial applications of microwaves
115 in food technology also includes defrosting, baking, drying, baking, pasteurisation and

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116 blanching (Chemat et al. 2017). Innovative methods for heating food should ensure that
117 processed food will be safe and acceptable to the consumer and will maintain the highest
118 nutritional value (Ravindran and Jaiswal 2019).Undoubtedly, the use of microwave
119 techniques increases production efficiency in the food industry due to shortening the time of
120 heat treatment while reducing energy consumption (Guo et al. 2017).

121 Conventional methods of thermal preservation are usually reliable in terms of food
122 safety. However sometimes products can be of dubious quality, or become unattractive to the
123 consumer after processing. Undesirable changes can occur within the aroma, smell or texture.
124 That is why alternative solutions that would limit these changes are being sought. One of
125 examples may be sterilisation assisted by pressure or microwaves. These methods may be
126 more attractive than traditional autoclaving since they allow for shorter processing times,
127 much greater versatility, reduced water demand and consequently the amount of waste water.
128 The final products are of better quality while maintaining the desired effects, i.e. safe food
129 (Barbosa-Cánovas et al. 2014; Morales-de la Peña, Welti-Chanes, and Martín-Belloso 2019).
130 In order to observe the temperature of the products heated by microwave, fibre optic
131 temperature sensors are used (Damilos et al. 2019). The disadvantage of these sensors is the
132 inability to use them in a continuous process (Koskiniemi et al. 2013). The summary of recent
133 applications of microwaves within the techniques using microwaves during food processing
134 are shown in Table 2.

135 Microwave pasteurisation and sterilisation

136 Solutions are sought to preserve the food product using the microwaves after the
137 packaging process. An example of such a technology that was widespread in Sweden during
138 the 1960swas microwave sterilisation, where the product was placed in the vicinity of water
139 toprevent overheating. After the heat treatment, the product was cooled with water under
140 pressure to stop the changes caused by overheating (Brody 2012). Hong et al. (2021)
141 developed a chart based on the validated analytical results to allow prediction of temperature
142 increases in the microwave assisted pasteurisation system, as effected by food dielectric
143 properties and package thickness. The results of this research can guide microwaved product
144 development towards desired heating uniformity. High-barrier metal oxide-coated polymer
145 pouches for microwave-assisted thermal sterilisation were developed by Patel et al. (2020).
146 This kind of packaging resulted in better retention of vitamin C compared to samples
147 packaged in aluminum laminated pouches and processed in retort (87.21 and 81.97%,
148 respectively). There is a potential for the development of the post-packaging pasteurisation

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149 and sterilisation technology, however the optimisation of this technology is required prior to
150 implementation within the industry.

151 Tang (2015) reported a microwave pasteurisation and sterilisation system that was
152 developed for food preservation applications. The system operated at the frequency of 915
153 MHz since this was the appropriate wavelength for single-mode cavities to accommodate
154 single-meal portion food packages, and had a deeper penetration depth than 2450 MHz
155 systems, making thicker packaging non-problematic. In order to reduce local overheating and
156 overheating at the edges, the technology is based on water immersion of the heated products.
157 The efficiency of the system was confirmed on sterilised chicken breast and dumplings, which
158 maintained high sensory quality even after three years of storage at 38 ℃.

159 The microwave pasteurisationin a 915 MHz system of carrot cuboids packaged in
160 polymer bags was compared to the conventional method in hot water. NaCl with CaCl2 brine
161 was added to increase flavour and preserve the structure. The carrots were packed in vacuum,
162 subjected to microwave-assisted pasteurisation reaching 90 °C in 3 and 10 min, and stored at
163 30 ℃. Use of microwaves significantly shortened the minimum process time by 50%
164 compared to conventional method, and the colour was better at preserving the colour of the
165 samples with lower ΔE and slightly higher values a*. There were no significant differences in
166 the structure, carotenoid content or in the activity of pectin methyl esterase. Cook values were
167 significantly lower for the microwave-assisted pasteurisation process, which proves better
168 uniformity (Peng et al. 2017).

169 Research was carried out on Fettuccine pasta, which was pre-cooked, pasteurised with
170 a microwave-assisted pasteurisation system and stored in a refrigerator for one week with the
171 purpose of ready-to-eat and heated-up meals. The microwave treatment resulted in the
172 weakening of the pasta threads which indicates advancement of the starch in pasta
173 retrogradation (Joyner (Melito), Jones and Rasco 2016). The quality changes of strawberry
174 puree preserved by continuous microwave heating at 90 and 120°C for 10 s and conventional
175 thermal pasteurisation at 90 °C for 15 min were also compared during storage at 6 °C.
176 Continuous microwave pasteurisation (2.45 GHz, 20 kW) at 120 °C for 7 s gave similar
177 results compared to conventional heating, given the microbiological quality during storage.
178 On the other hand, the microwave treatment resulted in insufficient inactivation of tissue
179 enzymes and higher degradation level of nutrients including vitamin C and phenolic
180 compounds, as well as colour changes compared to samples preserved conventionally. Both

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181 microwaved and conventionally pasteurised samples showed microbiological stability for 52
182 wks, and the durability of the microwaved samples was calculated as up to 100 wks
183 (Marszałek et al. 2016). Higher vitamin C retention in microwave pasteurised green beans
184 was reported by Qu et al. (2021), with 9.2% losses of ascorbic acid compared tp 15.3% losses
185 observed after hot water pasteurisation. Moreover, the microwaved beans suffered lower
186 chlorophyll a losses (28.3% vs 33.9%). Martins et al. (2021) studied microwave treatment as
187 a replacement for the conventional pasteurisation of orange juice-milk beverages. The
188 microwaved sample (65 ℃/60 s) exhibited higher ascorbic acid activity (5.28 mg 100 mL−1)
189 compared to traditional heating (3.55mg 100 mL−1; 75 ℃/15 s) after 28 days of storage. In the
190 same conditions of pasteurisation, the retentions of α-glucosidase were 68.45% and 56.80%,
191 respectively, and of α-amylase, 66.20% and 55.03%, respectively.

192 Pasteurisation is often used to preserve liquid food product. Microwave pasteurisation
193 of two beverages from tamarind and green, which was a mixture of pineapple, nopala, guava
194 and lemon juice, was carried out. Microwaves of 2.45 GHz frequency and power of 490 W
195 were used until reaching the temperature of 90 ℃ (255–280 s). The enzymatic activity was
196 0% after microwave pasteurisation. The changes occurred mainly in the sensory values and
197 the colour of the green drink (González-Monroy et al. 2018). For more dense liquid-like
198 sauces, a 915 MHz frequency is more recommended. Hernandez-Gomez et al. (2021)
199 analysed Mexican sauces at 915 MHz and observed that microwaves exhibit higher
200 penetration depth than at 2.45 and 5.80 GHz. Moreover, at 915 MHz, the loss factor of all
201 sauces was the highest. The salt content of the heated material is an important parameter
202 affecting the efficiency of microwave heating. When microwave sterilisation was used on rice
203 flour gel, rice grains and cooked jasmine rice, the unsalted samples exhibited a decrease in
204 their dielectric constants and dielectric losses along with the increase in temperature. On the
205 other hand, in salted samples (0.5 –3.0%), as the temperature rises, the dielectric loss factor
206 increases because the dissolved ions increase the ionic conductivity. This dependence was
207 also confirmed during the study of three different tomato tissues and their various salinity
208 (Peng et al. 2013; Auksornsri et al. 2018).

209 Satisfactory results were also presented for microwave-treated mushrooms, which
210 contain a high moisture content posing a high microbiological threat. Using microwave
211 sterilisation (1000 W, 1 min) resulted in maintaining stable colour with decreased browning
212 and a slight increase in oxidation during the storage (Zhu, Yang and Duan 2018). The most
213 important aspect of sterilisation and pasteurisation is maintaining microbiological safety, and

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214 microwave application may be recognised as an efficient and clean process. Microwave
215 treatment resulted in the reduction of microorganisms in cow’s milk. After microwave
216 treatment at 600 W, colony counts for total plate and yeast cell counts were 3.44 and 0.18 log
217 cfu/cm3, respectively, whereas in raw milk, 8.54 and 5.56 log10 CFU/cm3 were noted,
218 respectively (Kapcsándi, Cserpán, and Hanczné Lakatos 2020). During microwave
219 pasteurisation of fresh apple juice, the inactivation kinetics of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and
220 Salmonella Typhimurium were studied. The results showed that inactivation increased with
221 power level, temperature and treatment time, reaching a pathogen reduction up to 7 log cycles
222 (720 W/25 s) (Mendes-Oliveira et al. 2020). Microwaving of fish fillets resulted in approx. 4
223 log cfu/cm2 reductions in Escherichia coli O157:H7 population (Ulusoy et al. 2019). Fan et al.
224 (2020) also indicated dependence of microorganism inactivation rate with microwave power
225 and processing time. The microorganism inactivation rate in pehtze was the highest at 4,250
226 W for 30 s (98.05%), whereas at the same power decreased to 95.85 and 94.55% when
227 sterilised for 40 and 50 s, respectively. The inactivation rate decreased even further to
228 97.29%, 93.02% and 91.42% when pehtze was microwave-sterilised at 5,100 W for 30, 40,
229 and 50 s, respectively. Furthermore, the results demonstrated that the colony count decreased
230 from 7.56 log cfu/g to 5.31 log cfu/g with increasing microwave power and time. In a
231 different study, chicken drumettes were inoculated with Listeria monocytogenes with the
232 initial titer of inoculums 6.2 log cfu/g. After 60 s of microwave treatment, and reaching a
233 temperature of over 74 ℃, the surface contamination was eliminated with a significant
234 correlation being found between the bacterial population and the temperature of the process
235 (Zeinali et al. 2015). Shirkole, Jayabalan and Sutar (2020) combined microwave and infrared
236 radiation for short, time-intensive dry sterilisation of paprika. The results showed even 8.85
237 log reduction of total plate count (Salmonella Typhimurium) and 7.37 log reduction of yeast
238 and mold counts (Aspergillus flavus) in the presence of natural microbial flora. Inanoglu et al.
239 (2021) compared high-pressure and microwave-assisted thermal pasteurisation on the
240 inactivation of Listeriainnocua in green beans. The impact of both methods of pasteurisation
241 on the quality were similar, but microwave treatment was more effective to control L.
242 innocua. High-pressure treatment resulted in a 3.7 log cfu/g reduction of pathogen, whereas
243 microwave pasteurisation showed a 9.0 log cfu/g reduction. Roohi and Hashemi (2020)
244 separated microwave pasteurisation of carrot slices into: heating process, holding temperature
245 and microwave turn off, analysing the inactivation of Enterococcus faecalis, Bacillus cereus,
246 Staphylococcus aureus and Shigella flexneri. The highest reduction level of pathogens
247 reported through the first and second phases for 600 W (about 90%). Moreover, the 400 W

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248 microwavepower created the highest inactivation of microorganisms through the last phase of
249 pasteurisation. Qu et al. (2021) reported slower spoilage of microwaved green beans in
250 comparison to hot water pasteurisation. The schematic diagram of microwave device is shown
251 in Figure 2.

252 Microwave drying

253 Currently, there are many methods of microwave drying, including vacuum-
254 microwave drying, hot air-microwave drying, microwave-far infrared combination drying,
255 microwave-convective drying and microwave-freeze drying (Guo et al. 2017).

256 The microwaves penetrate the food material and heat it up somewhat evenly
257 throughout their volume. In a variable electromagnetic field, volumetric heating is generated
258 by the interaction of water dipoles and ions dissolved in moist material (Wang, Zhang and
259 Mujumdar 2010). A rapid increase in the temperature of the whole material causes the steam
260 to escape from the center towards the surface of the product. In microwave-assisted methods,
261 convective air takes the moisture by evaporation, and sometimes evaporative cooling occurs
262 on the surface. As a result, the food product acquires a porous structure which limits the
263 shrinkage of the material. The food dried by microwaves is also crispier in texture. To
264 increase the product quality and preserve the nutritional and organoleptic values as much as
265 possible, microwave drying is often combined with conventional methods (Paengkanya,
266 Soponronnarit and Nathakaranakule 2015; C. Kumar and Karim 2019;). For example, reduced
267 treatment time and better overall quality of the dried product can be obtained using the hot
268 air-microwave method compared to drying with only hot air or microwaves (Akar and
269 Barutçu Mazı 2019). In microwave drying, the humidity and temperature gradient are the
270 same in contrast to conventional methods. As a result, the energy is quickly absorbed by water
271 molecules and the time of drying is shortened. Fast evaporation from the material promotes
272 quicker drying. In conventional technologies, moisture must escape from the heated material
273 against the temperature gradient (Doymaz, Kipcak and Piskin 2015). In the case of raw
274 materials that have many heat sensitive ingredients vacuum drying is a good solution. This
275 method prevents cramps and the dried product does not significantly differ with the content of
276 ingredients from the raw material.

277 The volumetric pressure together with the reduced boiling point allows the drying of
278 materials at lower temperatures. An example here is the microwave drying of durian fruit in a
279 vacuum system in which a vacuum pump was installed into the microwave oven. The analysis

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280 was carried out at microwave power 150, 200 and 250 W under a vacuum of 10 and 30 kPa.
281 The study on the comparison of microwave drying methods of fresh durian (Duriozibetbinus
282 Murr.) found, that larger pore sizes, higher lightness, values of crispness, but lower shrinkage
283 and hardness of durian chips dried by microwave vacuum technology resulted in better quality
284 product compared to combined microwave-hot air and hot air drying (Paengkanya,
285 Soponronnaritand Nathakaranakule 2015). In studies on the microwave drying characteristics
286 of green peas, a correlation was found between the increase of the microwave device power
287 (180, 360, 600, 800 W) and the shortening of the drying process time. However, as the
288 microwave oven power increases, the brightness increases and the samples become more
289 yellow (Doymaz, Kipcak and Piskin 2015).

290 The influence of preliminary ultrasound treatment (0, 20, 40 min) on microwave
291 drying (120, 150, 180 W) of tomato was also examined. The results showed that with the
292 increase in the microwave power level, the drying time dropped by about 46.4%, and the pre-
293 treatment with ultrasound reduced the drying time by an additional 7.4% with a microwave
294 power of 120 W and 40 min pre-treatment.20 min of initial ultrasonic treatment had a positive
295 effect on the content of lycopene, however the greater power of microwaves resulted in the
296 decrease in lycopene content (Horuz, Jaafar and Maskan 2017). A higher content of vitamin C
297 in microwave dried parsley was also demonstrated by Szadzińska and Mierzwa (2018). They
298 developed eight drying programs of 100 W, 300 W or 500 W where the drying processes were
299 operated at 30°C or 50°C, or with a variable air temperature (50°C/30°C). The results were
300 compared with the method of convection drying. In addition, it was found that the
301 microwaves used periodically with convection drying contribute to better product quality in
302 terms of colour properties and vitamin C retention (from 48 to 57% at 30 ℃ for convection
303 and microwave-assisted process respectively).

304 A more advantageous method of microwave drying is intermittent energy application

305 (C. Kumar and Karim 2019). Intermittent microwave-convective drying is a comparatively
306 improved drying method compared to microwave or conventional convective drying. Since
307 many theoretical aspects of the process are still unknown, for a better understanding of the
308 physical effects regarding this technique, new mathematical models have been developed (C.
309 Kumar, Joardder, Farrell et al. 2016; C. Kumar, Joardder, Farrell et al. 2016; Pham, Khan, and
310 Karim 2020). In their model, Khan et al. (2020) considered the spatial distribution of air
311 velocity around the product. In their research, Joardder, Kumar and Karim (2017) also
312 included in the multiphase porous media model considering liquid water, gases and the solid

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313 matrix of food during drying. The intermittency allows microwaves, at the particular
314 temperature, to re-distribute and drop, as well as effective diffusivity. This improves the
315 whole heating process of food and reduces the formation of hot spots (C. Kumar, Joardder,
316 Farrell et al. 2016). In their study, Pham et al. (2020) developed a model for predicting the
317 transport process and quality changes during intermittent microwave-convective drying.
318 About 70% of amino acids were degraded during intermittent microwave-convective drying
319 using the 1/3 power ratio with a one-second time step. It was also observed that at the earlier
320 stages of treatment, greater degradation of total phenolic content occurred, however, this
321 stabilised during the following stages. Lower power ratios analysed by Pham et al. (2016)
322 resulted in obtaining better nutrient retention after drying in different power ratio modes of
323 kiwi fruit slices. In the study on cylindrical apple slices, intermittent microwave convective
324 drying the process was four times faster compared to convective method (C. Kumar, Joardder,
325 Farrell et al 2016). and during drying, shitake mushrooms significantly reduced drying time
326 compared to hot air and infrared drying was observed. Moreover, microwave-dried
327 mushrooms retained the highest polysaccharide content and moderate level of aldehydes and
328 ketones formed during treatment (Wang et al. 2019). In the study in which drying methods
329 were compared of pumpkin slice water activity was higher for convective methods than for
330 samples dried using microwaves or a combination of microwave-convective drying
331 (Junqueira, Corrêa and Ernesto 2017). Dehghannya, Farshad, Khakbaz et al. (2018) applied
332 three-stage, hybrid osmotic-intermittent microwave-convective drying on apple cubes. This
333 combination resulted in a higher yield with a 41.5% decrease in drying time compared to hot
334 air-drying.

335 Microwave thawing

336 The purpose of microwave thawing is mainly to shorten the defrosting time (Erdogdu
337 et al. 2019; Phinney et al. 2017). Microwave thawing of raspberries was carried out in 0.57
338 minutes, and 4.40% of drip loss occurred, which was the lowest among the five analysed
339 thawing methods. Furthermore, microwave treatment allowed to preserve the characteristic
340 flavour components and those most acceptable to consumers (L. Liu et al. 2020). On the other
341 hand, microwave thawing, despite having the highest thawing rate, severely damaged the
342 microstructure of radish samples. That resulted in the highest drip loss and the lowest
343 firmness as well as vitamin C retention compared to other, different thawing methods (Xu et
344 al. 2020). The quality of potatoes thawed by two methods – at room temperature and using
345 microwaves– was also compared. Both thawing methods resulted in a loss of structure as

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346 analyzed through TPA and SEM analysis. Increasing the thawing time did not result in the
347 loss of quality (Phinney et al. 2017). Microwave thawing of frozen baby mustard was the
348 optimal thawing method, preserving the highest overall nutritional quality compared to air,
349 water or refrigerator thawing. Furthermore, the microwave treatment decreased approx. 360
350 and 60 times compared to refrigerator and air thawing (F. Zhang et al. 2021). M. M. Zhu et al.
351 (2020) compared six microwave-based thawing methods of pork. The combination of
352 microwave with other methods allowed to avoid local overheating. Microwave combined with
353 air convection significantly reduced protein denaturation and water holding capacity, which
354 allows to preserve meat uniformity. The application of microwaves during thawing also
355 allows to limit the formation of carcinogenic compounds. Lee et al. (2020) compared
356 acrylamide levels of air- and deep-fat-fried chicken parts using different thawing methods.
357 Acrylamide levels for deep-fat-fried thighs were 2.85, 3.14 and 4.62 µg/kg for microwave,
358 refrigerator and water immersion thawing, respectively. Moreover, the acrylamide levels in
359 fried chicken wings were 4.91 µg/kg for both the microwave and refrigerator, whereas for
360 water immersion thawing, they were 6.19 µg/kg. Microwave combined with vacuum thawing
361 results in more desirable physicochemical properties of the thawed food product as compared
362 to other thawing methods (conventional, microwave, ultrasound combined with vacuum,
363 magnetic nanoparticles combined with microwave or far-infrared thawing). Fish are a good
364 source of tocopherol, which is quite stable under microwave treatment conditions (Polat et al.
365 2013). Cai et al. (2020) studied that elasticity of microwave thawed largemouth bass
366 (Micropterus salmoides) was higher than the other samples. Moreover, degree of lipid
367 oxidation in microwaved samples was relatively lower according to TBA analysis. In study by
368 Cao et al. (2018), the combination of magnetic nanoparticles with microwave thawing
369 resulted in greater thermal stability and viscoelasticity more closely related to the fresh
370 sample of red seabream (Pagrus major) fillets compared to microwave thawing alone. In
371 addition, this hybrid of magnetic nanoparticles and microwaves allowed to maintain greater
372 freshness and significantly decreased biogenic amine content compared to only far-infrared
373 and microwave thawing. The putrescine content of only the microwaved sample was
374 significantly higher than that of the fresh sample, but there were no significant differences
375 between the fresh sample and the one thawed using microwave thawing with magnetic
376 nanoparticles (Cai, Dai and Caot 2020). Studies on large-mouth bass (Micropterus salmoides)
377 confirmed higher quality of microwave thawed fish samples with vacuum thawing and far-
378 infrared combined with magnetic nanoparticles compared to other thawing methods. Scanning
379 electron microscopy analysis showed smooth surfaces of samples thawed with microwaves

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380 combined with vacuum. Similar results were obtained after far-infrared combined with
381 magnetic nanoparticle thawing. Fibres in samples thawed with both of those methods were
382 straight and orderly, whereas in samples thawed using microwaves combined with magnetic
383 nanoparticles myofibrils were bent and twined, and in microwave-thawed, the gap between
384 myofibrils was large with the disruption of fibres on the surface of the muscle was in disorder
385 (Cai et al. 2020). Microwave thawing is not recommended for all food products. For example,
386 during bread dough microwave thawing, thermo-graphical observation showed uneven
387 temperature distribution. Moreover, the microwaved sample showed the highest weight loss
388 compared to refrigerator, ambient and proofer thawing methods. Microwaves also affected
389 yeasts in dough because loaf volume increased 1.5-fold when the frozen dough was thawed at
390 refrigerated temperature compared to the microwaved sample (Yang, Jeong and Lee 2020).
391 Notwithstanding, interest in microwave thawing on an industrial scale is still increasing.

392 Microwave blanching

393 Microwaves have also been successfully applied in the process of blanching due to the
394 reduction of time and energy needed to achieve inactivation of enzymes such as peroxidase,
395 polyphenol oxidase and pectinases while maintaining levels of thermolabile nutrients such as
396 vitamins and other bioactive compounds (Dorantes-Alvarez et al. 2017). In his work
397 Xanthakis et al. (2018) examined the effect of microwave blanching and compared it with
398 conventional blanching in water. The tests were carried out in two modes–HTST and LTLT.
399 The microwave blanching using HTST as well as LTLT resulted in a higher degree of
400 inactivation of ascorbic acid oxidase compared to conventional water blanching in mango.
401 Mango has also been used in dry mango blanching with microwaves compared to
402 conventional water, blanching and blanching in closed plastic bags before drying with hot air.
403 The study examined the effect of the treatment on the inactivation of ascorbic acid oxidase
404 and polyphenol oxidase. The blanching conditions for microwave blanching were 1350 W for
405 120 s for HTST and 1350 W for 60 s + 420 W for 540 s for LTLT. Blanching for 2 min at 90
406 °C HTST or for 10 min at allow temperature of 70 °C LTLT resulted in a complete
407 inactivation of polyphenol oxidase, while ascorbic acid oxidase showed low remaining
408 activity for the tested conditions. High retentions (above 100%) of vitamin C were found in
409 dried mango after blanching treatments HTST with microwaves and blanching in closed
410 plastic bags, while lower retention was observed after LTLT with microwaves (81.8 ± 4.5%).
411 A slight darkening of colour was observed only in conventionally blanched mango samples
412 (Isabel, Lilia and Ulf 2018).

13
413 The influence of microwave blanching of shiitake mushrooms (Lentinula edodes) on
414 the content of total arsenic was investigated. Cooking can change the content and chemical
415 forms of arsenic. Different microwave powers were used from 150 to 450 W at different
416 treatment times from 30 to 150 s. Using a treatment time of 150 s, the reduction of the total
417 arsenic at a microwave power of 150, 300 and 450 W was 33.39, 42.94 and 43.27%
418 respectively (Chen et al. 2018). Shiitake was also tested for the content of non–volatile
419 compounds (mannitol, soluble sugars, organic acids, 5'–nucleotides) after microwave
420 blanching compared to the results obtained using the conventional method. The bitterness
421 changed significantly in samples blanched in water for 60 s and 90 s in the microwave method
422 (300 W). However, the content of non-volatile compounds in the conventional method for 60
423 s was relatively low compared to the microwave blanching for 90 s. The total content of 5ʹ–
424 nucleotide in fresh and microwave blanched samples was 6.61 and 4.11 mg/g dry weight
425 respectively, which was significantly higher than in samples blanched with conventional
426 method(0.75 mg/g dry weight) (Li et al. 2018).

427 Microwave stunning

428 In meat processing, slaughter of animals is an integral part of the process of obtaining
429 meat. Most often, animals are stunned before slaughter with the purpose of rendering the
430 animal insensitive to pain. Some markets do not allow to stun the animals unless the animal is
431 able to recover if the slaughter would not commence. The use of microwave radiation can be
432 an effective reversible stunning method, with preliminary studies showing promising results.
433 The microwave system causes a selective increase in brain temperature. Hyperthermic
434 syncope occurs, but below the level at which irreversible changes could appear. An innovative
435 animal stunning diathermic syncope system (DTS) has been developed. A dose of energy
436 above 45 kJ caused hyperthermic syncope of animals for 80 to 240 s after microwave energy
437 application, which allows humane slaughter and bleeding to death. There was no corneal
438 response or pupil response to light and no nose prick response.13 out of 31 animals after DTS
439 application showed recovery (McLean et al. 2017; Small et al. 2019). The preliminary studies
440 examined sheep and heads of sheep obtained from slaughterhouses, where the brain
441 temperature was heated to 44 ℃ with microwave radiation, which is the point where MHz
442 device parameters. The efficiency of 922 MHz and 2450 MHz frequencies were compared,
443 with the former showing deeper penetration (Small et al. 2013). This technology is still being
444 developed to optimise consistent energy delivery to the brain and to examine critical process
445 parameters (Small et al. 2019).

14
446 Nutrients and nutraceuticals production
447 Nutraceuticals are defined as products between food and drugs. The active substances
448 are often obtained from plants and are administered in pharmaceutical form (Santini, Tenore
449 and Novellino 2017). In the nutraceutical industry, microwaves are widely used mainly for
450 drying granules and powders. On a much smaller scale, they are used to modulate the
451 properties of food supplements as well as medicines and excipients in non-thermal
452 interactions. The purpose of these processes is to increase the bioavailability and improve the
453 solubility of sensitive compounds present in the functional foods and drugs. An additional
454 effect of better crosslinking of the polymer and dependence in the matrix allows for a better
455 release of encapsulated products. On the other hand, some specific unfavourable material-
456 microwave interactions depending on the microwave technology may occur. One such
457 interaction includes a change in the therapeutic profile of nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals
458 which might prove hazardous for the consumer, since physical changes are not always visible
459 and changes in structure and active ingredients can occur at a microscopic level. When
460 dielectric properties of materials such as fillers, binders, disintegrant and drugs were
461 examined, starch and anhydrous dicalcium phosphate were the best microwave absorbers and
462 had innate molecular properties favourable for conjugating with microwaves (Heng et al.
463 2010).

464 Microwaves are used in pharmaceutical powder drying. Al-Ali, Salih and Alsamarrae
465 (2020) applied microwave irradiation to moisturised naproxen-sodium granules. The removal
466 moisture efficiency increased from 75.76 to 93.28% after the temperature increased from 50
467 to 85 ℃, while the final moisture content in samples decreased from 3.03 to 0.84%.
468 Microwaved samples were more de-agglomerated and visually more similar to that of the
469 reference powder sample in SEM images. Al-Ali and Parthasarathy (2020) dried naproxen
470 sodium drug tablets using microwaves and compared this to the conventional drying method.
471 Results showed that conventionally dried tablets had lower hardness (64 N) and tensile
472 strength (1.21 MPa), whereas among the tablets prepared by different drying methods,
473 microwave-dried samples exhibited the highest hardness and tensile strength values of 67 N
474 and 1.296 MPa, respectively.

475 Microwave technology, due to the fact that it reduces the use of solvents, is considered
476 green and environmentally friendly. Microwave energy supports the synthesis of sterile
477 ferulans, accelerating the efficiency of the process. These compounds are formed from
478 steroids such as cholesterol, cholestanol or stigmas-terol. Microwaves are applied in the key

15
479 stage of the ester sterilisation process in a three-stage synthesis process. By using microwave
480 energy for rapid synthesis, it improves existing methods (Begum, Borah and Chowdhury
481 2016). Conventional heating during condensation of multicomponent reactions is very slow
482 compared to microwave methods. For the same reason microwave radiationis used for carbon-
483 carbon bond forming reactions using high reaction efficiencies (Kiss, Erika and Keglevich
484 2016). By combining flow chemistry and microwave technology, it is possible to obtain the
485 continuous-flow realization of organophosphorus transformations. The benefits of using a
486 continuous reaction process are improved safety and selectivity, and increased efficiency.
487 Alcoholisation of dialkylphosphite and synthesis of α-aminophosphonates in continuous flow
488 using microwaves gave good results by aza-Pudovik reactions in yields of 90-92%, or
489 Kabachnik-Fields in yields of 90-96%, where in the case of periodic carrying out the reaction
490 resulted in yields of 36-60% (Bálint, Tajti and Keglevich 2019). Microwave assisted acid
491 hydrolysis (MAAH) of protein is also used for obtaining bioactive peptides. The use of
492 microwave technology can reduce the aggregation of proteins, which appeared in the direct
493 heating of protein solutions mixed with acid without the use of microwaves (X. Wang et al.
494 2017).

495 Essential oils are widely used within the food science industry as food additives or part
496 of packaging exhibiting antimicrobial and antioxidant properties. The function of essential
497 oils in food is preservation and often possess antimicrobial properties (Hyldgaard, Mygind
498 and Meyer 2012; Ju et al. 2019; Mahato et al. 2019; Rao, Chen and McClements 2019; Zeid
499 et al. 2019). Microwave-assisted extraction allows reduction in the time of processing and
500 obtaining oil with high yield and high quality. Microwave-assisted hydrodiffusion extraction
501 and hydrodistillation (MAHD) were carried out on the waste of Opuntia ficus-indica. The red
502 variety of the plant gives stable extracts containing betanin, pectin and biophenols. These
503 compounds are potentially useful as nutraceuticals. Research results using microwave-assisted
504 hydrodensing are particularly promising (mild conditions, 1h microwave heating at 70 ℃),
505 giving a more concentrated, naturally red aqueous extract (Ciriminna et al. 2017). An even
506 faster method of extracting oils from aromatic plants is solvent-free microwave extraction
507 (SFME). This technique is a combination of microwave heating and dry distillation (without
508 the addition of a solvent or water) carried out at atmospheric pressure. Using this method, the
509 microwave treatment can increase the content of oxidizing compounds such as monoterpene
510 hydrocarbons. The use of microwaves positively influences the content of nutraceuticals when
511 obtaining them from plants. This was the case with the extraction of Camellia oleifera oilseed

16
512 oil from an aqueous solution of enzymatic extraction (AEOE). The aqueous extraction was
513 carried out using industrial enzymes from previously powdered and microwave puffing–
514 pretreated seeds. At high process efficiency (up to 55%), pre-treatment with Camellia oleifera
515 seeds resulted in an increase in the number of tocopherols (by 22.2–39.4%), squalene (by 6.3–
516 29.2%) and phytosterols (by 6.7–14.8%) in the obtained oils from AEOE (W.G. Zhang 2016).
517 In their study, Drinić et al. (2020) compared MAHD with conventional hydrodistillation
518 (HD). Microwave treatment at 600 W shortened the extraction duration by approx. 5.5 times
519 and produced a higher yield of the essential oil (7.10% compared to 5.81%.). Furthermore, a
520 higher content of oxygenated compounds were obtained by MAHD at 180 W (85.15%) than
521 regular HD (76.82%). During MAE of industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.), the process time
522 was reduced by approx. 2 times compared to HD obtaining a similar yield level. MAE
523 resulted in a higher yield of cannabidiol than HD (9.3 vs 5.6%, respectively) as well as of the
524 main sesquiterpenes: (E)-caryophyllene and α-humulene (46.5 vs. 36.1%, and 18.8 vs. 14.2%,
525 respectively). On the other hand, the levels of the main monoterpenes were higher in the hemp
526 sample extracted by HD (Fiorini et al. 2020). The optimal SFME process conditions for
527 achieving the maximal Limnophilaaromatica essential oil yield were 700 W for 25 min.
528 Microwave extraction allowed to obtain oil yields ranging from 0.20 to 0.24% (v/w) in which
529 monoterpene hydrocarbons dominated (Yingngam et al. 2021).Idris, Nadzir and Abd Shukor
530 (2020) optimised Centellaasiatica SFME and obtained the highest extract yield (0.38%)
531 compared to the yield produced in the test runs of Taguchi design. The yields of Japanese
532 peppermint (Mentha arvensis L.) essential oil SFME from fresh leaves were different in
533 varying conditions with a yield of 0.88% at 200 W for 45 min, 0.93% at 150 W for 60 min
534 and 0.95% at 100 W for 90 min. The SFME results were similar compared to HD. Moreover,
535 using SFME resulted in obtaining more fragrance components of essential oil, such as
536 limonene and piperitone (Kohari et al. 2020).Chenni et al. (2020) studied the chemical
537 composition of essential oils obtained by SFME and HD. They showed that in microwaved
538 oil, lower levels of compounds were reached, such as linalool (43.5 vs. 48.4%), followed by
539 methyl chavicol and 1,8-cineole compared to HD (13.3 vs. 14.3% and 6.8 vs. 7.3%,
540 respectively). Both extracted oils showed similar insecticide properties against
541 Rhyzoperthadominica, Sitophilus oryzae and Triboliumcastaneum. Zghaibi et al. (2020)
542 conducted lipid MAE from Nannochloropsis sp. microalgaeusing brine solution. The highest
543 PUFA percentages were obtained at the highest temperature examined in this study (100 ℃),
544 probably because higher temperature resulted in more cell-wall ruptures and cracks. Distorted
545 cells could be directly promoted by microwaves in NaCl solution extraction. The lipid yield

17
546 microwave extraction of Spirulina platensis increased, and after reaching 60 ℃, it remained
547 constant, whereas the temperatures for maximum lipid yield were 140 and 130 ℃ in case of
548 conventional heating and autoclaving, respectively (R. Singh, Kumar, Sharma et al. 2020).
549 The microalgae species Scenedesmus spp. can be rich in lutein sources. Low, Idris and Mohd
550 Yusof (2020) developed microwave-assisted binary phase solvent extraction for reaching
551 lutein. Microwave extraction at 55 ℃/250 W/36 min/0.7 mg/mL of biomass to solvent (60%
552 KOH solution with acetone with the ratio of 0.1 mL/mL) resulted in 130% recovery and 3-
553 fold reduction of processing time. Ultrasound pre-treatment combined with MAH influenced
554 the chemical composition and biological activity of oil from Perilla frutescens (L.) Britt.
555 leaves. Ultrasound treatment of samples before microwave extraction resulted in higher
556 antioxidant activity (IC50 = 2.60 μL/mL) compared to MAHD and HD (IC50 = 2.91 μL/mL and
557 IC50 = 3.28 μL/mL, respectively) (F. Chen et al. 2020). Radivojac et al. (2020) confirmed that
558 MAHD could provide an excellent alternative for high-quality sage herbal dust essential oil
559 with a high content of oxygenated terpenoids and adequate bioactivity. Oil extracted using
560 microwaves at 360 W obtained the highest hymol and carvacrol and had the highest
561 antioxidant activity (IC50 = 0.93 µg/mL). On the other hand, the lowest antioxidant power was
562 observed in the microwaved sample at 90 W (IC50 = 2.71 µg/mL), whereas other MAHD
563 samples showed similar antioxidant activity as the HD samples. K. Zhang et al. (2020) also
564 demonstrated higher total phenol contents and antioxidant activity (IC50 = 9.28 vs. IC50 =
565 11.48 mg/mL in DPPH analysis) of sugarcane molasses in MAHD samples compared to HD
566 samples. Furthermore, MAHD molasses indicated better antimicrobial activity, inhibiting the
567 growth zone diameter of E. coli, S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, S. typhimurium. In a study by
568 Hassanein et al. (2020), 3-fold reduction of process time and higher yields of MAHD
569 compared to HD were obtained for essential oils of Origanummajorana L., Mentha pipereta
570 L., Mentha longifolia L., Origanumsyriacum L., Lavandula angustifolia L., Rosmarinus
571 officinalis L. and Thymus vulgaris L. Microwave extraction was also applied in oil extraction
572 from animal processing waste, potentially being converting to the functional foods,
573 nutraceutical and pharmaceutical products. Rahimi et al. (2017) showed that the higher yield
574 of lipids from sardine fish waste. Using the MAE method, 80.5 mg/g, was obtained with a 10-
575 min extraction time, compared to Soxhlet extraction which produced 46.6 mg/g of lipids after
576 4-hour extraction. Afolabi, Mudalip and Alara (2018) also confirmed a high yield of oil
577 produced from eel (Monopterusalbus) using ethanol as the extracting solvent, with a high
578 content of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids. The lipid content and fatty acids
579 profile depending not only on the extraction method, but also on the species of fish. MAE

18
580 gave netter results of saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acid in goldband
581 goldfish, ultrasound-assisted extraction in European eel, while Bligh and Dyer method in
582 other analysed fish species (Ozogul et al. 2018).

583 Microwave systems for waste management

584 Renewable energy is a field that has great potential for promoting sustainable
585 development. This includes also recovered energy from sewage sludge. Therefore, it is
586 necessary to develop new technologies that will allow to use the potential of waste (Das et al.
587 2020; V. Singh, Phuleria, and Chandel, 2020). The food and pharmaceutical industries, are
588 characterised by a very high amount of production waste in relation to the finished product.
589 200 kg of waste is generated per each 1 kg of active agent obtained. As a result, this generates
590 high costs of wastes management. As much as 90% of toxic waste produced in
591 pharmaceutical factories are solvents. Alternative methods are being sought to reduce fuel and
592 electricity consumption, such as the use of solvent-free procedures. One of the solutions to
593 this problem is the use of cleaner technologies such as synthesis supported by microwaves.
594 This method increases the efficiency of synthesis processes, which translates into a significant
595 reduction of time. An additional benefit is the lower use of chemical solvents, which makes
596 microwave-assisted synthesis more environmentally friendly (Solà et al.2017).

597 Waste from food processing is the source of oligosaccharides and is used, e.g. in food
598 applications. In the study by Wongkaew et al. (2020), microwave-extracted pectin from
599 mango peel was used as fat replacement in dried Chinese sausage. The extractable yield of
600 pectin attained from mango waste was achieved at 13.85% (700 W). The obtained pectin was
601 characterised by a high degree of esterification (77.19%) and methoxyl content (19.33%) with
602 a structure of greater porosity as compared to that extracted by conventional method. Arrutia
603 et al. (2020) developed a continuous-flow system for MAE of pectin from potato pulp using
604 water as the extraction medium with processing time at a feed flow rate of 250 mL/min.
605 Optimisation of processing parameters carried out in different conditions showed that the
606 intermediate holding time reached 20 min and the yield was higher for the applied power of
607 800 W compared to 400 W. The obtained pectin yields were 40-45% (as galacturonic acid
608 content) after MAE, while conventional water extraction resulted in approx. 2-fold lower
609 yields. This kind of fast heating allows reducing pectin depolymerisation and de-esterification
610 reactions due to pectin thermolability properties. Rahmani et al. (2020) recovered 25.31%
611 pectin from sweet lemon peel in the most optimal microwave extraction parameters (700W/ 3
612 min of irradiation/pH of 1.5), while Rivadeneira et al. (2020) applied microwaves to banana

19
613 peel and obtained a yield of 14.4% pectin. Microwaves are also successfully applied in natural
614 food colorants recovered from several kinds of fruitsand vegetables as well as their waste
615 (Zin, Anucha and Szilvia 2020).

616 Most of the food and food processing industry waste are lignocellulosic in nature with
617 a global estimate of up to 1.3 billiontons per year (Ravindran and Jaiswal 2016). Microwave
618 pyrolysis has been used for the degradation of lignocellulosic biomass. The application of
619 milder temperatures (100–200 ℃) of the process allows for retaining the functionality of
620 some molecules, making them a valuable chemical material and providing the opportunity to
621 implement it in biorefinery processes. Through in-situ separation, microwave pyrolysis
622 reduces the need for further removal of water and acidic compounds, which is a significant
623 economic advantage of the process. Lin et al. (2020) investigated the effects of CO2
624 atmosphere on the syngas yield increase and the intrinsic reaction mechanisms during the
625 microwave pyrolysis of food waste. At 1400 W of microwave power, the biogas yield in the
626 CO2 atmosphere was 67.9 wt%. Because CO2 atmosphere required more heat, the syngas
627 yield in the biogas was 44.13% higher compared to production in the N2 atmosphere. In
628 temperatures of food waste microwave pyrolysis ranging from 600 to 900 ℃, H2 and CH4
629 reacted with CO2 which promoted CO generation. In the study by Sahoo and Remya (2020),
630 who applied microwave-assisted pyrolysis to rice husk, the heating value and fuel ration of
631 biochar were improved after the treatment compared to rice husk (25.46 MJ/kg and 2.82 vs.
632 12.43 MJ/kg and 0.06, respectively). The yield of biochar reached 68-39% and depended on
633 microwave condition. Kostas et al. (2020) used microwave pyrolysis of olive pomace for the
634 production of bio-char and bio-oil. The authors reported that to obtain 30% bio-oil, the energy
635 consumption was as low as 3.6 kJ/g, at 200 W/180 s.

636 In the cellulose industry a lot of wastewater is generated. This sewage has a high level
637 chemical oxygen demand (COD) and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), while a low pH
638 makes this wastewater environmentally unfriendly (Ray and Ghangrekar 2015). One of the
639 utilisation methods of concentrated cellulose wastewater is the synthesis of fertiliser, whose
640 property is to retain water. This technology uses microwave-assisted polymerisation. Xanthan
641 gum, concentrated cellulose wastewater and diatomite were dispersed in KOH. The most
642 optimal power for the device turned out to be 250 W for the mixture with acrylic acid, K2S2O8
643 and N,N-methylenebisacrylamide. The absorbent properties of fertilisers were checked on
644 distilled water and seawater. The maximum water absorption in organic fertiliser was 117.67
645 and 82.32 g/g in distilled water and sea water respectively, and the content of organic

20
646 substances, i.e. nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and heavy metals, were within the standard
647 for organic fertiliser in China. Microwaves influences the reaction with the substrates
648 improving the reaction time (Ma et al. 2015). Microwaves have also been used for the
649 synthesis of organic-inorganic fertilisers with controlled release, or organic fertilisers from
650 processed aromatic plants acquired through hydrodistillation(Sajadinia et al. 2021; Shebl et al.
651 2020). Kannan, Gariepy and Raghavan (2017) showed that microwave hydrothermal
652 carbonisation allows to produce high-quality hydrochar from fish waste, comparable to
653 hydrochar produced from certain lignocellulosic, sewage and municipal waste. The
654 temperature of approx. 200 °C and a time of approx. 119 min of microwave treatment yielded
655 maximal hydrochar (∼34%). Irfan et al. (2021) demonstrated that fish bones and mussel shells
656 can be good source for the synthesis of nanohydroxyapatite with favourable parameters, after
657 using a relatively simple microwave-assisted one-step synthesis at 750 W for 10 min.

658 The products of sewage sludge pyrolysis include carbon residues, oils, fumes and gas.
659 Y. Liu et al. (2020) compared conventional with microwave pyrolysis of sewage sludge in
660 temperature ranges from 600 to 900 ℃. The yield of H2 during conventional pyrolysis
661 increased from 1.26 mmol/g to 9.07 mmol/g, whereas in the case of microwave heating, only
662 from 1.84 mmol/g to 3.67 mmol/g. Moreover, an undesirable effect was observed during
663 microwave treatment, since a high ratio of H/C promoted by microwave irradiation caused
664 more H2 to be directly converted to tar. On the other hand, K. H. Lin et al. (2020) studied
665 microwave pyrolysis on sludge in the temperature range of 400-800 ℃. It was observed that
666 lower energy consumption resulted in higher energy recovery efficiency. The pyrolysis
667 process produced up to 24% dry-wt.% of oil. The summary of recent applications within the
668 wastes management industry is shown in Table 4 above.

669 Conclusions
670 Recent years have experienced a rapid development in many areas of microwave
671 applications. This kind of treatment can be used in most heat processing treatments. In many
672 of the reviewed studies, the superiority of microwave food processing over conventional
673 heating methods has been confirmed, both in terms of food quality (e.g. better structure, better
674 texture, lower weight losses, better colour parameters) and nutritional value (e.g. higher
675 vitamin and bioactive compound retention). The use of microwaves in food processing allows
676 to obtain higher extraction efficiency of essential oils with high antioxidant properties.
677 Microwave treatment is also widely used in waste management to recover valuable

21
678 compounds from food processing waste. This technology is proving to be more economical
679 and environmentally-friendly because of organic solvent reduction and up to several-fold
680 reduction of processing time, which is of particular importance for the industry due to lower
681 energy consumption and production costs. This is especially important in terms of the ever-
682 increasing energy demand of the industry.

683 Despite recent advancements in the field, there are still unexplained and
684 conflicted aspects of microwave use in the food industry. Special emphasis in the future
685 research should be placed on developing more mathematical models and optimisation studies
686 which would allow to better understand and utilise this technology.

687 Conflict of interest

688 The authors have declared no conflict of interest.

689 Acknowledgment

690 This work was supported by the National Centre for Research and Development in
691 Poland under the “Szybka Ścieżka” [program no. POIR.01.01.01–00–1438/15], “Innovative
692 technology for pasteurisation of food products using microwaves also in a modified
693 atmosphere”, in cooperation with Weindich Sp. J. company.

694

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1043 Rao, J., Chen, B., & McClements, D. J. (2019). Improving the Efficacy of Essential Oils as
1044 Antimicrobials in Foods: Mechanisms of Action. Annual Review of Food Science and
1045 Technology, 10(1), 365–387. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-food-032818-121727

1046 Ravindran, R., & Jaiswal, A. K. (2016). A comprehensive review on pre-treatment strategy
1047 for lignocellulosic food industry waste: Challenges and opportunities. Bioresource
1048 Technology, 199, 92–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2015.07.106

1049 Ravindran, R., & Jaiswal, A. K. (2019). Wholesomeness and safety aspects of irradiated
1050 foods. Food Chemistry, 285, 363–368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.02.002

1051 Ray, S. G., & Ghangrekar, M. M. (2015). Bioresource Technology Enhancing organic matter
1052 removal , biopolymer recovery and electricity generation from distillery wastewater by
1053 combining fungal fermentation and microbial fuel cell. Bioresource Technology, 176, 8–
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1055 Rivadeneira, J. P., Wu, T., Ybanez, Q., Dorado, A. A., Migo, V. P., Nayve, F. R. P., &
1056 Castillo-Israel, K. A. T. (2020). Microwave-assisted extraction of pectin from “Saba”
1057 banana peel waste: Optimization, characterization, and rheology study. International
1058 Journal of Food Science, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/8879425

1059 Roohi, R., & Hashemi, S. M. B. (2020). Experimental, heat transfer and microbial
1060 inactivation modeling of microwave pasteurization of carrot slices as an efficient and
1061 clean process. Food and Bioproducts Processing, 121, 113–122.
1062 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbp.2020.01.015

1063 Sabzezari, B., Koleini, S. M. J., Ghassa, S., Shahbazi, B., & Chelgani, S. C. (2019).
1064 Microwave-leaching of copper smelting dust for Cu and Zn extraction. Materials,
1065 12(11), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12111822

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1067 pyrolysis of rice husk: biochar yield, energy yield, and property of biochar. Biomass
1068 Conversion and Biorefinery. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-020-00914-8

1069 Sajadinia, H., Ghazanfari, D., Naghavii, K., Naghavi, H., & Tahamipur, B. (2021). A
1070 comparison of microwave and ultrasound routes to prepare nano-hydroxyapatite fertilizer
1071 improving morphological and physiological properties of maize (Zea mays L.). Heliyon,
1072 7(3), e06094. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06094

1073 Santini, A., Tenore, G. C., & Novellino, E. (2017). Nutraceuticals: A paradigm of proactive
1074 medicine. European Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 96, 53–61.
1075 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejps.2016.09.003

1076 Shebl, A., Hassan, A. A., Salama, D. M., Abd El-Aziz, M. E., & Abd Elwahed, M. S. A.
1077 (2020). Template-free microwave-assisted hydrothermal synthesis of manganese zinc
1078 ferrite as a nanofertilizer for squash plant (Cucurbita pepo L). Heliyon, 6(3), e03596.
1079 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03596

1080 Shirkole, S. S., Jayabalan, R., & Sutar, P. P. (2020). Dry Sterilization of Paprika (Capsicum
1081 annuum L.) by Short Time Intensive Microwave-Infrared Radiation: Part I -
1082 Establishment of Process Using Glass Transition, Sorption, and Quality Degradation
1083 Kinetic Parameters. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies, 62(November
1084 2019), 102345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2020.102345

1085 Singh, R., Kumar, A., & Sharma, Y. C. (2020). Evaluation of Various Lipid Extraction
1086 Techniques for Microalgae and Their Effect on Biochemical Components. Waste and
1087 Biomass Valorization, 11(6), 2603–2612. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-019-00601-4

1088 Singh, S., Gupta, D., Jain, V., & Sharma, A. K. (2015). Microwave processing of materials
1089 and applications in manufacturing industries: A Review. Materials and Manufacturing
1090 Processes, 30(1), 37–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/10426914.2014.952028

1091 Singh, V., Phuleria, H. C., & Chandel, M. K. (2020). Estimation of energy recovery potential
1092 of sewage sludge in India: Waste to watt approach. Journal of Cleaner Production, 276,
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1094 Small, A., Lea, J., Niemeyer, D., Hughes, J., McLean, D., McLean, J., & Ralph, J. (2019).
1095 Development of a microwave stunning system for cattle 2: Preliminary observations on

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1097 72–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2018.11.010

1098 Small, A., McLean, D., Keates, H., Owen, J. S., & Ralph, J. (2013). Preliminary
1099 investigations into the use of microwave energy for reversible stunning of sheep. Animal
1100 Welfare, 22(2), 291–296. https://doi.org/10.7120/09627286.22.2.291

1101 Solà, R., Sutcli, O. B., Banks, C. E., & Maciá, B. (2017). Ball mill and microwave assisted
1102 synthetic routes to Fluoxetine. Sustainable Chemistry and Pharmacy, 5, 14–21.
1103 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scp.2016.11.003

1104 Szadzińska, J., & Mierzwa, D. (2018). Intermittent – microwave and convective drying of
1105 parsley. IDS’2018 – 21st International Drying Symposium, 11–14.

1106 Tang, H., Shu, X., Huang, W., Miao, Y., Shi, M., Chen, S., … Lu, X. (2021). Rapid
1107 solidification of Sr-contaminated soil by consecutive microwave sintering: mechanism
1108 and stability evaluation. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 407.
1109 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124761

1110 Tang, J. (2015). Unlocking Potentials of Microwaves for Food Safety and Quality. Journal of
1111 Food Science, 80(8), E1776–E1793. https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.12959

1112 Thostenson, E. T., & Chou, T.-W. (1999). Microwave processing: fundamentals and
1113 applications. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, 30(9), 1055–1071.
1114 https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359-835X(99)00020-2

1115 Ulusoy, Ş., Üçok Alakavuk, D., Mol, S., & Coşansu, S. (2019). Effect of microwave cooking
1116 on foodborne pathogens in fish. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, 43(8), 1–
1117 6. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.14045

1118 Wang, H., Ren, W., Li, G., Wen, H., Wang, C., Chen, J., … Kai, X. (2021). Microstructure
1119 and properties of FeCoNi1.5CrCu/2024Al composites prepared by microwave sintering.
1120 Materials Science and Engineering A, 801(September 2020).
1121 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2020.140406

1122 Wang, Q., Li, S., Han, X., Ni, Y., Zhao, D., & Hao, J. (2019). Quality evaluation and drying
1123 kinetics of shitake mushrooms dried by hot air, infrared and intermittent microwave–
1124 assisted drying methods. Lwt, 107, 236–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2019.03.020

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1125 Wang, R., Zhang, M., & Mujumdar, A. S. (2010). Effect of food ingredient on microwave
1126 freeze drying of instant vegetable soup. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 43(7),
1127 1144–1150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2010.03.007

1128 Wang, Xinxin, Liu, Z., Tang, Y., Chen, J., Wang, D., & Mao, Z. (2021). Low temperature and
1129 rapid microwave sintering of Na3Zr2Si2PO12 solid electrolytes for Na-Ion batteries.
1130 Journal of Power Sources, 481(July 2020), 228924.
1131 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.228924

1132 Wang, Xueqin, Yu, H., Xing, R., & Li, P. (2017). Characterization , Preparation , and
1133 Purification of Marine Bioactive Peptides. BioMed Research International, 2017, 1–16.

1134 Wray, D., & Ramaswamy, H. S. (2015). Novel Concepts in Microwave Drying of Foods.
1135 Drying Technology, 33(7), 37–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/07373937.2014.985793

1136 Xanthakis, E., Gogou, E., Taoukis, P., & Ahrné, L. (2018). Effect of microwave assisted
1137 blanching on the ascorbic acid oxidase inactivation and vitamin C degradation in frozen
1138 mangoes. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies, 48, 248–257.
1139 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2018.06.012

1140 Xu, B., Chen, J., Yuan, J., Azam, S. R., & Zhang, M. (2020). Effect of different thawing
1141 methods on the efficiency and quality attributes of frozen red radish. Journal of the
1142 Science of Food and Agriculture. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.10953

1143 Yang, S., Jeong, S., & Lee, S. (2020). Elucidation of rheological properties and baking
1144 performance of frozen doughs under different thawing conditions. Journal of Food
1145 Engineering, 284(April), 110084. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2020.110084

1146 Yingngam, B., Brantner, A., Treichler, M., Brugger, N., Navabhatra, A., & Nakonrat, P.
1147 (2021). Optimization of the eco-friendly solvent-free microwave extraction of
1148 Limnophila aromatica essential oil. Industrial Crops and Products, 165, 113443.
1149 https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2021.113443

1150 Zeid, A., Karabagias, I. K., Nassif, M., & Kontominas, M. G. (2019). Preparation and
1151 evaluation of antioxidant packaging films made of polylactic acid containing thyme,
1152 rosemary, and oregano essential oils. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation,
1153 43(10), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.14102

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1154 Zeinali, T., Jamshidi, A., Khanzadi, S., & Azizzadeh, M. (2015). The effect of short-time
1155 microwave exposures on Listeria monocytogenes inoculated onto chicken meat portions.
1156 Veterinary Research Forum : An International Quarterly Journal, 6(2), 173–176.

1157 Zghaibi, N., Omar, R., Kamal, S. M. M., Biak, D. R. A., & Harun, R. (2020). Kinetics study
1158 of microwave-assisted brine extraction of lipid from the microalgae Nannochloropsis sp.
1159 Molecules, 25(4). https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25040784

1160 Zhang, F., Lin, P.-X., Xia, P.-X., Di, H.-M., Zhang, J.-Q., Wang, Z.-H., … Sun, B. (2021).
1161 The effect of different thawing methods on the health-promoting compounds and
1162 antioxidant capacity in frozen baby mustard. RSC Advances, 11(17), 9856–9864.
1163 https://doi.org/10.1039/d1ra00610j

1164 Zhang, K., Ding, Z., Mo, M., Duan, W., Bi, Y., & Kong, F. (2020). Essential oils from
1165 sugarcane molasses: Chemical composition, optimization of microwave-assisted
1166 hydrodistillation by response surface methodology and evaluation of its antioxidant and
1167 antibacterial activities. Industrial Crops and Products, 156(July), 112875.
1168 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2020.112875

1169 Zhang, W.-G. (2016). Aqueous Extraction and Nutraceuticals Content of Oil Using Industrial
1170 Enzymes from Microwave Puffing-pretreated Camellia oleifera Seed Powder. Japanese
1171 Society for Food Science and Technology, 22(1), 31–38.
1172 https://doi.org/10.3136/fstr.22.31

1173 Zhao, Q. H., Zhao, X. B., Zheng, Y. L., Li, J. C., He, L., & Zou, C. J. (2020). Microwave
1174 fracturing of water-bearing sandstones: Heating characteristics and bursting.
1175 International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 136(July).
1176 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2020.104495

1177 Zheng, Y., Ma, Z., Zhao, X., & He, L. (2020). Experimental Investigation on the Thermal,
1178 Mechanical and Cracking Behaviours of Three Igneous Rocks Under Microwave
1179 Treatment. Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering, 53(8), 3657–3671.
1180 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-020-02135-x

1181 Zhu, M. M., Peng, Z. Y., Lu, S., He, H. J., Kang, Z. L., Ma, H. J., … Wang, Z. R. (2020).
1182 Physicochemical properties and protein denaturation of pork longissimus dorsi muscle
1183 subjected to six microwave-based thawing methods. Foods, 9(1).

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1184 https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9010026

1185 Zhu, X. H., Yang, Y. X., & Duan, Z. H. (2018). Research progress on the effect of microwave
1186 sterilization on agricultural products quality. IOP Conference Series: Earth and
1187 Environmental Science, 113(1). https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/113/1/012096

1188 Zin, M. M., Anucha, C. B., & Szilvia, B. (2020). Recovery of Phytochemicals via
1189 Electromagnetic Irradiation (Microwave-Assisted-Extraction): Betalain and Phenolic
1190 Compounds in Perspective. Foods, 9(7), 918.

1191 Table 1. Bands designated for industrial, scientific and medical applications by the FCC (Federal
1192 Communications Commision, 2018).
Frequency range Centre frequency
13553–13567 kHz 13560 kHz
26957–27283 kHz 27120 kHz
40.66–40.70 MHz 40.68 MHz
902–928 MHz* 915 MHz
2400–2500 MHz* 2450 MHz
5725–5875 MHz* 5800 MHz
24–24.25 GHz* 24.125 GHz
1193 * – Bands within the microwave frequency

1194
1195 Table 2. Examples of microwaveapplications in food technology.
Material Microwave Microwave Results References
process system
Fresh carrots pasteurisation 915 MHz, 1400 Microwave-assisted (Peng et al. 2017)
W, 3 min and pasteurisation reduced
10 min the total processing
time (by 50%),
reduced the cook
values* and improved
the quality and
uniformity of the
products compared to
conventional
pasteurisation.
Durum wheat fettuccine pasteurisation 915 MHz, 4.5 Microwave treatment (Joyner (Melito)
kW has a weakening et al. 2016)
effect on the pasta
strands, intensifying

39
 processes of
retrogradation.
Significant differences
in the percent of
gelatinised starch
compared to
conventionally
prepared pasta.
Strawberry purée pasteurisation 2450 MHz; Degradation rate of (Marszałek et al.
(Senga Sengana) 2000 W, 90 nutrients was faster 2016)
and 120°C for for microwave
10 s pasteurisation
compared to the
conventional method.
After the storage time,
43 and 34%
ofpolyphenols, 89 and
58% of anthocyanins,
as well as 57 and 52%
of antioxidant
capacity decreased for
microwave and
conventional
pasteurisation
respectively.
Green beans pasteurisation 915 MHz Microwave (Qu et al. 2021)
(Phaseolus vulgaris L.) pasteurisation causes
9.2% losses of
ascorbic acid
compared to
conventional heating
with the results of
15.3%, 28.3% and
33.9% losses of
chlorophyll a,
respectively.
Orange juice-milk pasteurisation 65 ℃, 60 s Microwaved sample (Martins et al.
beverages obtained higher 2021)
ascorbic activity
compared to

40
 traditional heating
after 28 days of
storage.
Fruit beverages pasteurisation 2450 MHz; Complete inactivation (González-
490 W of the enzymatic Monroy et al.
activity. Adverse 2018)
changes in colour
noticed by the sensory
panel.
Mexican sauces pasteurisation/ 915 MHz; Frequency of more (Hernandez-
sterilisation 2450 MHz; dense liquids Gomez et al.
5800 MHZ microwaving should 2021)
be 915 MHz.
Cow’s milk pasteurisation Frequency Increasing the milk (Bai, Saren and
unknown; 160– layer thickness (from Huo 2014)
480 W, 40–80 3–5 cm) lowers the
s vitamin C losses
during treatment.
Vegetables packs pasteurisation 915 MHz, 3500 Achieved sterility for (Koskiniemi et al.
(broccoli, pepper, W, processing a minimum of 60 days 2013)
sweetpotato) time 4–7 min of storage at 30 ℃,
Colour of broccoli
degraded
(pheophytinisation),
but was mostly
retained in the pepper
and sweet potato.
Chicken components pasteurisation 2450 MHz, 900 After 60 s and (Zeinali et al.
(drumettes) W, 10–80 s reaching a 2015)
temperature of over
74 ℃, elimination of
Listeria
monocytogenes.
Jalapeño pepper sterilisation 2450 MHz, Reduction of (De La Vega-
(Capsicum annuum 1200 W, till Salmonella Miranda et al.
L.)Coriander leaves reaching 63 ℃ Typhimurium by 5.12 2012)
(Coriandrum sativum L.) in the samples and 4.45 log in the
Jalapeńo pepper and
leaves of coriander
respectively.

41
Cow’s milk heating 2455 MHz; Microwave treatment (Kapcsándi et al.
100, 200, 300, reduced total plate 2020)
400, 496 count and yeast cell
(~500), and count by approx. 5
600 W log10 CFU/cm3.
Salmon (Salmo salar) and cooking 2450 MHz; to Microwave cooking (Ulusoy et al.
whiting internal of fish fillets reduced 2019)
2
(Merlangius merlangus) temperatures of by 4 log cfu/cm of
50 and 70 °C, Eschierichia coli
2.2 and 5.2 min O157:H7 count, 2.78
for whiting, log cfu/cm2 of
and 1.5 and 3.1 Staphylococcus
min for aureus count and by
salmon, 2.78 of Listeria
respectively monocytogenes count.
Fresh apple juice pasteurisation 2450 MHz; Pathogen reduction up (Mendes-Oliveira
600 W and 720 to 7 log10 cycles after et al. 2020)
W, treatment microwave treatment.
times: 5, 10,
15, 20, 25 s
Pehtze sterilisation 850, 1700, The microorganism (Fan et al. 2020)
2550, 3400, inactivation reached
4250 and 5100 even 98.05% after
W, treatment microwave
times: 30, 40, sterilisation.
50 s.
Red pepper (Capsicum an- sterilisation treatment Log reduction totaling (Shirkole et al.
nuum L.) times: 15, 30, 8.85 of total plate 2020)
45, 60, 75 s count and 7.37 log
reduction of yeast and
mold count after
microwave
sterilisation compared
to natural microbial
flora.
Green beans pasteurisation 915 MHz; with Microwave (Inanoglu et al.
a total pasteurisation showed 2021)
microwave a 9.0 log10 CFU/g
power of 18.7 reduction, while high
kW hydrostatic pressure

42
 demonstrated 3.7 log10
CFU/g reduction of
pathogens.
Carrot slices pasteurisation 200, 400, 600 The highest reduction (Roohi and
W, time up to level of pathogens Hashemi, 2020)
250 s (approx. 90%)
reported for 600 W
power.
Fresh durian drying 2450 MHz, Reduced product (Paengkanya et al.
(DuriozibetbinusMurr.) 150, 200 and shrinkage: higher 2015)
250 W under a pressure resulted in a
vacuum of 10 higher drying rate at
and 30 kPa all microwave power
levels.
Green peas drying 180, 360, 600, Increase in microwave (Doymaz et al.
(Pisum sativum L) and 800 W power increases 2015)
rehydration rate,
brightness and
yellowing, while
reducing the
greenness of the dried
samples.
Tomato (Solanum drying 2450 MHz, Increase in microwave (Horuz et al.
lycopersicum L.) 120, 150, and power level reduces 2017)
180 W drying time (by
microwave 46.4%, depending on
power with drying conditions).
60°C hot air Vitamin
C and lycopene
contents reduced by
81 and 89%
respectively.
Parsley (Petroselinum drying 2450 MHz, Microwaves applied (Szadzińska and
crispum) 100, 300 or intermittently in Mierzwa, 2018)
500 W, convective drying
operated at 30 improves the
°C or 50 °C, or product’s colour,
with a variable vitamin C retention
air temperature and rehydration
(50 °C/30 °C) properties.

43
Red flesh papaya intermittent 60 ℃ Intermittent (Pham et al. 2020)
microwave microwave-
convective convective drying
drying using 1/3 power ratio
with one-second time
step caused 70% of
amino acids to
degrade..
Kiwifruit intermittent 2450 MHz; Better nutrient (Pham et al. 2016)
microwave 100 W and run retention after drying
convective for 20 seconds in different power
drying at different ratio mode of fruit.
power ratio and
the hot air
drying time, 60
℃
Apple slices intermittent 2450 MHz; Four-fold faster (C. Kumar,
microwave power levels drying compared to Joardder, Farrell,
convective with a max of conventional method. Millar et al. 2016)
drying 1100W, 60 s
and then drying
for 120 s in the
convection
dryer; 60 ℃
Shitake mushrooms intermittent 225, 450 and Highest (Q. Wang et al.
microwave 675 W; 60 ℃ polysaccharide 2019)
convective content and moderate
drying level of aldehydes and
ketones formed during
treatment compared to
hot air drying and
infrared drying.
Apple cubes three-stage 360, 600, and Higher yield with (Dehghannya et
hybrid osmotic- 900 W for 10, 41.5% decrease in al. 2018)
intermittent 4, 3 min, drying time compared
microwave- respectively to conventional
convective method.
drying
Raspberry (Rubus idaeus thawing 500 W, no Thawing for 0.57 (L. Liu et al.
L) more than 15 minutes resulted in 2020)

44
 minutes 4.40% drip loss.
Red radish (Raphanus thawing 2450 MHz; Severe damage of (Xu et al. 2020)
sativus L.) 500 W radish microstructure
resulted in the highest
drip loss and lowest
vitamin C retention.
Strawberries thawing Frequency Microwave thawing (Holzwarth et al.
(Fragaria×ananassaDuch.) unknown, 700 reduced pigment and 2012)
W for 10 min vitamin C losses by
12.4% and 34.8%
respectively compared
to conventional
thawing.
The longissimus muscles thawing Frequency Higher weight loss (Xia et al. 2012)
(whole loins) unknown; (6.64 to 3.07%) and a
800W; reduction in cutting
treatment until force compared to
the core refrigerator thawing.
temperature of
samples
reached 4 ℃.
Potato (Solanum thawing Frequency No significant (Phinney et al.
tuberosum) unknown, 1250 differences in the 2017)
W, treatment degree of structure
till reaching a retention compared to
temperature of conventional thawing.
above 4 °C.
Baby mustard (Brassica thawing 700 W, Microwaves (F. Zhang et al.
juncea var. gemmifera) thawing time decreased approx. 360 2021)
reached the and 60 times
endpoint when compared with
the temperature refrigerator and air
in the centre of thawing.
the bud slices
of baby
mustard
reached 4 ℃
Chicken meat thawing 310 W for 3 The lowest (Lee et al. 2020)
min acrylamide levels in
chicken meat parts

45
 after microwave
thawing compared to
refrigerator and water
immersion thawing.
Largemouth bass thawing 2450 MHz; Relatively lower TBA (Cai, Wan et al.
(Micropterus salmoides) 300 W, amount and higher 2020)
thawing time elasticity of
reached the microwave thawed
endpoint when largemouth bass than
the temperature the other samples.
in the centre of
the samples
reached 0°C
Red seabream (Pagrus thawing 2450 MHz; Higher thermal (Cai et al. 2020;
major) 300 W, stability and Cao et al. 2018)
thawing time closerviscoelasticity,
reached the great freshness and
endpoint when significantly
the temperature decreased amine
in the centre of content with
the samples microwave thawing
reached 0°C combined with
magnetic
nanoparticles
compared to only
microwave thawing.
Bread dough thawing 100 and 300 Uneven temperature (Yang et al. 2020)
W, thawing distribution, the
time reached highest weight loss
the endpoint and adverse effect on
when the yeast in the dough
temperature in during microwaving
the center of compared to the
the samples refrigerator, ambient,
reached 20°C proofer thawing
method.
Mango fruit (Mangifera blanching Frequency Greater inactivation of (Xanthakis et al.
indica) unknown;120 ascorbic acid oxidase 2018)
W and 100 W compared to the
for high– conventional

46
 temperature blanching method.
short time
(HTST) and
low–
temperature
long time
(LTLT)
blanching, 5
min and 12
min,
respectively.
Mango fruit (Mangifera blanching Frequency Complete (Isabel et al.
indica) unknown; 1350 inactivation of 2018)
W for 120 s for polyphenol oxidase
HTST, 1350 W and low ascorbic acid
for 60 s + 420 oxidase activity in
W for 540 s for mango after heat
LTLT. treatments at 90 °C
for 2 min and at 70 °C
for 10
min, ascorbic acid
oxidase showed low
remaining activity
for the conditions
tested.
Shiitake (Lentinula blanching 150–450 W, Using a treatment (S. Chen et al.
edodes) time of process time of 150 s, the 2018)
30–150 s reduction of the total
arsenic at a
microwave power of
150, 300 and 450 W
was 33.39, 42.94 and
43.27% respectively.
Shiitake (Lentinula blanching 150 – 800 W Higher retention of (B. Li et al. 2018)
edodes) for 60 s, 300 W non-volatile flavour
for 30–150 s components compared
to water blanching
samples.
Cattle stunning Frequency Stunning lasting from (Small et al. 2019)
unknown; 80 s to 4 min. 17 of 30

47
 energy animals showed a
reaching 360 return to reflexes 100
kJ s after microwave
application.
Sheep stunning 922 and 2450 Brain temperature was (Small et al. 2013)
MHz; 4 kW; in the range 43–48 ℃
7.2–20 s after microwave
energy application for
20 s and frequency of
922 MHz.
1196 * a parameter often used to evaluate the impact of a thermal process on food quality by volumetric integration of
1197 quality losses throughout the food

1198

1199
1200 Table 3. Examples of microwave applications in nutraceuticals.
Material Microwave Microwave Results References
process system
Naproxen-sodium drying 2450 MHz; 50, After microwave (Al-Ali et al. 2020)
granules 70, and 85°C at drying, the final
4 min duration moisture content in the
for each test samples decreased
from 3.03 to 0.84% and
were more de-
agglomerated and
visually similar to
reference powder than
the other drying
methods.
Naproxen-sodium drying 70 ℃ at 1 atm Microwave-dried (Al-Ali and
drug tablets for 0.08 h tablets had higher Parthasarathy, 2020)
hardness and tensile
strength compared to
conventionally dried
samples.
O. vulgare L. ssp. hydro-distillation 180, 360, and The 600 W value (Drinić et al. 2020)
hirtum 600 W, until no shortened extraction
more essential time of by approx. 5.5,
oil was obtained had higher yield of
(ca. 20 min) essential oil by 7.10%
compared to 5.81% and

48
 higher content of
oxygenated compounds
via the combined
method compared to
hydro-distillation.
Hemp (Cannabis extraction 2450MHz; two Reduced time2-fold of (Fiorini et al. 2020)
sativa L.) magnetrons extraction and higher
with a cannabidiol yield level
maximum by microwave
delivered power extraction compared to
of 1800W hydrodistillation (9.3
(2×950 W) vs. 5.6 %, respectively)
Centella asiatica solvent-free 100, 300 and Higher 0.38% of more (Idris et al. 2020)
extraction 500 W, 5, 10, extract yield after
15 min, solvent-free microwave
respectively extraction than the
highest yield produced
in the test runs of
Taguchi design.
Japanese solvent-free 2450 MHz; 100, Results of obtained (Kohari et al. 2020)
peppermint extraction 150, 200, and essential oil yields
(Mentha arvensis 500 W for 5-90 were similar compared
L.) min to hydrodistillation, but
solvent-free microwave
extraction obtained
more fragrance
components.
O. basilicum L. solvent-free 2450 MHz; In microwaved oil, (Chenni et al. 2020)
extraction 600W for 30 lower component
min amounts were obtained
compared to
hydrodrodistillation
(e.g. linalool 43.5 vs.
48.4%). The obtained
oils demonstrated
insecticide purpose.
Microalgae extraction 60, 70, 80, 90 Interaction of brine (Zghaibi et al. 2020)
Nannochloropsi and 100 ℃, 1 – with microwaves
ssp. 30 min resulted in cell walls to
become ruptured and

49
 cracked, and a higher
PUFA percentage was
noted.
Microalgae binary phase 250 W, 55 ℃, Recovery at 130% and (Low et al. 2020)
Scenedesmu ssp solvent extraction 36 min, 250 W 3-fold reduced
and 250 rpm processing time after
stirring speed microwave treatment
compared to
conventional
extraction.
Sage herbal dust hydrodistillation 90, 180, 360, Oil extracted using (Radivojac et al.
(Salvia officinalis 600 and 800 W, microwaves at 360 W 2020)
L.) 2h obtained the highest
thymol and carvacrol
content compared to
the other parameters
and conventional
hydrodistillation.
Sugarcane hydrodistillation Parameters Higher total phenol (K. Zhang et al. 2020)
molasses unknown contents and
antioxidant activity in
microwaved samples
compared to
conventional
hydrodistillated ones.
Microwaved extract
showed better
antimicrobial activityin
inhibition zone
diameter of pathogens.
Origanum hydrodistillation 2450 MHz; 800 Extraction time (Hassanein et al.
majorana L., W, 100°C, 60 reduced 3-fold by 2020)
Mentha pipereta min microwaves compared
L., Mentha to conventional
longifolia L., hydrodistillation.
Origanum
syriacum L.,
Lavandula
angustifolia L.,
Rosmarinus

50
officinalis L. and
Thymus vulgaris
L
Sardine fish extraction 2450 MHz; 800 About 1.8 times higher (Rahimi et al. 2017)
waste W, 2, 3, 5, 7 yield of lipid obtained
and 10 min in after 10 min of
the case of microwave extraction
water as solvent than after 4 h of
using and 1-4 conventional Soxhlet
mins in case of lipid extraction.
organic solvent
usage
Opuntia ficus– distillation and Frequency 1 h microwave heating (Ciriminna et al.
indica peel diffusion unknown; at 70 ℃ gave a more 2017)
1200–1500 W concentrated, naturally
red aqueous extract.
Rosemary extraction 2450 MHz; 50– Substantial amounts of (Filly et al. 2014)
Rosmarinus 750 W oxygenated compounds
officinalis (36.2 versus 33.9%)
and lower amounts of
monoterpene
hydrocarbons (58.3%
versus 66%) are
present in the essential
oil of rosemary
extracted by
microwave technology
compared to
hydrodistillation
respectively. Reduction
of process time from 2
h to 30 min.
TheaceaeCamellia aqueous extraction Parameters Treatment with (W.G. Zhang 2016)
oleifera microwave unknown microwave before oil
puffing–pretreated extraction resulted in
seeds increased efficiency
and number of
tocopherols (by 22.2 –
39.4%), squalene (by
6.3 – 29.2%) and

51
 phytosterols (by 6.7 –
14.8%) of the oils
extracted by aqueous
extraction.
ferulates [3–O– synthesis 2450 MHz; High production yield (Begum et al. 2016)
(trans–4– 1400 W and relatively low
feruloyl)–sterols] production cost.
green algae extraction 2450 MHz; Improved by 30% oil (Balasubramanian et
Scenedesmus 1200 W recovery yield al. 2011)
obliquus compared to a
conventional water
bath extraction. More
than 77% of
recoverable oil was
extracted in 30 min,
compared to 47% for
control.
bioactive peptides synthesis Parameters Solvent-free synthesis (Mahindra et al.
unknown assisted by microwaves 2014)
requires about 1.2 fold
excess of reactants to
provide peptides in 15
min at 60 ℃. Use of
microwaves also
allowssuccessful
coupling of amino
acids bearing side-
chain reactive groups.
1201
1202
1203 Table 4. Examples of microwave applications in waste management.
Material Microwave Microwave Results References
process system
Rape meal and Pyrolysis 2450 MHz; A significant (Budarin et al. 2014)
wheat straw 100–1200 W improvement in total
recovered carbon
compared to
conventional
microwave pyrolysis of
rape meal occurs at

52
 temperatures lower
(150 and 100 ℃) than
in conventional
methods.
Citrus peel Distillation 2450 MHz; 800 93% of the microwave (Budarin et al. 2014;
W, to a energy is effectively Djilas, Canadanovic-
temperature absorbed. The Brunet and Cetkovic
between 120 microwave 2009)
and 200 ℃ with hydrothermal method
a holding time increases molecular
of 20 min weight by almost 150%
and decreases
polydispersity index by
almost 40% compared
to commercial orange
pectin
Mango peel extraction 700 W, 3 min Extractable yield of (Wongkaew et al.
pectin obtained 13.85% 2020)
with a structure of
greater porosity as
compared to sample
conventionally
extracted.
Potato pulp continuous-flow 2450 MHz; 400 Extractable yield of (Arrutia et al. 2020)
extraction and 800 W; 5-60 pectin obtained 40-45%
min, under (as a galacturonic acid
constant stirring content), whereas the
at 600 rpm water extraction yield
was 2 times less.
Sweet lemon extraction 2450 MHz; 300, Extractable yield of (Rahmani et al. 2020)
peel 500, 700 W, 1, pectin obtained 25.31%
2, 3 min in most optimal
conditions.
Banana peel extraction 1000 W Extractable yield of (Rivadeneira et al.
pectin obtained14.4%. 2020)
Rice husk pyrolysis 2450 MHz; 400 Heating value (Sahoo and Remya
– 900 W, 10 – increased after being 2020)
20 min microwaved compared
to unprocessed rice
husk. The yield of

53
 biochar reached 39-
68%.
Olive pomace pyrolysis 2450 MHz; 150 Microwave pyrolysis (Kostas et al. 2020)
– 900 W for 20 up to 80% of the olive
– 240 sec to pomace was as low as
give specific 3.6 kJ/g, of which 30%
energies of 1.8 was the bio-oil yield.
(low), 2.4
(medium) and
3.6 (high) kJ/g,
respectively
Fish waste hydrothermal 2450 MHz; 50– Temperature of (Kannan, Gariepy and
carbonisation 210 °C, 90–120 microwave Raghavan 2017)
min hydrothermal
carbonisation approx.
200°C and a time of
approx. 119 min
reached max hydrochar
(approx. 34%).
Sewage sludge pyrolysis 2450 MHz; 600, Biogas yield of (Y. Liu et al. 2020)
700, 800, conventional pyrolysis
and 900 ℃ significantly increased
compared to
microwave treatment
(9.07 vs. 3.67 mmol/g,
respectively). During
microwave pyrolysis,
more hydrogen was
converted directly to
tar instead of being
released into biogas.
Biosludge pyrolysis 2450 MHz; 900 Lower microwave (K. H. Lin et al. 2020)
W, 400-800 ℃, energy consumption
maintained for resulted in higher
30 min energy recovery
efficiency (even 24%
dry-wt.% of oil)
Sewage sludge Pyrolysis 2450 MHz; Microwave pyrolysis is (Zuo, Tian and Ren
with receptors 1000 W more efficiency with 2011)
receptors addition. The

54
 use of SiC resulted in
the highest yield of gas
fraction of 63.2 wt.% at
the highest final
temperature (1130 ℃).
Active carbon is the
most suitable for
producing syngas (H2 +
CO) from sewage
sludge.
1204

1205

55

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