Wetlands

Wetlands are permanently or periodically water covered areas. They can be defined as submerged
or saturated lands either artificially or naturally, either periodically or permanently up to a depth of
6 meters by water which may be fresh, brackish or saline.

Wetlands must have one or more of the following three attributes-

i. At least periodically, the land supports predominantly hydrophytes.

ii. Substrate is predominantly undrained hydric soil.
iii. Substrate is saturated or covered by shallow water for some time at least during the
rowing season of each year.

Wetlands can further be divided as-

i. Inland wetlands e.g. bogs, peats, swamps fens.

ii. Coastal wetlands containing saline waters such as mangrove swamps, estuaries, deltas
etc.

Bogs
Bogs are waterlogged peatlands dominated by sphagnum moss which may form a floating mat over
water surface supporting a specially adapted form of species. This moss acidifies the water to pH 3
levels. The microclimate here is nutrient poor with very low oxygen levels. Some of the unique
species seen here are carnivorous plants such as pitcher plant, sundew and economically important
species such as blueberry and cranberry.

Fens and Seeps

Fens are wetlands seen in kartz/karst topography where substrate is alkaline due to ground water
emerging from calcareous or dolomitic soils. They are dominated by herbaceous vegetation like
grass and no woody vegetation is found here. It contains a layer of peat formed from dead plant
material.

Seeps are formed along base of glacial moraines where water emerges from saturated soils or a
spring.

Swamps
They are found in low elevation flood plains along rivers or slow-moving streams. They can either be
freshwater or saltwater. Unlike bogs, swamps are nutrient rich. The trees found in freshwater
swamps are called cypress and saltwater swamps are mangroves.

Due to shallow standing waters, swamps are rich habitat for wildlife like wood duck, warbler, river
otters, shrimps, crayfish etc.

Wetlands in India
i. Reservoirs of Deccan Plateau in south along with lagoons in south west coast.
ii. Saline expanses of Rajasthan, Gujrat and Gulf of Kachh.
iii. Freshwater lakes and reservoirs from Gujrat through Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.
iv. Delta, wetlands and lagoons of east coast.
v. Freshwater marshes of gangetic plains and flood plains of Brahmaputra.
vi. Marshes and swamps in north east India and Himalayan foothills.
vii. Lakes and rivers of mountain region of Kashmir and Laddakh.
viii. Mangroves and other wetlands of Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Functions of Wetlands
i. Resources such as food supply, fish, rice, cranberries, medicinal plants, peat for fuel,
grasses and reets for making baskets, mats etc.
ii. Shoreline protection from floods, hurricanes, cyclones, tidal waves and storm surges.
iii. Act as sponges. These flood lands absorb the excess water during rainy season thereby
preventing flood and act as reservoir of freshwater during dry season.
iv. Reservoir of biodiversity. They show maximum biodiversity and productivity. They are
home to endemic species like mangrove trees, Bengal tiger etc. and also support
migratory species such as Siberian crane, painted stork etc.
v. They act as kidneys of earth. They absorb all the pollutants like heavy metals, dyes,
chemicals thereby purifying water. They also absorb excess salts from the saline water
keeping groundwater fresh.
vi. They support economy in the form of tourism, agriculture, aquaculture etc.

Threats to Wetlands
i. Unsustainable development due to population pressure, unplanned urbanisation,
industrialisation etc.
ii. Encroachment for agriculture, aquaculture, shrimp farming.
iii. Deforestation for exploitation of resources.
iv. Pollution – exceeding the capacity of wetlands to handle pollutants.
v. Climate change.
vi. Invasive species such as water hyacinth and killer shrimp.
vii. Tourism.

Conservation of Wetlands
Ramsar Convention
It is an intergovernmental treaty that provides framework for conservation and wise use of wetlands
and their resources. It was signed in 1971 in Iranian city of Ramsar and came into force in 1975. It
works on three pillars that define the purpose of Ramsar Convention-

i. Wise use – to work towards wise use of all wetlands.

ii. List of wetlands of international importance – it designates suitable wetlands under
Ramsar list which are to be monitored and managed.
iii. International cooperation – for wetlands that are transboundary or have shared wetland
systems and shared species.

The Conference of Parties (COP) to the convention meets every three years.

It has six international partners-

i. IUCN
ii. WWF
iii. Birdlife International
iv. Wetlands International
v. Wildfowl and Wetland Trust
vi. International Water Management Institute
Montreux Records
It is a mechanism that was launched in 1990. It is a register of those list of Ramsar sites that need
urgent attention. In these sites, the changes that have occurred in their ecological character or are
likely to occur are a result of technological development, pollution or other human interference.

Two wetlands of India in Montreux Record are Keoladeo and Loktak Lake.

 Chilika lake was initially placed in Montreux Record but was later removed.

Loktak Lake
It is located in Vishnupur district of Manipur and is largest freshwater lake in north east. The only
floating national park in the world is Keibul Lamjao National Park is the last natural habitat of sangai
deer (dancing deer). The natural floating vegetations found in this lake are called Phumdis and
fishermen huts built on these vegetations are known as Phumsangs.

Ramsar and India

India became party to Ramsar convention in 1982 by declaring two sites as Ramsar sites which are
Chilika and Keoladeo. Presently, India has 75 Ramsar sites. 11 of these sites have been added in
August 2022.

Sundarbans are the largest Ramsar sites of India.

Odisha
i. Tampara Lake
ii. Ansupa Lake
iii. Hirakud Lake

Madhya Pradesh
i. Yashwant Sagar lake

Maharashtra
i. Thane Creek

Tamil Nadu
i. Vaduvur Bird Sanctuary
ii. Suchindran Tharoor
iii. Chitrangudi Bird Sanctuary
iv. Kanjirankulam Bird Sanctuary

Jammu and Kashmir

i. Shallbugh Conservation Reserve
ii. Hyagam Conservation Reserve

Yashwant Sagar Lake (Madhya Pradesh)

It is stronghold of vulnerable saras crane in central India. Presently, it is also being used as a water
supply for city of Indore and also being used for fish culture thereby posing a threat to the wetland.
It is also a site for winter migratory birds.

Chitrangudi Bird Sanctuary (Tamil Nadu)

It is a bird sanctuary and a declared bird protected area since 1989, also a habitat for winter
migratory birds.
Kanjirankulam Bird Sanctuary
It is an important nesting site for migratory heron species that roost in prominent growth of babul
trees.

Thane Creek
Ulhas river is largest source of water for this creek. It has also been declared as a flamingo sanctuary.

Hygam Wetland Conservation Reserve (Jammu & Kashmir)

It is present in Barmulla district. It falls within river “Jhelum” basin and is an important biodiversity
conservation site.

 Largest Ramsar site is Sundarbans.

Regulation of Wetlands in India

Wetlands Conservation and Management Rules, 2017
MOEFCC has notified these rules under Environment Protection Act 1986 as regulatory framework
for conservation and management of wetlands in India. They are based in wise use principle which is
principle of sustainable use that is compatible with conservation.

Significant provisions of these rules

Definition

Wetlands are defined as areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water. It could be natural or artificial,
permanent or temporary with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or saline. It includes
the areas of marine water, the depth of which does not exceeds 6 meters at low tide.

The rules apply to-

i. Wetlands categorised as Wetlands of International Importance under Ramsar.

ii. Wetlands notified by central, state or UT government.

Management

The rules give out the management of wetlands of states and union territories thereby devolving
power at local level.

The state or UT wetland authority will prepare a list of all wetlands, wetlands to be notified within
specified time.

The Central Wetland Regulatory Authority has been replaced by National Wetland Committee which
has only advisory role.

Restriction

Encroachments on wetlands have been completely banned. It prohibits dumping of solid waste,
discharge of untreated waste and effluents from industries and municipalities.
Drawbacks of these rules
i. The definition of 2010 rules included the wetlands of inland waters such as lakes,
reservoirs, tanks etc. It also included man made wetlands such as paddy fields. The 2017
rules are limited in this scope.
ii. The 2017 rule does not include-
River channels, paddy fields, human made water bodies for drinking purpose,
aquaculture, salt production, recreation and irrigation.
iii. It also does not include areas covered under-
i. Indian Forest Act, 1980
ii. State Forest Act
iii. Wildlife Protection Act, 1972
iv. Coastal Regulation Zone, 2011
iv. The appeal by affected parties will not be allowed under “National Green tribunal”
which was present in 2010 rules.

Mangroves in East Coast and West Coast

East Coast Mangroves West Coast Mangroves
Denser Less dense
Taller Stunted growth
Continuous Patch Scattered, bushy
Species example: Rhizophora, Sonneratia Avicennia
Mangroves in India
1. Sundarbans (West Bengal)
2. Mahanadi Delta (Odisha)
3. Godavari Krishna Delta (Andhra Pradesh)
4. Cauvery Delta (Tamil Nadu)
5. Gulf area (Between Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka) (Munnar and Palk Bay)
6. Andaman and Nicobar
7. Kerala
8. Karnataka
9. Goa (Malvan)
10. Maharashtra (Ratnagiri)
11. Gujrat (Gulf of Kachchh, Cori Creek)

Mangroves
Mangroves represent a characteristic littoral forest ecosystem. These forests show sheltered low line
coasts, estuaries, mud flats, tidal creeks, backwaters, marshes and lagoons of tropical and
subtropical reasons.
Adaptations in Mangroves
Mangroves are found in areas with high temperatures, waterlogged anoxic conditions and high salt
areas hence, the adaptations to these conditions are-

1. Stilt and prop roots – to make-up for the oxygen deficiency and to provide extra support to
the tree in marshy substrate.
2. Pneumatophores on roots and lenticels on barks – to take in extra oxygen through oxygen
cells.
3. Wax coated leathery leaves, succulent leaves and sunken stomata to reduce transpiration
and conserve freshwater.
4. Salt glands – to pump out extra salt.
5. Viviparous behaviour shown by seeds – seed germinate on the tree itself before falling on
the ground to prevent desiccation of seeds due to anoxic conditions, high salt content and
semi solid substrate.

Largest mangrove forest is Sundarbans. It is also UNESCO World Heritage Site, Ramsar Site, National
Park, Tiger Reserve. It is home to royal Bengal tiger, gangetic dolphins and estuarine crocodiles.

Second largest mangrove forest – Bhitarkanika, Odisha. It is created by river deltas of Brahmani and
Baitarani. It is also a Ramsar site.

Mangroves along the east coast are more luxuriant and diverse due to presence of nutrient rich
deltas and less disturbance on coast. Important species on east coast are Rhizophora and
Sonneratia.

On west coast, mangroves are stunted, less dense and in bushy form. Species found here are
Avicennia.

Some of the wildlife in mangroves in India are gangetic dolphin, olive ridley turtle, saltwater
crocodile, mangrove horseshoe crab, little egret, herons, storks, cormorants.

Mangroves are important carbon syncs of the world. NASA has described them as carbon scrubbers.

Mangrove Conservation Initiatives

1. Mangroves for future. It is an intergovernmental initiative.
2. MISHTI.
3. Amrit Dharohar.

Coral Reefs
Threats to Coral Reefs
1. Change in temperature, pH, salinity, turbidity.
2. Exposure to atmosphere due to fall in tide levels.
3. Nutritional enrichment.
4. Use of personal beauty products especially sunscreens.
5. Pollution, tourism, shipping, fishing.
 Biorock, seament, seacrete.

Conservation
1. ICRI
2. ICRAP
3. Coral Triangle Initiative
 4. STAPCOR since 2018
5. Wildlife Protection Act, Schedule 1

Coral Reefs in India

1. Lakshadweep
2. Andaman and Nicobar
3. Gulf of Munnar/Palk Bay
4. Goa (Malvan)
5. Maharashtra (Ratnagiri)
6. Karnataka (Mangalore/Gaveshani Bank)
7. Gujrat
8. South Bombay

Feeding Mechanism in Corals

Corals feed by one of the two ways-

1. Since the belong to phylum cnidaria, corals possess stinging tentacles by which the prey is
paralysed and eventually consumed by the corals which are non-symbiotic. Some amount of
nutrition of symbiotic corals is also through this method.
2. Through symbiosis - corals are found in close association with algae ‘zooxanthellae’ which
provides it food and coral polyp provides it shelter and inorganic nutrients.

Types of Corals Based on Location

Hot Water/Tropical Corals
Corals can be warm water or tropical corals. Ideal temperatures are 22 to 24 degrees Celsius. Most
corals in India (approximately 240 species) are tropical corals. These are found in shallow waters
close to continental shelf or just below the sea surface.

Cold Water Corals

These are found in temperate areas and deep oceans. Most species here are non-symbiotic.

Types of Corals Based on Reef Type

Hard Corals
These corals have a hard exoskeleton composed of calcium carbonate which forms the reef structure
once coral dies. These corals as herma typic corals.

Soft Corals
These corals do no possess any exoskeleton but might have small spikes on their bodies. These
corals do not build reefs.

Types Based on Reef Structure

1. Fringing
2. Barrier
3. Atoll
4. Patch

Coastal Regulation Zone Rules

The Environment Ministry (MoFCC) came up with CRZ rules in 1991 under Environment Protection
Act 1986. These rules were further notified in 2011, and in 2018 with certain modifications. The
coastal areas that are under these rules are areas of seas, bays, backwaters, creeks that get affected
by tides up to 500 meters from high tide line and land between high tide line and low tide line. State
governments are responsible for preparing Coastal Zone Management Plans and implementing CRZ
rules through their respective coastal zone management authorities.

CRZ 2011
CRZ 1
CRZ A
Ecologically sensitive areas like mangroves, coral reefs, biosphere reserves etc.

No new construction shall be permitted except projects relating to Department of Atomic Energy,
construction of trans harbour links and roads without affecting the tidal flow of water between HTL
and LTL

CRZ B
Between LTL and HTL which are not ecologically sensitive.

Following activities are permitted-

1. Exploration and extraction of natural gas.

2. Salt harvesting, desalination plants.
3. Construction of basic amenities like schools, roads, hospitals for traditional inhabitants living
in the area.
4. Storage of non-hazardous cargo such as edible oil, fertilizers within notified ports

CRZ 2
Areas that are developed up to shoreline and falling within municipal limits.

Activities permitted are desalination plants, construction of buildings towards landward side.

CRZ 3
Areas that are relatively undisturbed and do not fall either in category 1 or 2.

CRZ 3.1
Between 0 to 200 meters from HTL i.e. no development zone.

No construction of permanent nature is permitted. Only certain activities relating to Department of

Atomic Energy, salt manufacturing, non-conventional energy sources, mining of rare minerals and
certain public facilities may be permitted in this zone.

CRZ 3.2
Between 200 to 500 meters from HTL.

Construction of houses for local communities and tourism projects are permitted as well as all the
activities of no development zone.

CRZ 4
From low tide line to territorial limits (Aquatic Zone).

No restriction on traditional fishing. Dumping of untreated sewage or solid waste is completely

prohibited.

A separate island protection zone notification has been issued for Andaman & Nicobar and
Lakshadweep islands.
CRZ 2018
The government has relaxed development controls along coastline in 2018 notification.

1. Relaxing Floor Space Index (FSI). For CRZ 2 areas FSI was frozen at 1991 development control
regulation levels which has been defreezed and prevailing date for FSI is date of new
notification.
2. No development zones. For CRZ 3 areas, two categories have been created-
i. CRZ 3 A – with densely populated areas (more than 2161/km²) as per 2011 census.
Such areas will have a no development zone of 50 meters from HTL.
ii. CRZ 3 B – with population density less than 2161/km². This category will have no
development zone of 200 meters from HTL.
3. Clearance – Projects in CRZ 1 and CRZ 4 will get clearance from MoEFCC and in CRZ 2 and
CRZ 3, the clearance would be obtained from CZMA.
4. For promoting tourism, certain temporary facilities such as shacks, drinking water facilities,
toile blocks, changing rooms are permitted in no development zone of CRZ 3 areas.

Ecosystem Services
Provisioning Services
1. Food
2. Water
3. Fibre
4. Medicines
5. Metal etc.

Regulating Services
1. Air pollution
2. Water pollution
3. Soil pollution etc.

Supporting Services
1. Soil formation
2. Hydrological cycle
3. Biodiversity etc.

Recreational, Aesthetic and Cultural and Educational Services

Biodiversity
The word biodiversity was coined by E.O Wilson as a contraction of biological diversity which came in
widespread use after earth summit 1992. It means, variety of living beings in entire biosphere
including diversity within species (genetic diversity), diversity between species and diversity of
ecosystems.

Types of Diversity
Genetic Diversity
It refers to variations in the genetic pool of a particular species. Example: variations in humans with
respect to skin complexion, height, hair colour etc.

 Monoculture practices reduce biodiversity.

Species Diversity
It refers to variety of different types of species found in a particular area. It includes all the species
from microorganisms to higher forms of life. For an area, species diversity can be measured as
species richness and species evenness.

Ecological Diversity
It is the diversity observed among different ecosystems in a region. It refers to variations in plants
and animals interconnected together through food chains and food web.

Measurement of Biodiversity
α Diversity
It refers to the diversity of species in a particular area or ecosystem.

β Diversity
It refers to comparison of diversity of species between two or more ecosystems. Usually measured
as change in number of species between ecosystems.

γ Diversity
Measure of overall diversity of different ecosystems in a region such as a biome or a landscape.

Biodiversity
Importance of Biodiversity
1. Survival
2. Stability od ecosystem
3. Productivity and resources
4. Ecological services
5. Ethical reasons and concerns
6. Irreversible if dissipated
7. Rivet Popper Hypothesis

Threats to Biodiversity (Evil Quartet) (Top Four)

1. Overexploitation
2. Habitat destruction
3. Introduction on invasive species e.g. congress grass, eucalyptus, water hyacinth, pigeon,
Prosopis juliflora
4. Co-extinction of species e.g. pigmy hog and sucking louse
5. Pollution
6. Climate change
7. Hunting
8. Geographical isolation
9. Man-wildlife conflict

Factors Impacting Biodiversity

1. Sufficient sun and moisture
2. Nutrition
3. Transition zones
4. Stability of the region (anthropogenic, seasonal, evolutionary)
5. Habitat stress (natural, anthropogenic)
Hotspots of Biodiversity
In 1998, British ecologist Norman Myers brought in the concept of biodiversity hotspots, identifying
ten tropical forest as global hotspots. Conservation International, in 1989, adopted Myer’s concept
as international blueprint for biodiversity conservation. It further expanded these hotspots to 25 in
1996 and 36 in 2016 making north American plains as 36 th biodiversity hotspot.

Criteria to Qualify as Biodiversity Hotspot

The region must meet two criteria to qualify as hotspot-

1. It must have at least 1500 species of vascular plants as endemic.

2. It must have lost 70% of its natural vegetation i.e. it must be threatened.

Biodiversity Hotspots in India

1. Himalayas, includes entire Himalayan region (Jammu & Kashmir, Himanchal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Northern West Bengal, Sikkim, Northern Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and that
falling in Pakistan, Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan, China and Myanmar)
2. Indo-Burma {Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Southern China and north
eastern India (Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland, Meghalaya and part of Tripura), Andaman
group of islands, Bangladesh and Malaysia)
3. Sundaland (Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, Philippines and Nicobar group of islands)
4. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka {Includes entire western Ghats (Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka,
Goa, Maharashtra and Gujrat).

Keystone Species
Every ecosystem has certain species that are critical to the survival of other species in the ecosystem
and ecosystem as a whole. Removal of such a species from ecosystem would lead to collapse of
entire ecosystem e.g. honeybee, pollinators, monkeys, bats, beavers and most of the top predators
like tiger, lion, leopard, whale shark

Indicator Species
Indicator species are often the first to be affected by change in ecosystem. Studying these species,
the presence or absence of them or any observable changes in them tells about the health of that
ecosystem in which these species are found.

Example:

Stonefly Larvae Clean, Freshwater

Freshwater Shrimp Moderately Polluted
Tubifex Worm Highly Polluted
Other species are-

Lichens are an important indicator of air pollution, specially sulphur. Amphibians show genetic
changes as well as decrease in population due to air and water pollution. Mosses are indicator of soil
and air pollution. Vultures are indicator species of excessive diclofenac. Peregrine falcons are
indicator species of DDT pollution.

Flagship Species
These species are selected by environmentalists and governments for conservation due t0oo their
charisma, visibility and awareness in the larger population about them which helps in the
conservation efforts e.g. lion, tiger, elephant.
Umbrella Species
These are the species whose protection ensures the protection of entire ecosystem due to their
needs like migration, predation, foraging grounds e.g. elephants, rhinoceros, red wolf, giant panda.

Biodiversity Cold Spots

Found in regions of sparse population and low biodiversity areas within temperate regions, deserts
and plain.

Paradox of Biodiversity
Future evolutionary forms may be seen here as tropical areas are already saturated with life forms
and biodiversity.

Need to conserve as they support endemic species which are specifically adapted to these regions.

Methods of Conservation of Biodiversity

1. Protection of habitat
i. National parks (WPA, 1972)
ii. Wildlife sanctuaries (WPA, 1972)
iii. Community reserves (WPA Amendment Act, 2002)
iv. Conservation reserves (WPA Amendment Act, 2002)
v. Tiger reserves (WPA Amendment Act, 2006)
vi. Biosphere reserves (Man & Biosphere Program of UNESCO)
vii. Biodiversity heritage sites (Biodiversity Act of India, 2002)
viii. Sacred groves
2. Conservation of species
i. Ex-situ (zoos, botanical gardens, herbariums, seed banks, seed vaults, cryogenic
preservation).
ii. In-situ (national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, biosphere reserves, tiger reserves,
elephant reserves, sacred groves).

Identification of Species to be Protected

1. IUCN Red Data List
2. Wildlife Schedules (I, II, III, IV for animals and VI for plants) Under Wildlife Protection Act

Species Conservation Programs

1. Project tiger
2. Project elephant
3. Snow leopard
4. Gangetic dolphins
5. Vultures
6. Turtles
7. One horned rhinoceros
8. Hangul
9. Project Crocodile
National Parks
1. First National Park – Corbett National Park/Hailey’s National Park.
2. Highly protected and regulated areas.
3. Distinct boundaries.
4. No human intervention is allowed except by permission of respective authority.
5. No private ownership.
6. Once declared as national park, cannot be downgraded to wildlife sanctuary.
7. No alteration in boundaries is allowed except by government permission.
8. National parks are not species specific.
9. There are total 106 national parks in India.
10. National parks are declared by state governments but can be declared by central
government also.

Wildlife Sanctuaries
1. They are protected under WPA, 1972.
2. Boundaries are diffused.
3. Some human interventions are allowed such as grazing, picking forest produces and
controlled tourism.
4. Can have some private lands.
5. Can be species specific.
6. No hunting, killing of animals or harm to ecology is allowed.
7. There are 576 wildlife sanctuaries in India.
8. Wildlife sanctuaries can be upgraded to the status on national parks.

Community and Conservation Reserves

1. Brought by Wildlife Protection Amendment Act, 2002.
2. Conservation reserves are declared on government lands while community reserves are
declared on privately owned lands.

National parks
An area, whether within a sanctuary or not, can be notified by the state government to be
constituted as a national park by reason of its ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological or
zoological importance for the purpose protection of wildlife there.

All the rights for monitoring, regulation, conservation are with chief wildlife warden and no human
activity is permitted except when permitted by chief wildlife warden.

National parks are Category II type of protected areas under IUCN (International Union for
Conservation of Nature).

Wildlife Sanctuaries
Any area other than area comprised with any reserved forest or territorial waters, can be notified by
state governments to constitute as a sanctuary, if such area is of adequate ecological, faunal, floral,
geomorphological or zoological significance for the purpose of protection of wildlife there.

Conservation Reserves
It is a state-owned area, adjacent to national parks and sanctuaries for protection of landscape,
seascape and habitat of flora and fauna.

It is overseen by Conservation Reserve Management Authorities/Committees.

After consulting with local communities, the state government may declare any area owned by
government as conservation reserve.

Total conservation reserves in India are 105.

First conservation reserve if India is Tiruppadaimarathur in Tamil Nadu.

Community reserves
The state government may designate any community land or private land as community reserve if
the members of that community agree to offer such areas for protection of fauna, flora as well as
their traditions, culture and practices.

Community Reserve Management Committee oversees the reserve.

There shall be no change in land use pattern within community reserve unless authorised by
resolution passed by management committee approved by state government.

There are 220 community reserves in India.

Biosphere Reserve
Biosphere reserve is an international designation by UNESCO for representative parts of natural and
cultural landscapes extending over large areas of terrestrial, coastal or marine ecosystems. It tries to
balance economic and social development along with cultural values while preserving nature.

Three main areas of biosphere reserves-

1. Core – most protected, free of human interference, except for scientific and research
purposes.
2. Buffer zone – creates buffer around core zone. Allowed activities are fishing, grazing, limited
tourism, restoration, research and education etc.
3. Transition zone – zone of cooperation which allows some human settlements, croplands and
subsistence economy without damaging the ecological character of the region.

Man, and Biosphere Program was brought by UNESO in 1973-74. India adopted this program in
1986. There are currently 18 biosphere reserves in India out of which 12 are of international
significance. It is declared by central government. When requested by government to UNESCO and
approved, then respective biosphere reserve is declared as biosphere reserve of international
importance. Nilgiri was the first biosphere reserve to be declared and Kachchh in Gujrat is the largest
biosphere reserve

Biosphere Reserves in India

1. Cold Desert in Himanchal Pradesh
2. Kanchenjunga in Sikkim
3. Nanda devi in Uttarakhand
4. Dehang Dibang in Arunachal
5. Manas in Assam
6. Dibru Saikhowa in Assam
7. Nokrek in Meghalaya
8. Panna in Madhya Pradesh
9. Pachmarhi in Madhya Pradesh
10. Achanakmar-Amarkantak at Chhattisgarh-Madhya Pradesh border
11. Kachchh in Gujrat
 12. Simlipal in Odisha
13. Sundarbans in West Bengal
14. Seshachalam in Andhra Pradesh
15. Agasthyamala at the border of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala
16. Neelgiri at the border of Tamil Nadu and Kerala
17. Gulf of Munnar in Tamil Nadu
18. Great Nicobar in Andaman & Nicobar

Biodiversity Heritage Sites

1. Declared under Biodiversity Act, 2002.
2. Declared by state government with the consent of local communities or sometimes
communities themselves request to declare a site as biodiversity heritage site.
3. Community and traditional rights are retained with respect to land usage such as grazing,
fishing, agriculture and collection of minor forest produce.
4. Nallur Tamarind Grove was the first biodiversity heritage site.
5. The latest biodiversity heritage site is Atirapatti in Tamil Nadu.
6. Pangolins are found here.
7. It has a series of seven hillocks feeding 72 lakes in the region.

IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature)

1. Introduced in 1948.
2. Red data list was introduced in 1964.
3. Red data list has pink pages which has list of threatened species and green pages which has
a list of species which are adequate in number to maintain its population.

Categories of Species (according to threat)

Extinct
Extinct species are the ones which have been erased completely from earth and there is no way by
which they can be recovered in future.

Example: Woolly Mammoth, Dinosaurs, Dodo etc.

Extinct in the Wild

A species that is extinct in the wild is one that has been categorized by the International Union for
Conservation of Nature as known only by living members kept in captivity or as a naturalized
population outside its historic range due to massive habitat loss.

Critically Endangered
If a species has suffered a loss of 50% to 90% in its population in last 10 years or if only 50 or lower
number of individuals are left, respective species will fall under the category of critically endangered.

Example: Vulture (Spoon billed, slender billed, white-rumped and red headed), Hangul (Red deer
found in Dachigam).

Endangered
Species who faced decrease in their population by 50%-70% in last 10 years or whose population is
less than 250 individuals in the wild.

Example: Tiger, Asiatic Lion, Snow Leopard etc.

Vulnerable
Species who faced decrease in their population by 30%-50% in last 10 years or whose population is
less than 1000 individuals in the wild.

Example: Mugger (Freshwater crocodile), Rhinoceros etc.

 Critically endangered, endangered and vulnerable categories are collectively called as

threatened.

Near Threatened
A near-threatened species is a species which has been categorized as "Near Threatened" by the
International Union for Conservation of Nature as that may be vulnerable to endangerment in the
near future, but it does not currently qualify for the threatened status.

Least Concerned
A least-concern species is a species that has been categorized by the International Union for
Conservation of Nature as evaluated as not being a focus of species conservation because the
specific species is still plentiful in the wild. They do not qualify as threatened, near threatened, or
conservation dependent.

Wildlife Schedules
1. Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.
i. Schedule I and II – Most protected species and violation attracts highest penalties
and punishments. Example: Black buck, tiger, elephant.
ii. Schedule III and IV – Relatively less protected species and violation does not attract
very harsh punishment and penalties. Example: Chital, bharal.
iii. Schedule V – Vermin species. Example: Rats, mice, crows, bats.
iv. Schedule VI – Plant species which are to be protected. Example: Blue Vanda, Red
Vanda, Nepenthes
2. Wildlife Protection Act, 2002
i. Schedule I and II are merged. Most protected.
ii. Schedule III and IV are merged. Relatively less protection.
iii. Schedule VI is now Schedule III. Protects plant species.
iv. Schedule VI – Protects species which are related to CITES.

Project Tiger
1. Launched on 1st April 1973.
2. Real efforts were seen after Amendment Act 2006 which created NTCA (National Tiger
Conservation Authority).
3. After advent of NTCA, a new type of protected area known as “Tiger Reserve” could be seen
and tiger census with a frequency of once in four years.
4. Last tiger census was conducted in 2022.
5. Current population of tigers in India is 3167. It has been highest since project tiger has
started
6. Tigers are counted with techniques such as pugmark counting, camera trapping, Scats-DNA
profiling.
Tiger reserves
1. There are 54 tiger reserves in India, latest being Ranipur, UP. It does not have its own tigers
but tigers migrate to this place.
2. Declared by state government on recommendation of NTCA and Wildlife Board of India.
3. State government, once declares a tiger reserve, it cannot de-notify it or it can not even
change the boundaries.
4. It is divided in core (critical tiger habitat), where no human intervention is allowed except
with permission from chief wildlife warden, and a buffer zone, of which’s boundaries are
declared on consultation with Gram Sabha of that region.
5. Largest tiger reserve in India is Nagarjuna Srisailam.

Project Elephant
1. Started in 1992.
2. Includes Elephant Reserves and Elephant Corridors.
3. No prohibitions. Mining, oil excavation and traditional use of elephants is allowed.
4. National Elephant Action Plan was introduced in 2019 by MoFCC.
5. An app was introduced named Surakshya.
6. A campaign is going on named Hathi Mera Sathi and the mascot (representative specimen) is
Gaju.
7. Another program is going on with respect to all the countries which have sufficient
elephants named MIKE (Monitoring Illegal Killing of Elephants).
8. Status-
i. IUCN – Endangered
ii. Wildlife Schedule 1
iii. CITES, Appendix 1

Hangul
1. It was thought to have gone extinct in 1970s.
2. Population is around 200 individuals.
3. Loss of habitat is the major cause of decreasing number.
4. Found in Dachigam Wildlife Sanctuary.
5. Status-
i. IUCN – Critically Endangered
ii. Wildlife Schedule 1
iii. CITES Appendix 1
Snow Leopard
1. Census is going on since 2021 and there is a chance of completion in the last quarter of
2023.
2. Snow leopard has been enumerated in International Big Cat Alliance. All the species of IBCA
are-
i. Leopard
ii. Snow Leopard
iii. Tiger
iv. Cheetah
v. Lion
vi. Puma
vii. Jaguar

Vultures
1. Vultures have been declining due to use of diclofenac in cattle.
2. Shells of their eggs were becoming thinner which caused premature hatching.
3. SAVE (Saving Asia’s Vulture from Extinction) aims to conserve vultures.

Crocodile
Saltwater – least concerned

Mugger – vulnerable

Gharial – endangered

Turtle
Olive Ridley - Vulnerable

Leatherback - Vulnerable

Logger Head - Vulnerable

Green Turtle - Endangered

Hawksbill – Critically endangered

Mass nesting site is called Arribada.

Turtles are keystone species which feed on jellyfishes and keep them on check. Some turtles feed on
seagrasses and some (hawksbill) on sponges.

Threats
1. Destruction of habitats i.e. sand beds.
2. Fishing

Steps to Conserve
1. Use of TEDs (Turtle Exclusion Devices).
2. Restrictions near arribada.
3. International organization for Saving Turtles – IOSEA.
4. Operation Save Kurma, operated by WCCB.
Dolphins
1. Mainly focused in gangetic dolphins.
2. Declared as national aquatic anima in 2009.
3. Gangetic Dolphin is also known as Susu.
4. Dolphins found in Yangtze river of china are called as Baiji.
5. Dolphins found in amazon basin is called as Boto.
6. Dolphins found in Pakistan is called as Bhulan.

Asiatic Lion
1. Smaller than African lions.
2. Have longitudinal infoldings in its underbelly.
3. 5 Big cats in India
i. Tiger
ii. Cheetah (Extinct)
iii. Leopard
iv. Lion
v. Snow Leopard
vi. Marbled Leopard

Threats
1. Hunting, poaching
2. Inbreeding
3. Habitat destruction (Banni Grasslands)
4. Human-wildlife conflict.

Steps to Save
1. Protected under Wildlife Schedule 1 and CITES Appendix 1.
2. IUCN status – Endangered

Project Cheetah
1. Extinct in India in 1948.
2. Request to Iran to give some individuals for restoration on Indian grounds was rejected,
after which, it was brought to India from Namibia and was transferred to Kuno National
Park, Madhya Pradesh

One Horned Rhinoceros

1. Very susceptible to poaching for its horn which is believed to have aphrodisiac qualities.
2. Habitat destruction is also a threat. Found in swampy areas, especially in Assam.
3. IUCN status is vulnerable.
4. It is protected under Wildlife Schedule 1 and CITES Appendix 1.
5. WCCB and TRAFFIC is monitoring illegal killing and body part trading of rhinoceros.

Biodiversity Conservation (at the level of India)

Biological Diversity Act, 2002
This act was brought in India to realise objectives of UNCBD, 1992 (United Nations Conventions on
Biological Diversity).

The act was enacted in order to conserve biological resources, manage their sustainable use and
enable fair and equitable benefit sharing arising out of use and knowledge of these biological
resources.
Salient Features of the ACT
The act prohibits following activities without prior approval from National Biodiversity Authority-

i. Any person or organisation either based in India or not, who is obtaining nay biological
resource present in India for research or commercial purpose.
ii. Transfer of results of any research relating to any biological resource obtained from
India.
iii. Claim of any intellectual property right on any invention based on research done on
biological resource of India.
iv. It brings in a three-tier structure to regulate access to biological resources-
a. National Biodiversity Authority at the national level.
b. State Biodiversity Boards at the state level.
c. Biodiversity Management Committees at the local level.
v. Act provides these authorities with special funds or projects dealing with conservation
and management of biodiversity.
vi. Under this act, Central government in consultation with NBA-
a. shall notify threatened species and prohibit/regulate their collection, rehabilitation
and conservation.
b. designate institutions as repositories of biological resources.
vii. All offences under the act are cognisable and non-bailable and all the grievances would
be taken to NGT.

Other Acts for Biodiversity Conservation

1. Wildlife Protection Act, 1972
2. Indian Forest Act, 1980
3. National Wildlife Action Plan, 2017-30/31
4. Environment Protection Act, 1986
5. PPVFR Act
6. India is member of UNCBD
7. Constitutional provisions-
a. Article 48 (A) (DPSP)
b. Article 51 (A)(g) (Fundamental Duties)
c. Article 21 (Fundamental Rights)

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

This act was passed by Indian in 1972 with the aim to safeguard and protect wildlife i.e. animals and
plants of the country. It is an umbrella legislation for the protection of wildlife in India.

Provisions
1. Prohibition of hunting of animals and plants under schedule 1 to 6.
2. However, exceptions under section 11 and 12 of the act are available in which chief wildlife
warden can permit hunting or killing of an animal if that animal is disabled or diseased
beyond recovery or is a threat to human life. Under section 12, an animal can be hunted for
purpose of education, scientific research or management.
3. Schedule 6 prohibits any person from uprooting, damaging, destroying, collecting, selling or
transferring any plant species without permission chief wildlife warden. However, cultivation
of such plants can be undertaken after obtaining a permit or licence from chief wildlife
warden.
Wildlife Protection Amendment Act, 2022
This act came into force in India from 1st April 2022.

Provisions
1. It rationalises the wildlife schedules from previous 6 schedules to 4 for better regulation and
monitoring.
2. It removes category of vermin species (schedule 5) thereby giving authority to central
government for declaration of any species as vermin.
3. In order to implement the provisions of CITED, new schedule has been added (schedule 4) to
regulate species which are endangered globally once they enter Indian territory. For this, the
government has designated a management authority which will grant permit for import or
export for trade of such species.
4. Invasive Alien Species – Central government can regulate or prohibit the import, trade,
possession or proliferation of invasive alien species.
(Any plant or animal species which is not native to India and whose introduction may
adversely impact wildlife or its habitat).
5. The conservation reserves can be declared both by state and central government.
6. Standing committee at the level of state along with state board of wildlife with minister of
MoEFCC as its head.
7. Voluntary surrender of captive animals without any compensation or consequent authority
over the animal.
8. Exception for elephants – The act allows for commercial trade in live elephants by including
provision that elephants can be transported or kept by private individuals or bodies for
religious or any other purpose.
9. For sanctuaries under scheduled areas where Forest Rights Act, 2006 is applicable, the
management plan must be prepared after consultation with Gram Sabha.
10. Increase in penalties –
General Violation – From 25,000 to 1 lakh.
Violations regarding protected animals – From 10,000 to 25,000.

Biodiversity Conservation (Global Efforts)

UNCBD (United Nations Convention on Biodiversity)
The UNCBD was introduced in 1992 in Rio/Earth Summit and came into force 1993. Its secretariat is
in Montreal, Canada. It has ben ratified by 196 countries and US is the only country which has not
ratified it. The CBD is governed by the conference of parties (COP) which meet every two years.

It has 2 protocols to bring CBD into force-

i. Cartagena protocol (on biosafety). This protocol was adopted in 2000 and came into
force in 2003.
It seeks to protect biodiversity from potential risks caused by living modified organisms
(LMOs) arising from modern biotechnology. It has provisions for advanced informed
agreement (AIA) for direct release of LMOs in the environment. It ensures that countries
are given enough information to take informed decisions before agreeing to import
LMOs into their country. One importing country agrees for LMOs, it has to make its
decision, relevant information, risk assessment reports publicly available. It also sets up
a Biosafety Clearing House (BCH) to enable information exchange on LMOs between
countries.
 India ratified Cartagena in 2003 and MoEFCC is the nodal agency for implementation of
protocol.
ii. Nagoya Protocol – Nagoya protocol on access to genetic resources and fair and
equitable sharing of benefits arising from their utilization (also called ABS or access and
benefit sharing). It was adopted in 2010 and came in fore in 2014. This protocol ensures
that there is equitable sharing of benefits of genetic resources by everyone including
indigenous communities to avoid being exploited for their traditional knowledge and
expertise. India ratified it in 2012.

Aichi Biodiversity Targets

COP 10 of UNCBD gave targets for conservation of biodiversity which was held in Japan. Many of
these 20 targets remained unfulfilled except 1 (conservation of terrestrial ecosystems – Target 17%
of which 15% was achieved and conservation of aquatic ecosystems – Target 10% of which 8% was
achieved). The period of these targets was from 2011 to 2020 which has now expired.

The reason for failure of these targets has been mainly vague language of targets, lack of monitoring
framework and lack of funds. The funds are managed under GEF (Global Environment Facility) for
most United Nations Conventions like UNFCCC, UNCBD and UNCCD, and there is no dedicated
funding mechanism for biodiversity.

UNCBD, COP-15 (Kunming Montreal-2021)

This COP came up with global biodiversity framework which replaced Aichi Biodiversity Targets. The
time period for GBF is 2021 to 2030. It would be a stepping stone to the 2050 goal of biodiversity by
the name “Living in Harmony with Nature”. Major targets of GBF are-

i. Protect 30% of land and sea ecosystems by 2030.

ii. Restore at least 30% of the degraded ecosystems by 2030.
iii. Reduce pollution, especially plastic pollution by at least 50% by 2030.
iv. Reduce impact of unsustainable fishing on biodiversity by 50% by 2030.
v. Reduce food wastage and loss by 50% by 2030.
vi. Increase share of renewable energy in global energy mix by 50% by 2030.
vii. Protect and restore 20% of inland water ecosystems by 2030.
viii. Promote gender equality and women’s empowerment and participation in biodiversity
conservation and management.

Funding
1. Dedicated GBF fund mechanism, separate from GEF.
2. Developed to developing countries-
i. $20 billion per year till 2025.
ii. $30 billion per year till 2030.
iii. $200 billion per year from public and private resources.
3. Subsidy elimination – eliminating subsidies that are harmful for biodiversity such as fossil
fuels, fishing, agriculture, forestry etc. by reducing by at least $ 500 billion annually.
4. CBDR (Common But Differentiated Responsibilities) – biodiversity conservation must also
include principle of CBDR which states that every country has a responsibility towards
biodiversity conservation but it has to be differentiated based on historical actions of
developed economies which have been responsible for major biodiversity loss. This principle
has been included under GBF.
Issues
1. Insufficient funding.
2. Lack of monitoring.
3. Issue of subsidies for developing countries.

CITES (Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species)

It is an international agreement. It makes government, to control or regulate international trade in
endangered or threatened species of wild animals and plants. It came into force in 1975 and its
secretariat is in Geneva, Switzerland.

Although CITES is legally binding, it does not take place of national laws. It simply provides a
framework for each country for their domestic legislation to ensure that cites is implemented at
national level. It has 3 appendices-

i. Appendix 1 – list of species that are most endangered and their trade is prohibited
except for scientific purposes e.g. red panda, sea turtles, giant panda, lady slipper
orchid.
ii. Appendix 2 – list of species that are not immediately threatened but may face extinction
if their trade is not regulated. Import and export of these species is allowed after
obtaining licenses from the management authority of respective countries e.g. American
Alligator, American Ginseng, Paddlefish, Mahogany.
India as requested Gekko Gecko and Indian Star Tortoise to be moved from Appendix 2
to Appendix 1.
iii. Appendix 3 – includes species that are listed at the request of a country that already
regulates trade of that species and need cooperation of other countries to prevent its
exploitation e.g. Walrus, Map Turtles, Some species of Corals, Cape Stag Beetles.

Bonn Convention
This was brought for migratory species in 1983.

CMS – Convention for Migratory Species.

India, with National Plan of Action for Migratory Birds along with CMS has managed to bring back
Amur Falcon to a viable population.

CMS has 2 Appendices-

i. Appendix 1 – for species which are threatened.

ii. Appendix 2 – for species which are not threatened.

Bonn Convention
It is an international treaty for conservation of migratory species of wild animals which was adopted
in 1979 and came into force in 1983. The convention has legally binding agreements and non-legally
binding MoUs (Memorandums of Understanding). It is the only convention available for protection
of migratory species and works under UNEP (United Nations Environment Program). India is party to
the convention. Some of the migratory species visiting India or found in India are Amur Falcon, Black
Necked Crane, Siberian Crane (last spotted in 2001), Humpback Whales. Two appendices of CMS are-

1. Appendix 1 – list of those migratory species which are endangered e.g. Amur Falcon.
2. Appendix 2 – those species which are not endangered but need conservation to
international agreements to protect them along their along their entire migratory rout.
Marine Protected Areas
Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve and National Park

Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park

Gahirmatha Wildlife Sanctuary

Chilika Wildlife Sanctuary

Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary

Krishna Wildlife Sanctuary

Pulicut Bird Sanctuary

Point Calimera Wildlife Sanctuary

Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve and National Park

Pitti Wildlife Sanctuary

Malwan Marine Sanctuary

Thane Creek

Gulf of Kachchh Marine National Park

North, Middle and South Button Islands

Northern Reef

Southern Reef

Rani Jhansi Marine National Park

Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park

Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve

Galathea Bay Wildlife Sanctuary

UNESCO World Heritage Sites

Cultural – 32
Natural – 7
Western Ghats

Sundarbans

Kaziranga

Manas

Keoladeo

Great Himalayan National Park

Valley of Flowers (Nandadevi)

Mixed – 1
Kangchenjunga (Sikkim)

BBNJ (Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction)

After 15 years of negotiation, UN member states have agreed on a landmark treaty by the name
biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction on 4th March 2023 which will be instrumental in protection
of biodiversity on high seas. It is being developed within the framework of UNCLOS (United Nations
Convention on Loss Of Seas). It will include the entire area of high seas beyond exclusive economic
zone (beyond 200 nautical miles from national territory).

Invasive Alien Species

Invasive alien species are animals, plants or other organisms that are introduced by humans either
intentionally or accidentally into places outside of their natural range, negatively impacting native
biodiversity, ecosystem services or human economy or wellbeing.

Control and regulation of Invasive Species

1. At the level of India-
Initially, invasive species were identified and listed by Indian Forestry Research Council and
later as part of tiger census. Their introduction is regulated by following legislations in India-
i. Plant Quarantine Order, 2003.
ii. Livestock Importation Act 1898.
iii. Livestock Importation Ordinance, 2001.
iv. Biodiversity Act, 2002.
v. Wildlife Protection Amendment Act, 2022
vi. Environment Protection Act 1986.
2. At the global level-
Invasive species are regulated and monitored by IUCN as well as under UNCBD. IUCN’s
Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) is maintaining a repository with respect to invasive
species in the form of Global Invasive Species Database and Global Register of Introduced
and Invasive Species.

Climate Change
Climate Change refers to long term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns which can be
natural or anthropogenic. Natural factors like earth’s activity with respect to sun, plate tectonics etc.
The climate change that we understand in todays context is however human induced because of
factors like greenhouse gas emissions. The climate change that is present right now is essentially
global warming i.e. earth has warmed by 1.1 degree Celsius since pre-industrial levels. This global
warming is due to presence of greenhouse gases which are responsible for trapping the outgoing
infrared radiations from the earth.

Radiative Forcing
The influence of a factor that can cause climate change is evaluated in terms of its radiative forcing.
Radiative forcing is a measure of how energy balance of the earth is influenced if the factor is
causing the temperature to rise or energy balance to shift to positive is known as positive radiative
forcing. If the radiative factor is leading the temperatures to go down or shifting the energy balance
towards negative, it is known as negative radiative forcing. Positive RF – GHGs. Negative RG –
Aerosols.
Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming
The greenhouse effect is a natural process that maintains the temperature of the earth but when it
increases to an unnatural limit due to anthropogenic impacts, raising the temperature of earth to
unnatural limits, it is known as global warming. It is estimated that, the earth’s temperature has
increased by 1.1 degree Celsius since pre-industrial levels due to emission of greenhouse gases and if
it crosses the limit of 1.5 degree Celsius, the impacts are going to be hazardous.

Greenhouse Gases
The gases or pollutants whose emission traps the outgoing infrared radiations from the earth,
thereby raising temperature of the earth are known as greenhouse gases e.g. CO2, HFCs, CH4,
Nitrogen Oxides, SF6 etc.

Even though water vapour is most abundant and important greenhouse gas, human activities have
only a small direct influence on the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere and it is difficult to
regulate the level of water vapour hence it I not considered in the list of greenhouse gases.

Global Warming Potential (GWP)

The GWP of a greenhouse gas is its ability to trap extra heat in the atmosphere over a period of 100
years relative to CO2. It depends upon 2 things viz how effective is the greenhouse gas in trapping
heat and how long it stays in the atmosphere before it breaks down e.g. methane is 21 times more
potent at trapping heat with respect to CO2 but is stays in the atmosphere for only 12 years whereas
CO2 stays between 100 to 200 years.

GHGs GWP Life

CO2 1 100-200 years
CH4 21 12±3 years
N2O 310 120 years
HFCs 150-11,700 1.5-209 years
PFCs 6500-9200 2600-50000 years
SF6 23900 3200 years

Sources of Emission
CO2
1. Fossil fuel burning.
2. Change in land use patterns.
3. Cement manufacturing.

CH4
1. Burning of fossil fuel.
2. Agriculture.
3. Marshy areas and wetlands.
4. Cattle (ruminants).

N2O
1. Mostly agriculture and burning of fossil fuels.

HFCs
They were brought in to replace CFCs and are used as refrigerants lubricants etc.
PFCs
Released during primary aluminium production and semiconductor manufacturing.

SF6
Used in electric power transmission, magnesium and semiconductor industries.

Ocean Acidification
Ocean Acidification is the process by which the pH of ocean drops which means the ocean waters
are getting acidic. This happens because of excess CO2 that is present in atmosphere which reacts
with ocean water forming carbonic acid which further dissociates to form bicarbonate ion and
hydrogen ion.
+¿ ¿
−¿+ H ¿
H 2 O+CO 2 ↔ H 2 CO 3 ↔ HCO 3

It is estimated that the pH of ocean water has dropped from 8.26 to 8.14 thereby making ocean
waters 10 times acidic.

Impacts of Ocean Acidification

This pH range is intolerable for a lot of marine organisms to survive hence threatening the flora and
fauna due to rising acidity.

It impacts the shell forming capacity of shell making organisms by reducing the amount of carbonate
ions.

It also leads to dissolution of shells of some marine animals such as corals, molluscs etc. by raising
the level of carbon compensation depth (the pint below which the shells of these organism dissolve
naturally).

It also reduces the capacity of ocean to function as blue carbon sink.

Ozone
Ozone exists as a layer in upper troposphere or stratosphere from 9 km to about 15 km. This layer
protects the earth from harmful UV radiations.

Bad Ozone
This ozone exists in lower troposphere as a secondary pollutant. It is formed by the reaction of
volatile organic compounds with nitrogen oxides in presence of sunlight. This is responsible for smog
formation in urban areas leading o severe pollution and resultant health problems.

Ozone Depletion
Ozone is getting depleted in the upper atmosphere in recent decades due to release of chemical
compounds such as CFCs which contain gaseous chlorine or bromine from industries and other
human activities. Such substances are cumulatively known as ozone depleting substances.

Ozone Depleting Substances

1. CFCs – These are released by solvents, spray aerosols, refrigerators, air conditioners etc.
2. Halons (Hydro Bromo Fluorocarbons) – These are used in fire extinguishers.
3. Carbon Tetrachloride (CCl4) – Fire extinguishers and solvents.
4. Methyl Chloroform (CHCl3) – Adhesives and aerosols.
5. HFCs – Fire extinguishers, air conditioners, solvents.
6. N2O – It is released during burning of fossil fuels and by denitrifying soil bacteria.
−¿¿
+¿+Cl ¿
CCl3 F+UV =CCl2 F
 −¿+O3=ClO +O2 ¿
Cl
−¿→ ( NO2 )=ClONO,ClONO 2 ¿

ClO+Cl−¿=Cl +O 2 ¿

Cl−¿+ClO=Cl +O →(CH¿¿ 4)= HCl¿¿

2 2

Cl 2+O3 =ClO+ O2

Role of Polar Stratospheric Clouds

Polar Stratospheric Clouds are found in latitudes between 50 ̊an above in stratosphere. They are
formed in these areas when temperatures reach -85 degrees Celsius. They are also known as
nacreous clouds or mother of pearl clouds and these clouds glow along with northern or southern
lights. These clouds act as substrates containing ice hydrates and hydrates of nitric and sulphuric
acid. This acts as a base where a series of reactions happen which release chlorine and bromine ions
from its reservoirs thereby starting the process of ozone depletion again. This reaction is further
enhanced due to presence of sulphuric and nitric acids in these clouds.

ClONO2
+ HCl →Cl 2 +O 3 → ClO+O 2
HCl
Measures to Protect Stratospheric Ozone
1. 1985, Vienna Convention for Protection of Ozone Layer – this was first international
agreement to control emission and production of ozone depleting substances in which all
the united nations members were party to the convention.
2. Montreal Protocol – this protocol was adopted by over 180 countries to phase out
production and use of ozone depleting substances.
3. Kigali Amendment to Montreal Protocol, 2016 – this amendment was brought in to phase
down consumption and production of HFCs (HFCs were substitute for CFCs as they were
ozone safe but had high global warming potential).
4. India is a signatory to Montreal Protocol since 1992. India has also completely phased out
HCFC-141B, one of the most potent ozone depleting substance which was used as blowing
agent in foam industries.

Impact of Climate Change

1. Impact on Higher Altitudes
1. Melting of glaciers and snow caps
2. Increase on flow of rivers
3. Decrease in freshwater reservoirs
4. Increased flood and GLOFS (Glacial Lake Outburst Flood)
5. Removal/thawing/melting of permafrost
6. Release of carbon sink
7. Reduction of biodiversity
8. Habitat loss
9. Issue of economy and food security
10. All these conditions will lead to climate refugees

2. Impact on Lower Altitudes

1. Rise in sea levels
2. Inundation of low lying areas by water
3. Loss of land and economy
 4. Loss of food resources
5. Climate refugees
6. Socio-economic and political conflicts
7. Might become a source of methane emission
8. Submergence of carbon sinks
9. Spread of diseases, pests, insects etc.

3. Impact on Agriculture
1. Loss of arable land in tropical and low altitude regions
2. Some gain of land in colder regions
3. Sensitive crops’ productivity will reduce e.g. wheat, rice, barley, oats etc.
4. Soil nutrition levels will go down
5. Rise of new pests and diseases
6. Need of intensive agriculture to compensate loss of land and rising population
7. More use of fertilizers, pesticides and insecticides
8. More emission of GHGs
9. Disturbed monsoon patterns will force farmers to rely on groundwater hence leading to
freshwater crisis.
10. Food and water security threat
11. Socio-economic and political crisis

4. Impact on Biodiversity
1. Total net loss in biodiversity
2. Might cause extinction of keystone species
3. Collapse of healthy ecosystem
4. Deficit of resources (plants, animals, herbs, medicines)
5. Loss of healthy carbon sinks and carbon scrubbers
6. Increase in pollution levels and diseases
7. Food and water security threat

Other Impacts
1. Rising temperature will cause increase in energy demand
2. Increased energy demand for producing and maintaining water and food resources
3. Increased mining, deforestation, change in land use patterns
4. Increased GHG emission

Impact of Montreal and Kigali

A UN study titled “Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion, 2018” has shown that ozone layer is
recovering at a rate of 1% to 3% per decade. With current regulations in place, UN projects that
ozone layer will completely regenerate and will be restored to 1980 levels in:

1. By 2040, in every place

2. By 2045, over arctic
3. By 2066, over Antarctic

Caution
The solid fuel rocket launches at international level and commercial space travel boom could lead to
depletion of ozone as they release chlorine gas directly into the stratosphere. Moreover,
contemporary rockets create a combination of gaseous and particulate exhaust products including
CO2, water vapour, black carbon, alumina, reactive chloride and nitrogen oxides which are strong
greenhouse gases as well as ozone depleting.

Solutions to Climate Change

1. Carbon Capture and Storage
It involves capturing the CO2 that has already been produced, removing it from the atmosphere and
storing it in a way that it does no release for a long time. There are two ways to achieve it-

1. Artificial or man-made methods – carbon is captured at the site of emission and is either
treated to make it in a stable form through mineralisation or solubilisation or it is treated
under high pressure to liquify it and then store it indefinitely.
a. Geologic Trapping - the highly pressurised CO2 gas which becomes liquid is injected into
porous rock formation in geologic basins where it gets locked for a very long time.
b. Hydrodynamic Trapping – CO2 is trapped either as a gas or liquid under low permeability
rocks and then capped.
c. Mineral Carbonation/Mineralisation – CO2 is made to react with minerals, fluids and
organic matter to form stable compounds like minerals of iron, magnesium, calcium
carbonates which can then be stored in abandoned mine fields or can be used for
commercial purposes.
d. Solubilisation – Carbon is solubilised in water or oil and then stored.
2. Natural methods – it is also called as biologic carbon sequestration. It refers to storage of
carbon in vegetation, soil or aquatic ecosystems. When it is stored by afforestation or
through natural forest, it is known as green carbon sink. When it is stored by oceans through
direct diffusion or through capture by Phyto-planktons, it known as blue carbon sink.
However, this method has a limit because excess CO2 in atmosphere would acidify ocean
water thereby reducing its buffering capacity.

Keeping in mind the importance of oceans acting as carbon sinks, the IUCN, Conservation
International, IOC-UNESCO came together, initiating a global program “Blue Carbon Initiative” which
is aimed at conservation and restoration of coastal and marine ecosystems.

2. Carbon Mitigation
Carbon mitigation refers to reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the first place. There are three
ways for it-

1. Carbon Tax – It is a fee imposed on burning of carbon-based fuels (coal, oil, natural gas etc.).
It intends to reduce the emissions by increasing the price of fossil fuels and thereby reducing
its demand. It is the simplest method to implement because of its predictability, ease of
implementation and understanding of public.
2. Carbon Credit – a carbon credit is a tradable certificate/permit representing the right to emit
one tonne of CO2 or tCO 2 e (CO2 equivalent) and organisations/nations which produce one
tonne less of carbon then the standard level of carbon emissions allowed for it earns a
carbon credit. This carbon credit can then be sold or traded in national or international
markets and will be bought by countries or organisations which have crossed their
permissible limits of carbon emission. This is known as carbon credit mechanism or carbon
trading.
3. Carbon Offsetting – carbon offsets are carbon credits earned for reducing greenhouse gas
emissions at another location by investing in non-polluting or low emission projects such as
solar energy plants, wind energy farms etc. The number of carbon units that are offset due
to installation of these projects are counted as carbon credits of the country financing these
projects. If these projects are undertaken in a developing country (no
a. Clean Development Mechanism – If these projects are undertaken in a developing
country (non-annex country), then these are known as green development mechanism.
b. Joint Implementation – If these projects are installed in developed (annexed country),
then these are known as joint implementation.