Ancient India Part - 1

(2000000 BC – 750 AD)

Scheme of the classes :
1. Pre- history (2000000 BC – 3000 BC )
2. Proto history (3000 BC – 1500 BC )
3. Vedic age ( 1500 BC – 600 BC )
4. Maha janapadhas (600 BC – 500 BC )
5. Magadha Empire (5th Cen BC – 4th Cen BC )
6. Maurya ( 4th Cen BC - 2nd Cen BC )
7. Post Maurya (2nd Cen BC – 3rd Cen AD )
8. Guptas (4th Cen AD – 6th Cen AD )
9. Post Guptas (6th Cen AD – 7th Cen AD )
10. Harsha (8th Cen AD)
Pre – Historic
• No written evidence.
• Source of history – Tools made of stones
• Lithic age.
• Paleolithic Period (2 million BC – 10,000 BC)
• Mesolithic Period (10,000 BC – 8,000 BC)
• Neolithic Period (8000 BC – 4,000 BC)
• Chalcolithic Period (4000 BC – 1,500 BC)
Paleolithic Period (2 million BC – 10,000 BC)
• Fire is not known
• Tools made up of lime stone rough and undressed.
• Quartzite rock.
• Ostrich Eggs
• Important Paleolithic sites: Bhimbetka (M.P), Hunsgi, Kurnool Caves,
Narmada Valley (Hathnora, M.P), Kaladgi Basin
Huminids :
•Upper Palaeolithic age human
Homo Erectus :
•Middle Palaeolithic age
Lower Palaeolithic age :

Palaeolithic sites :

Bhimbetka -
Palaeolithic age –
Mesolithic Period (Middle Stone Age)
•Major climate change happened.
•Climate became warmer and more humid.
•Rainfall increased and so more availability of flora and fauna.
•Domestication of animals and plants were seen for the first time.
•Started 12000 years ago.
•First animal to be domesticated was the wild ancestor of the dog.
•Sheep and goats were the most common domesticated animals.
•Hunting and food gathering continued.
•First human colonization of the Ganga plains.
•Microlith have been excavated.
•They are small stone tools that were probably stuck to stones to be used as
saws and sickles
Mesolithic sites :

Major sites:
•Brahmagiri (Mysore)
•Narmada
•Vindhya
•Gujarat
•UP
•Sojat (Rajasthan)
•Bhimbetka
•Godavari Basin
•Sarai Nahar Rai
Neolithic Period (New Stone Age)
•Starting of agriculture
•Moving from nomadic to settled life
•Wheel was discovered.
•Ragi, wheat and horse gram were cultivated
•They knew to make fire
•Knew pottery
•Art was seen in cave paintings of dance
•Also show first intentional disposal of the dead
•Wove cotton and wool to make clothes
•Known the art of making boats
Important sites:
•Inamgaon
•Burzahom (Kasmir)
•Mehrgarh (Pakistan)
•Daojali Hading (Tripura/Assam)
•Hallur (AP)
•Paiyampalli (AP)
•Chirand (Bihar)
•Evidence of houses

Chalcolithic Period (Copper Age/Bronze Age)

•Copper Age. Can be considered part of Bronze Age. (Bronze = Copper + Tin)
•Painted pottery was used for the first time
•Indus Valley Civilization (BC 2700 – BC 1900).
•Also cultures at Brahmagiri, Navada Toli (Narmada region), Mahishadal
(W.Bengal), Chirand (Ganga region)

Indus Valley Civilization

(3000BC -1500BC)
The Discoverers of Indus Valley Civilization:
•Alexander Cunningham – He was the first Director-General of ASI. He Began
excavations around mid nineteenth century.
•John Marshall – He was the DG of ASI in 1927 and first professional
Archaeologist of India. But he excavated horizontally and all finds were grouped
together even when they were found at different stratigraphic layers. This
caused loss of very valuable information regarding.
•R.E.M. Wheeler – He followed the stratigraphy of excavations rather than just
excavating horizontally.
Introduction :
•The Indus Valley civilization is the first known Urban Culture in India.
•Majority of the sites developed on the banks of river Indus, Ghaggar and its
tributaries.
•This civilization is credited for building cities complete with : town planning,
sanitation, drainage system and broad well-laid roads.
•They also built double storied houses of burnt-bricks complete with bathroom ,
kitchen, and a well.
•Their Walled cities had important buildings such as, the Great Bath, Granaries
and the Assembly Halls.
{Citadel and lower town :
•City was divided into Citadel(west) and Lower Town(east)
[Red pottery painted with designs in black] }
•Their Agriculture was considered major occupation for rural areas.
•While the City residents were involved in internal & external trade which led to
developed contacts with other civilizations ( e.g. Mesopotamia).
•Harappans were excellent potters as is evident by their artifacts.
•Harappans also had technical knowledge of metals & process of alloying (e.g.
bronze sculpture of dancing girl found in Mohenjodaro).
•Also, Shell, ivory, bone and faience were used as material for different crafts.
[Copper, bronze, silver, gold present]
Indus Valley Society and Culture :
•Systematic method of weights and measures ( 16 and its multiples).
•Pictographic Script, Boustrophedon script – Deciphering efforts by
I. Mahadevan
•Equal status to men and women
•Economic Inequality, not an egalitarian society
•Textiles – Spinning and weaving
•3 types – burial, cremation and post cremation were there, though burial was
common.
•Majority of people Proto-australoids and Mediterraneans (Dravidians), though
Mongoloids, Nordics etc were present in the city culture
[Stone weights , Scripts]
•They also worshipped male god resembling Lord Shiva called as Pasupati
Mahadev of later times and a mother goddess.
•They also probably believed in life after death and also in charms and spells.
•Their Seals were engraved with animal figures (e.g. humped bull, tiger,
elephant and rhinoceros). This suggests that these animals were
considered sacred.
•Harappans used to worship plants, animals and the forces of nature.
•Sugar cane not cultivated, horse, iron not used.
Religion of Indus Valley People :
•Pashupathi Mahadev (Proto Siva)
•Mother goddess
•Nature/ Animal worship
•Unicorn, Dove, Peepal Tree, Fire
•Amulets
•Idol worship was practiced ( not a feature of Aryans)
•Did not construct temples.
•Similarity to Hindu religious practices. (Hinduism in its present form originated
later)
•No Caste system.
[Burial , Seals of IVC]
Indus Valley Sites and Specialties :
Harappa
•Daya Ram sahni.
•Seals out of stones
•Citadel outside on banks of river Ravi
•6 granaries.
•Only evidence of coffin burial.
•Phallus worship.
•Mother goddess.
•Graveyard.
Mohenjodaro
•RD Banerjee
•Great Bath, Great Granary, Dancing Girl, Man with Beard, Cotton, Assembly
hall
•Term means ” Mount of the dead” On the bank of river Indus
•Believed to have been destructed by flood or invasion
(flood more than 7 times).
Chanhudaro
•Bank of Indus river. – discovered by Gopal Majumdar and Mackey (1931)
•Pre-harappan culture – Jhangar Culture and Jhukar Culture
•Only city without citadel.
Kalibangan
•At Rajastan on the banks of river Ghaggar, discovered by A.Ghosh (1953)
•Fire Altars
•Bones of camel
•Evidence of furrows
•Horse remains
•Rectangular and circular grave.
•Lower fortified town.
•Copper ox.
•Evidence of earthquake.
•Wooden plough.
Lothal
•At Gujarat near Bhogava river, discovered by S.R. Rao (1957)
•Fire Altars
•Beside the tributary of Sabarmati
•Store house
•Dockyard and earliest port
•double burial
•Rice husk
•House had front entrance (exception).
•Copper dog.
Ropar
•Punjab, on the banks of river Sutlej. Discovered by Y.D Sharma (1955)
•Buildings made of stone and soil.
•Dog buried with humans.
•One inscribed steatite seal with typical Indus pictographs.
•Oval pit burials.
Banawali
•Haryana
•On banks of lost river Saraswathi
•Oval shaped settlement.
•Only city with radial streets.
•Toy plough.
•Largest number of barley grains.
Dholavira
•Biggest site in India, until the discovery of Rakhigarhi.
•Located in Khadir Beyt, Rann of Kutch, Gujarat. Discovered by
J.P.Joshi/Rabindra Singh (1990)
•Only site to be divided into three parts.
•Giant water reservoir.
•Unique water harnessing system.
•Dams.
•Embankments.
•A stadium.
•Rock – cut architecture.
Reasons for Decline of Indus Valley Civilization :
•weaker monsoon
•Environmental changes
• loss of power of rulers (central administration)
•resource shortage
•inter-personal violence,
•infectious diseases
•climate change
Other theories
•Aryan Invasion : Motimer Wheeler
•Tectonic Movements/ Flood – Robert Raikes
•Change of course of river Indus – Lambrick.
 Vedic Civilization
( 1500- 600 BCE)
Introduction :
• The decline of Indus Valley civilization by 1500 BCE
•The next wave of civilization began to take shape in form of Aryan occupation
of Indo-Gangetic plain.
The Aryans
•The word Aryan is derived from the Sanskrit word “arya” which means noble,
not ordinary.
•They arrived from Russian steppes, as is believed and agreed to by majority
historians.
• Bal Gangadhar Tilak argued that Aryans came from the Arctic region following
their astronomical calculations.
•It is generally agreed that they spoke Indo-Aryan Language, Sanskrit.
•They were semi-nomadic, pastoral people, who led a rural life as compared to
the urban Harappans.
Indo – European theory :
Sapta Sindhavah :
•Vitasta - (Jhelum)
•Asikni - (Chenab)
•Parusni - (Ravi)
•Vipas - (Beas)
•Sutudri - (Sutlej)
•Marudvrdha.
•Sarasvati - Ghaggar River Arghandab and Helmand rivers, as a possible locus of
early Rigvedic references.
Vedic Literature :
•The term Veda means “superior knowledge” in Sanskrit.
•Four major Vedas constitute the vedic literature. They are –
•Rig Veda.
•Yajur Veda.
•Sam Veda.
•Atharva Veda.
Rig Veda
•The text is a collection of 1,028 hymns and 10,600 verses, organized into ten
books (Mandalas)
•The hymns are dedicated to Rigvedic deities.
•The eight books that were composed the earliest, the hymns predominantly
discuss cosmology and praise deities.
•Books 1 and 10 - added last-philosophical – speculative questions about the
origin of the universe and the nature of god. the virtue of dāna (charity) in
society and other metaphysical issues in its hymns.
•Evidence indicate that the Rig-Veda was composed in the north-western region
of the Indian subcontinent, most likely between c. 1500 and 1200 BC
• The initial codification of the Rig-Veda took place during the early Kuru
kingdom
Composers
•Angiras •Kanva •Vasishtha •Vishvamitra •Atri
•Bhrgu •Kashyapa •Grtsamada •Agastya •Bharata

Yajur Veda
• It describes the way in which religious rituals and sacred ceremonies should be
performed.
•The name comes from Sanskrit word, yajus, meaning "worship" or "sacrifice,"
and veda, meaning "knowledge.“
•The white "Yajur Veda" deals with prayers and specific instructions for
devotional sacrifices.
•The black "Yajur Veda" deals with instructions for sacrificial rituals.
•It also contains the principles of pranayama and asana practice - Vedic yoga.
Sam Veda
• The Samaveda is compiled exclusively for ritual application, for its verses are
all meant to be chanted at the ceremonies of the Soma-sacrifice.
•In the ritualistic tradition, these verses are sung at those sacrifices in which
Soma- juice with other ingredients is offered to various deities.
• Indra, Agni and Soma deities are mainly invoked and praised but most of the
time these prayers seem to be the invocations for the Supreme Being.
Atharva Veda
• "knowledge storehouse of atharvāṇas, the procedures for everyday life".
•Surgical and medical speculations
•Charms against fever, jaundice and diseases
•Remedy from medicinal herbs
•Spells and prayers to gain a lover, wife
•Speculations on the nature of man, life, good and evil
•Prayer for peace
Upanishads
• "sitting down near the Guru“ – deals
•The Upanishads are commonly referred to as Vedānta.
•Vedanta has been interpreted as the "last chapters, parts of the Veda" and
alternatively as "the object, the highest purpose of the Veda".
•Rig Veda → Aitareya
•Sama Veda → Chāndogya Kena
•Yajur Veda → Kaṭha Maitrāyaṇi Taittirīya and Śvetāśvatara
•Atharva → Prashna Upanishad , Māṇḍūkya and Muṇḍaka
Aranyakas
•The Aranyakas constitutes the philosophy behind ritual sacrifice of the ancient
Indian sacred texts, the Vedas
•"Aranyaka" literally means "produced, born, relating to a forest " or "belonging
to the wilderness". It is derived from the root Araṇya which means "forest,
wilderness".
•Rigveda → Aitareya Aranyaka Kaushitaki
•Yajurveda → Taittiriya Aranyaka Maitrayaniya Aranyaka Katha Aranyaka Brihad
Aranyaka
•Samaveda → Talavakara Aranyaka
Brahmanas
•Rules for performing sacrificial ceremonies.
•Each Veda is attached with several brahmanas.
•Most important one “ satpatha Brahmana” attached to yajur veda.
Vedangas - limbs of vedas
•Shiksha – phonetics
•Kalpa – rituals
•Jyotisha – astronomy
•Vyakaran – Grammar
•Nirukta – etymology •Chanda - Metrics
Purana (Literally means old)
•4th – 6th century.
•Proper brahminical values and practices.
•Speaks about four ages – sathya , treta, dvapara, kali.
Sarga – creation of the world
Pratisarga – re creation of the world
Manvantaras – periods of various manus
Vamsha – genealogies of gods and rishis
Vamshanucharita – text relating to royal dynasties
(suryavamshi/chandravamshi)
Dharmshastra
•Code of conduct.
•4 ashrams
•Bramacharya
•Grihastha
•Vanaprasta
•sanyasa
Upaveda
Upaveda means applied knowledge and are traditional literatures which contain
the subjects of certain technical works.
•Āyurveda: Deals in Medicine and associated with the Rigveda
•Dhanurveda: Deals in Archery and associated with the Yajurveda
•Gāndharvaveda: Deals with Music and Dance and associated with the
Samaveda
•Shastrashastra: Deals with military technology and associated with the
Atharvaveda
Epics
•Ramayana
•Mahabaratha
 Classification of Vedic Period
•The period of Vedic Civilization(1500-500 BCE) is divided into two broad parts –
•Early Vedic Period (1500-1000 BC), also known as Rig Vedic Period.
•Later Vedic Period (1000- 600 BC).
Political Organization in Vedic Age:
Early Vedic Age
•‘Kula‘ was the basic unit of political organization.
•Multiple families together of kinship formed a ‘grama‘.
•Leader of ‘grama’ was ‘Gramani‘.
•Group of villages were called ‘visu’, headed by ‘vishayapati‘.
•The highest political and administrative unit was ‘jana‘ or tribe.
•There were several such tribal kingdoms – Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus and Purus.
•The head of kingdom was ‘Rajan‘ or king.
•The Rig Vedic polity was hereditary monarchy normally.
•There were two bodies- Sabha(council of elders) and Samiti(general assembly
of people).
Later Vedic Age
•Larger kingdoms by amalgamation formed ‘Mahajanapadas or rashtras‘.
•Therefore, the power of king increased and he performed various rituals and
sacrifices to make his position strong like Rajasuya (consecration ceremony),
Asvamedha (horse sacrifice) and Vajpeya (chariot race).
•The kings assumed titles of Rajavisvajanan, Ahilabhuvanapathi(lord of all
earth), Ekrat and Samrat (sole ruler).
•Importance of the Samiti and the Sabha diminished.
Society in Vedic Civilization :
Early Vedic Age
•The Rig Vedic society was basically patriarchal.
•The basic unit of society was ‘graham’ or family, its head was called as
‘grahapathi’.
•Monogamy was practiced while polygamy among royal and noble families was
observed.
•Women had equal opportunities as men for their spiritual and intellectual
development.
•Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamudra were women poets.
•Women could attend the popular assemblies.
•No child marriage, sati practice.
•Social divisions were not rigid.
Later Vedic Age
•The Varna system became prevalent- four divisions of society :Brahmins,
Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras.
•A Brahmin and Kshatriyas occupied a higher position than others.
•Various sub-castes on the basis of occupation emerged.
•Women were considered inferior and subordinate to men now and also lost
their political rights of attending assemblies.
•Child marriages became common
Economic Conditions in Vedic Civilization :

Early Vedic Age

•The Rig Vedic Aryans were pastoral, cattle rearing people.
•After they permanently settled in North India they began agriculture.
•Carpenters produced chariots and ploughs.
•A variety of articles with copper, bronze and iron were made by workers.
•Spinning was an important occupation – cotton and woolen fabrics.
•Goldsmiths made ornaments.
•The potters made different kinds of vessels for domestic use.
•Trade was conducted by barter system in begining but later shifted to use of
gold coins called ‘nishka‘ for large transactions.
•Rivers acted as means of transport.
Later Vedic Age
•More land was put under cultivation by clearing forests. Knowledge of manure
saw development.
•Hence, Agriculture became the chief occupation of people growing barley, rice
and wheat.
•Industrial activity became specialized with metal work, leather work, carpentry
and pottery advancement.
•Internal trade as well as foreign trade also became extensive (they traded with
Babylon through sea).
•Hereditary merchants (vaniya) came into existence as a different class.
•Vaisyas indulged in trade and commerce organized themselves into guilds
known as ‘ganas‘.
•Coins: Beside ‘nishka’, ‘satamana’– gold coins and ‘krishnala‘ – silver coins
were also used as a media of exchange.
Religion in Vedic Period :
Early Vedic Age
•Rig Vedic Aryans worshiped natural forces like earth, fire, wind, rain and
thunder by personifying them into many gods.
•Some important Rig Vedic gods – Prithvi (Earth), Agni (Fire), Vayu (Wind),
Varuna (Rain) and Indra (Thunder). And ‘Indra’ was most popular. Next came
‘Agni’ – an intermediary between the gods and the people.
•‘Varuna’ – the upholder of natural order.
•Female Gods – ‘Aditi’ and ‘Ushas’.
•No temples and no idol worship.
•Prayers were offered to gods for rewards.
Rig Vedic gods – Indra, Varuna, Yama, Surya, Rudra
Later Vedic Age
•Indra and Agni lost their importance.
•Prajapathi (the creator), Vishnu (the protector) and Rudra (the destroyer)
became prominent.
•Sacrifices and the rituals became more elaborate.
•But the importance of prayers declined.
•Priesthood became a hereditary profession. They dictated the rules for these
rituals and sacrifices.
•Therefore, by the end of this period there was a strong reaction against this
priestly domination (also against elaborate sacrifices and rituals). This led to the
rise of Buddhism and Jainism.
Later vedic gods – Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva
 Mahajanapadas
•In 6th century BC, ancient India had a number of kingdoms which emerged
during the Vedic Age .
•This period saw socio-economic deveopment along with religious and political
developments across the Indo-Gangetic plain.
• These permanent settlements led the evolution from janapadas to
mahajanpadas.
•By sixth century BC, the centre of major political activity shifted from western
part of gangetic plain to the eastern part, comprising the present day Bihar and
eastern UP.
•Major reason for this shift was, the fertile lands of this area with better rainfall
and rivers, their closeness to iron production centres also played a key role.
• In fact, it was the increased use of iron tools and weapons that enabled small
states to become kingdoms, known as Mahajanapadas.
Ganasangha
•Majority of these states were monarchical but some were also republics,
known as “ganasangha”.
•Ganasangha had oligarchic system for governance where administration was
headed by an elected king, who had a large council for his aid.
•This was close to be called a democracy
•but common man had no say in administration.
 Kingdoms
•Anga: This mahajanapada finds mention in the Atharva Veda and the
‘Mahabharata’.During the reign of Bimbisara, it was taken over by Magadha
empire. It is located in present day Bihar and west Bengal.
•Magadha: It also finds reference in the Atharva Veda which tells that Magadha
was semi-brahmanical place. It was situated in present day Bihar close to Anga,
separated by river Champa. Later, Magadha became a center of Jainism. Along
with that, the first Budhist Council was held in Rajagriha.
•Kasi: It was located around Varanasi which was the capital as well. It is
believed that this city got its name from rivers Varuna and Asi as mentioned in
the Matsya Purana.
•Vatsa or Vamsa: This mahajanapada followed the monarchical form of
governance. This kingdom was one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas. And its
capital was located at Kausambi. This was an important city for economic
activities. There was a prosperous trade and business scenario in 6th century
BC. After the rise of Buddha, the ruler Udayana made Buddhism a state religion.
Vatsa was located around the present day Allahabad
•Kosala: It was located in modern Awadh region of Uttar pradesh. Its capital
was Ayodhya.
•Saurasena: Its capital was Mathura. This place was a centre of Krishna worship
at time of Megasthenes. Also there was a dominant followers of Budhha here.
•Panchala: Its capital was Ahichchatra and Kampilaya for its northern and
southern regions respectively.It was located in present day western Uttar
Pradesh. And it shifted from monarchy to being a republic later.
•Kuru: Their capital was Indraprastha in present day meerut and Haryana. The
region around Kurukshetra was supposedly the site for kuru Mahajanapada. It
shifted to a republic form of governance later.
•Matsya: It was located to south of the Kurus and west of the Panchalas. Its
capital was at Viratanagar, which lays around present day Jaipur.
•Chedi : This was mentioned in the Rigveda, Its capital was Sothivati. It lay
around the present day Bundelkhand region.
•Avanti: Avanti was important in terms of rise of Buddhism. Its capital was
located at Ujjaini or Mahismati. It was located around present day Malwa and
Madhya Pradesh.
Gandhara: Their capital was at Taxila. Gandhara are mentioned in the Atharva
Veda as people who were highly trained in art of war. It was important for
international commercial activities.
•Kamboja: Kamboja had its capital named as Pooncha. It is located in present
day Kashmir and Hindukush. Various literary sources mention that Kamboja was
a republic.
•Ashmaka or Assaka: The capital of this mahajanapada was located at
Pratisthan or Paithan. Ashmaka was located at the bank of Godavari.
•Vajji: Its capital was Vaishali. It was an important Mahajanapadas. The major
races residing here were Licchavis, Vedehans, Jnatrikas and Vajjis.
•Malla: It was one of the sixteen mahajanapadas. It finds mention in
‘Mahabharata’ and Buddhist and Jain texts. They were a republic (Sangha). Their
capital was Kusinara located around present day Deoria and Uttar Pradesh.

The Pre Mauryan Dynasties

Rise of Magadha
•Location of Magadha was across the upper and lower parts of Gangetic valley,
this was highly adventageous.
•This area had fertile soil, which supported agriculture.
•Rajgir, the capital city of Magadha had reserves of Iron ore readily available.
•There were copper and iron deposits near Gaya.
•Magadha was situated on the highways of trade which contributed to its
wealth.
Three important dynasties : •Haryanka dynasty
•Sisunga dynasty
•Nanda dynasty

Haryanka Dynasty
Bimbisara (558 BC – 491 BC) :
•Son of Bhattiya.
•He ruled over Magadha from 544 BC to 493 BC.
•Contemporary and follower of the Buddha. Was also said to be an admirer of
Mahavira.
•Had his capital at Girivraja (Rajgir).
•Also known as Sreniya.
•Was the first king to have a standing army.
•He started the practice of using matrimonial alliances to strengthen his
political position.
•He had three wives: Kosaladevi (King of Kosala’s daughter and the sister of
Prasenjit), Chellana (daughter of the Lichchavi chief of Vaisali) and Khema
(daughter of the king of Modra, Punjab).
•He followed a policy of conquest and expansion. Most notable conquest by
Bimbisara was that of Anga.
•He had an effective and excellent administrative system. The officers
occupying high posts were divided into three – executive, military and judicial.
Ajatasatru (492 BC - 460 BC) :
•Son of Bimbisara and Chellana.
•He killed his father and became ruler.
•Embraced Buddhism.
•He convened the First Buddhist Council at Rajagriha just after the death of
Buddha in 483 BC.
•Won wars against Kosala and Vaishali.
Udayin :
•Son of Ajatasatru.
•Shifted the capital to Pataliputra (Patna).
•Last of the major Haryanka rulers.
•Succeeded by three kings
•Aniruddha, Manda and Nagadasaka
Sisunaga Dynasty
Sisunaga :
•According to Sri Lankan chronicles, the people of Magadha revolted during the
reign of Nagadasaka and placed an amatya (minister) named Sisunaga as king.
•Was the viceroy of Kasi before becoming king of Magadha.
•Capital was at Girivaraja.
•He annexed Avanti and brought an end to the long rivalry between Magadha
and Avanti.
•Later shifted the capital to Vaishali.
Kalasoka : •Son of Sisunaga.
•Kalasoka shifted the capital to Pataliputra.
•He conducted the Second Buddhist Council at Vaishali.
•He was killed in a palace revolution that brought the Nanda dynasty to the
throne
Nanda Dynasty
This was the first non-Kshatriya dynasty. The first ruler was Mahapadma Nanda
who usurped the throne of Kalasoka.
Mahapadma Nanda :
•He is called the “first historical emperor of India.”
•He murdered Kalasoka to become the king.
•His origins are not clear. As per the Puranas, he was the son of the last
Sisunaga king from a Sudra woman. As per some Jain texts and Greek writer
Curtius, he was the son of a barber and a courtesan.
•His reign lasted for twenty eight years from 367 BC to 338 BC.
•He is also called “Sarva Kshatriyantaka” (destroyer of all the kshatriyas) and
“Ekrat”.
•The empire grew under his reign. It ran from the Kuru country in the north to
the Godavari Valley in the south and from Magadha in the east to Narmada on
the west.
•He conquered many kingdoms including Kalinga.
•The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga refers to the conquest of
Kalinga by the Nandas
Dhana Nanda :
•He was the last Nanda ruler.
•He is referred to as Agrammes or Xandrames in Greek texts.
•Alexander invaded North-Western India during his reign; but he could not
proceed towards the Gangetic plains because of his army’s refusal.
•He inherited a huge empire from his father. He possessed a standing army of
200,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry, 3000 elephants and 2000 chariots. He became
a powerful ruler because of this.
•He is said to be one of the 8 or 9 sons of Mahapadma Nanda.
•He became unpopular with his subjects owing to an oppressive way of
extorting taxes. Also, his Sudra origins and an anti-kshatriya policy led to a large
number of enemies.
•Finally he was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya along with Chanakya,
which led to the foundations of the Maurya Empire in Magadha.
Invasion by Alexander :
•Alexander crossed the Hindukush Mountains in 327 BC
•spent 10 months in fighting with the tribes.
•He then moved across the Indus where the ruler of Taxila, Ambhi greeted him.
•Alexander asked Porus to submit to him but Porus refused his offer and
decided to fight against Alexander.
•Thereafter, Alexander marched to the banks of the river Jhelum (Hydaspes)
from Taxila.
•Porus lost the battle after fighting with courage and heroism.
•Alexander gave him his throne back after being impressed by his abilities.
•Thereafter Alexander retreated back because his soldiers refused to fight.

The Effect of Alexander’s Invasion:

•This invasion encouraged the unification of Northern India under the Mauryas,
as we will study further.
•This contact with Greeks led to development of ties between India and Greece.
•This direct contact opened the trade routes along the way Alexandar arrived.
•Hence, overall the trade relations between India and west Asia developed.

Mauryan Empire
(322 – 185 B.C.)
Rulers
•Majority of India was united as a single state by the great founder emperor
Chandragupta Maurya.
•Bindusara - extended the kingdom over entire sub-continent. most powerful
military in ancient India.
•Ashoka - He was a skillful warrior and an able administrator.
Mauryan administration
•Chanakya or Kautilyas Arthashastra explains the kind the of administration
system followed in the Maurya Empire.
•The book has 15 sub-parts which contain 180 chapters.
•This book provides the most important literary source for study of the
Mauryan administration.
The Central Government
•The King was supreme source of all power and authorities with judicial and
administrative powers.
•Mauryan Administration was a very centralized system.
•the council of Ministers was called ‘Mantriparishad’.
•There was a ‘mantriparishad-adhyakshya’ to head the Council, this is similar to
our present Prime-Minister.

Intelligence
•The espionage system - developed and well-spread.
•Two types of spies- ‘Sansthana’ (the stationary) and ‘Sanchari’ (the wandering
one).
•These spies acted as eyes and ears for the King
•The detectives - ‘Gudhapurusha’.
•These agents included people from various segments of society, like,
householders, merchants, ascetics, disciples, etc.
•There were special agents who acted as Poisonous girls called as ‘Vishkanyas’.
Army
•Commander-in-chief - immediately junior to the king- ‘Senapati’.
•The Senapati was appointed by the king.
•The salaries in Mauryan army were paid in cash.
•Their army included six lakh infantry, about 30,000 cavalry, nine thousand war
elephants, eight thousand chariots.
•The Mauryans had a War Council divided into six sub-councils which
formulated policy five sectors of the army – the infantry, the cavalry, the
elephant forces, the chariots, the navy and the commiserate.
•The Mauryans made innovations in field of Navy, Transport and Supply Wings.
Transport
•Transport - separate Department of Road.
•The department decided the width of cattle tracks, chariots, and pedestrians,
were prescribed differently.
•There were also trunk roads managed by the Department of Roads.
•Facilities for travelers were created along the roads, trees on both sides of the
road were planted, Inns or restrooms for the travelling people were constructed
near the roads, care was taken to provide drinking water to travelers by means
of wells and canals.
Revenue Department
•The chief of Revenue Department -‘Samharta’, he was in-charge all revenue
collection.
•The revenues was collected from land, irrigation, customs, shop tax, ferry tax,
forests, mines and pastures,
•license fee from craftsmen, and fines collected in the law courts.
•The value of land revenue demanded fixed at ‘one-sixth’ of the produce.
•Majority of this revenue went to expenditure related to the household of the
king, army, the government servants, poor relief, public works, etc.
Agriculture
•The chief of Agriculture department was known as ‘Sitadhyaksha’.
•Then there was separate irrigation department as well which looked after a
network of canals.
•These canals provided water for irrigation according to land requirements.
 THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE MAURYAN RULERS

Chandragupta Maurya (322 – 298 B.C.) :

•Chandragupta Maurya was the first ruler who unified entire country into one
political unit, called the Mauryan Empire.
•He had captured Pataliputra from Dhanananda, who was the last ruler of the
Nanda dynasty.
•He didn’t do achieve this feat alone, he was assisted by Kautilya, who was also
known as Vishnugupta or Chanakya. Some scholars think that Chanakya was the
real architect of this empire.
•After establishing his reign in the Gangetic valley, Chandragupta Maurya
marched to the northwest and conquered territories upto the Indus. In the
north, he occupied the region north of river Narmada.
•In 305 B.C., he defeated Selukas Niketar, who was controlling the
northwestern part of India that was under greek control.
•A treaty was concluded, under which, Selukas Niketar ceded the territories of
Kabul, Kandhar, Herat, Baluchistan – to the Mauryan Empire. He gave his
daughter in marriage to the Mauryan Prince.
•Seleucus sent Megasthenes to the Mauryan court as Greek ambassador.
•Greeks called him Sandrocottas.
•He established a vast empire, extending from Afganistan to Assam and from
Kashmir to Karnataka(except Kalinga).
•Later in life, Chandragupta embraced Jainism and stepped down from the
throne for his son Bindusara to take over. There after he went to Sravana
Belgola, in Karnataka along with Jain monks who were led by Bhadrabhagu and
starved himself to death.
Bindusara (298 – 273 B.C.) :
•Some scholars believe Bindusara conquered the Deccan areas up to Mysore.
•Taranatha, the Tibetan monk mentions that Bindusara conquered sixteen
states consisting ‘the land between the two seas’.
•Bindusara maintained friendly relations with Hellenic world. He received
Dionysius as ambassador from Ptolemy Philadelphus of Egypt.
•Bindusara supported the Ajivikas sect.
•Bindusara appointed his elder son Susima as governor of Taxila and Asoka as
the governor of Ujjain.
Asoka the Great (273 – 232 B.C.)

•About his early life, only few things are known. He served as Governor of Ujjain
and also took care of Taxila during his father Bindusara’s reign to help his
brother who was facing revolt.
•It is clear from the buddhist sources that the succession of Asoka was a
disputed one.
•Hewas the first ruler in Indian history who has left his records on engraved
stones.
•His inscriptions are found in India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Nepal at 47 places.
•His name is found on only the copies of Minor Rock edict I at 1 place in MP and
3 places in Karnataka.
•At every other incription found on ancient highways, he is refered to either as
‘Devanampiya’ or as ‘piyadasi’.
•different scripts have been used on his incriptions. Greek and Aramaic in
Afghanistan; Kharoshti script and Prakrit language in Pakistan; Brahmi script in
prakrit language at other places.
•The most important event of Asoka’s reign was his war with Kalinga in 261
B.C.about which he has mentioned in the Rock edict XIII. This describes in detail
the horrors of war, that deeply disturbed him.
•Under the effect of Kalinga war, Asoka embraced Buddhism by the influence of
Buddhist monk, Upagupta.
•Extent of Asoka’s Empire: Ashoka added Kalinga to his territory.
Asoka’s Dhamma/Dharma (moral law) :
•Although Asoka embraced Buddhism as his religion and took steps to spread
Buddhism, he did not forced Buddhist ideals on his subjects.
•He respected all sects and faiths, this is mentioned in Rock Edict VII. And in
Rock Eddict XII he mentions his policy of equal respect to all religious faiths and
sects.
•After the Kalinga war, Ashoka propagated Dhamma or moral law across his
empire.
•Dhamma was a way of life, a set of principles and a code of conduct that is to
be adopted and practiced by the people at large.
Estimate of Asoka :
•It is said that Asoka was “the greatest of kings” who surpassed Alexander the
Great, Julius Caesar and every other renowned Emperors to have ruled the
world.
•Asoka was true to his ideals.
• He was not a dreamer but a man of practical genius who explained the
relationship between a king and his subjects in a very simple and noble
language.
•He is the only king in human history who apologised to his subjects for waging
a war against them, which caused suffereings.
•His concept of Dhamma is so universal that it is applicable to humanity even
today.
•Therefore, his reign is considered one the “rare and lightening epochs in the
annals of nations.”
•His never imposed his personal belief in Buddhism over his subjects.
Later Mauryas :
•After Asoka’s death in 232 B.C., there were 7 kings within a span of 50 years.
•After him, the Mauryan Empire was divided into two parts – western and
eastern.
•The western part was under the rule of Kunala, Samprati and others.
•The eastern part was governed by Dasaratha, Brihadath and others
•Following the invasions by Greeks, the Mauryan king had lost support from
both army and its people. The last Mauryan king Brihatratha, was assassinated
by Pushyamitra Sunga, his commander-in-chief.