THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

IN ASSOCIATION WITH
TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL TEACHERS’ COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCES

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE WITH

EDUCATION

(YEAR THREE)

ODL

ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS

PHY 320

HANDOUT TWO

@TVTC, 2021
Contents
Nuclear Physics ..........................................................................................................2
Properties of Nuclei ..................................................................................................................... 2

Charge and Mass ......................................................................................................................... 2

Radioactivity ............................................................................................................................... 3

Radioactive Decay....................................................................................................................... 3

Half-life ....................................................................................................................................... 4

Properties of Alpha, Beta and Gamma Radiation ....................................................................... 7

Nuclear Radiation Detectors ....................................................................................................... 8

Practical Uses of Radioactivity ................................................................................................... 8

Nuclear Reactions and Nuclear Energy .................................................................................... 10

Nuclear Fission .......................................................................................................................... 10

Nuclear Fusion .......................................................................................................................... 11

Prescribed Readings .................................................................................................13

Recommended Books ..............................................................................................13

1
Nuclear Physics

Properties of Nuclei
Nuclei are composed of two types of particles: protons and neutrons. In describing some of the
properties of nuclei, such their mass and radius, we make use of the following quantities:
i. The atomic number Z, which equals the number of protons in the nucleus.
ii. The neutron number N, which equals the number of neutrons in the nucleus.
iii. The mass number A  Z  N , which equals the number of nucleons in the nucleus
(neutrons plus protons) in the nucleus.

A nuclide is a specific combination of atomic number and mass number that represents a
A
nucleus. In representing nuclides, it is convenient to use the symbol Z X to convey the number of
protons and neutrons, where X represents the chemical symbol of the element. For example:
27
13 Al has the mass number 27 and the atomic number 13; therefore, it contains 13 protons
and 14 neutrons.
The nuclei of all atoms of a particular element must contain the same number of protons, but
they may contain different numbers of neutrons. Nuclei that related in this way are called
isotopes. The isotopes of an element have the same Z value but different N and A values. For
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example, 6C, 126C, 136C and 146C are four isotopes of carbon.

Charge and Mass

The proton carries a single positive charge +e = 1.6 × 10-19 C, the electron carries a single
negative charge –e, and the neutron is electrically neutral.
The proton is about 1.7 × 10-27 kg, that is about 1836 times as the electron (me = 9.1 × 10-31 kg).
The masses of the proton and the neutron are almost equal.
For atomic masses, it is convenient to define the unified mass unit, u, in such as a way that the
mass of one atom of the isotope 12
6C is exactly 12 u, where 1 u = 1.7 × 10-27 kg. The table below
shows the masses of the proton, neutron and electron in various units.
Mass
Particle kg U
Proton 1.7 × 10-27 1.007276
Neutron 1.7 × 10-27 1.008665
Electron 9.1 × 10-31 5.5 × 10-4

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It is often convenient to express a particle‟s mass in terms of its energy. For one atomic mass
unit, the energy equivalent is
E  mc 2
In calculations, the mega electron volt is also often used. The conversion 1 u = 931.5 MeV is
used.

Radioactivity
Among about 2500 known nuclides, fewer than 300 are stable. The others are untestable
structures that decay to form other nuclides by emitting particles and electromagnetic radiation, a
process called radioactivity.

Radioactive Decay
If a radioactive sample contains N radioactive nuclei at some instant, the number of nuclei, ΔN,
that decay in an interval of time Δt is proportional to N. mathematically,
ΔN
αN
Δt
Or
ΔN  Δt

Where λ is a constant called the decay constant. The negative sign signifies that N decreases with
time. The decay rate, or activity R, of a sample is defined as the number of decays per second.
The decay rate is given by:
ΔN
R  N
Δt
Using calculus, the equation that relates how the number of nuclei present varies with time can
be generated and is given by:
N  N 0 e  λt .....................*
Where N is the number of radioactive nuclei present at time t, N0 is the number present at time t
= 0, and e = 2.718 is Euler‟s constant.

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Half-life
The half-life T1 is the time required for the number of radioactive nuclei to decrease to one-half
2

the original number N0. To get the relationship between the half-life T1 and the decay constant
2

N 1

λ. We set
N0 2 and t  T1 2 in the equation * to obtain:

1  λ T1
e 2
2
Taking logarithms of both sides and solving for T1 , we get
2

In2 0.693
T1  
2 λ λ
Using the concept of half-life, equation * can be written as
n
1 t
N  N 0   where n 
2 T1
2

N0
Note that after an elaspsed time of one half-life, , radioactive nuclei remain; after two half-
2
N0
lives, half of those will have decayed and radioactive nuclei will be left; after three half-
4
N0
lives, will be left; and so on. The SI unit of activity R is the Becquerel (Bq), defined as
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1 Bq = 1 decay/s
Another unit of activity is the curie (Ci), defined as
1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 decays/s
Example 1
The half-life of the radioactive nucleus 226
88 Ra is 1.6 × 103 years. If a sample initially contains
3.0 × 1016 such nuclei, determine
a. The initial activity in curies.
b. The number of radium nuclei remaining after 4.8 × 103 years
c. The activity at this later time

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Solution
a.
0.693
T1/2 
λ
0.693
λ
T1/2
0.693
λ
(1.6  10 years)(3.156  107 seconds/year)
3

λ  1.4  10 11 /s

R0  λN 0
R0  (1.4  10 11 )(3.70  10 10 )
R0  4.2  10 5 decays/s

b.
n
1
N  N0  
2
t 4.8  10 3
n   3.0half lives
T1/2 1.6  10 3 years/half  life
N  (3.0  10 16 )(1/2)3.0  3.8  10 15 nuclei

Example 2
222
Radon 86 Rn is a radioactive gas that can be trapped in the basements of homes, and its presence
in high concentrations is a known health hazard. Radon has a half-life of 3.83 days. A gas sample
contains 4.0 × 108 radon atoms initially.
a. How many atoms will remain after 14.0 days have passed?
b. What is the activity of the radon sample after 14.0 days?

The Decay Processes

Radioactive nuclei decay spontaneously (happening or arising without external cause) through
alpha, beta and gamma decay.
1. Alpha Decay
If a nucleus emits an alpha particle ( 24 He ), it loses two protons and two neutrons. Therefore,
the neutron number N of a single nucleus decreases by 2, Z decreases by 2, and A decreases
by 4.The decay can be written symbolically as
A
Z X  ZA42Y  24 He

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 Where X is called the parent nucleus and Y is known as the daughter nucleus. For example,
238
92 U is an alpha emitter and decays according to the scheme:
238
92 U  234
90Th 2 He
4

2. Beta Decay
When a radioactive nucleus undergoes beta decay, the daughter nucleus has the same number
of nucleons as the parent nucleus, but the atomic number is changed by 1. There are three
different types of beta decay: beta-minus, beta-plus, and electron capture. In beta-minus
decay, N decreases by 1, Z increases by 1 and A doesn‟t change
A
Z X  Z A1Y  e 
A typical example of beta-minus decay is
14
6 C 147 N  e 
In beta-plus decay, N increases by 1 and Z decreases by 1.
A
Z X  Z A1Y  e 
3. Gamma Decay
Very often, a nucleus that undergoes radioactive decay is left in an excited energy state. A
nucleus has a set of energy levels, including a ground state (state of lowest energy) and
several excited states. When a nucleus is placed in an excited state, either by bombardment
with high-energy particles or by a radioactive transformation, it can decay to the ground state
by emission of one or more photons (electromagnetic radiation) called gamma rays.
A
Z X *  ZA Y  
A practical example is the following;
12
5 B126 C *  e  ............... *
12
6 C * 126 C   ............... * *
12 12
Equation * represents a beta-minus decay in which 5 B decays to C* , where the asterisk
6

indicates that the carbon nucleus is left in an excited state following the decay. The carbon
then decays to the ground state by emitting a gamma ray as indicated by equation **.
Note that in both α and β decay, the Z value of a nucleus and nucleus of one element becomes
the nucleus of a different element. In γ decay, the element does not change; the nucleus merely
goes from an excited state to a less excited state.

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Properties of Alpha, Beta and Gamma Radiation
Alpha particles are positively charged particles. They consist of two neutrons and two protons
bound together to the nucleus of a Helium atom. They have the greatest ionizing power
(ionization is the process by which an atom or a molecule acquires a negative or positive charge
by gaining or losing electrons to form ions). They have the least penetrating power and can be
stopped even by a thin sheet of paper or even skin.
Beta particles are highly energetic electrons and they are negatively charged. They can also
ionize but their ionisation power is not as high as in alpha radiation. Unlike alpha radiation, beta
radiation has the capacity to pass through living cells, though it can be stopped by an aluminium
sheet.
Gamma rays are high frequency, extremely-short-wavelength electromagnetic waves with no
charge. They are emitted by a decaying nucleus, which expels the gamma rays in an effort to
become more stable. Gamma rays have the most energy and can penetrate substances up to a few
centimeters of lead or a few meters of concrete.
Alpha, beta and gamma radiation can be detected by using magnetic field. Alpha and beta
particles have opposite charges and so they undergo deflection in opposite directions. Gamma
rays do not undergo any deflection because they have no charge.
The table below summarises the properties of Alpha, Beta and Gamma radiation
Property α ray β ray γ ray
Nature Positively charged Negatively charged Uncharged
particles (Helium nucleus) particles (electrons) electromagnetic
radiation
Charge +2e -e 0
Penetrating Low. Can be stopped by a Moderate. Can be High. Can be stopped
power thin sheet of paper stopped by an by a few cm of lead.
aluminium sheet
Deflection by They are deflected less They are deflected They are not
magnetic field than beta particles because more than alpha deflected by
they have a higher mass particles. magnetic field.
Ionizing ability High Medium 0

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Nuclear Radiation Detectors
1. Geiger-Muller Tube (GM tube)
This is a tube with some form of counter attached, which tells the number of particles
detected per minute.
2. Photographic Film
Radioactivity darkens or makes a photographic film become foggy. This effect is used to
measure how much radiation has struck the film. Workers in the nuclear industry wear
“film badges” which are sent to the laboratory to be developed, just like photographs.
This allows one to measure the dose that each worker has received.
3. The Gold Leaf Electroscope
When an electroscope is charged, the gold leaf sticks out, because the charges on the leaf
repel the charges on the metal stalk. When a radioactive source comes near, the charge on
the metal stalk can “leak” away and cause the electroscope to discharge and the gold leaf
to fall.
4. The Cloud Chamber
The chamber contains a supersaturated vapour, which condenses into droplets when
disturbed and ionized by the passage of a particle. This device also allows one to clearly
see the direction and energy of the particles. (low energy particles only leave short trails)
Exercise
Carry out a brief research on the following nuclear radiation detectors.
1. Scintillation Detector
2. Solid-State Detectors

Practical Uses of Radioactivity

1. Carbon Dating
The beta decay of Carbon-14 is commonly used to date organic samples. There are three
types of carbon on earth; Carbon-12, Carbon-13 and Carbon-14. Carbon-12 and Carbon-
13 are stable, meaning that once they have been constructed, they do not change form.
Carbon-14 comes from Nitrogen when it is hit by cosmic rays from outer space. Carbon-
14 is unstable, which means that once something dies, it starts to decay. The half-life for
Carbon-14 is 5730 years, meaning that every 5730 years on average, about half of the
Carbon-14 atoms will decay. After one half-life, about half of the Carbo-14 will remain.
After another half-life, about a quarter remains, and so on. By contrast, the amount of

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 Carbon-12 stays the same. By measuring the ratio of Carbon-14 to Carbon-12, the
number of years that have passed can be measured since something died. Carbon dating
works for fossils up to about 60000 years old. For older fossils, scientists use unstable
elements that have much longer half-lives.
2. Smoke Detectors
Smoke detectors are usually used in homes and industry for fire protection. A smoke
detector consists of an ionization chamber, a sensitive current detector and an alarm. A
very weak radioactive source ionizes the air in the chamber of the detector, which creates
charged particles. A voltage is maintained between the plates inside the chamber, setting
up a current in the external circuit. As long as the current is maintained, the alarm is
deactivated. If smoke drifts into the chamber, the ions become attached to the smoke
particles. These heavier particles do not move as easily as did the lighter ions and hence
cause a decrease in the detector current. The external circuit senses this decrease in
current and sets off the alarm.

3. Medical Applications
i. Imaging.
Because the radiation emitted by some isotopes is penetrating, it can be used to
pinpoint locations in tissues, and so offering opportunities for imaging inside the
body.
ii. Radiation therapies
Carefully directed doses of nuclear radiation can be targeted to kill cancer cells which
are more sensitive to radiation than normal tissue.
iii. Medical isotopes
Scientists use radiation emitted by short-lived isotopes to diagnose illnesses and study
disease. The most commonly used radioisotope, technetium-99, is used in at least 30
million hospital diagnoses a year, worldwide.

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Nuclear Reactions and Nuclear Energy
It is possible to change the structure of nuclei by bombarding them with energetic particles. Such
changes are called nuclear reactions. Nuclear energy is the energy that can be derived from a
nuclear reaction. There are two means by which energy can be derived from nuclear reactions:
fission, in which a nucleus of large mass number splits into two smaller nuclei, and fusion, in
which two light nuclei fuse to form a heavier nucleus. In either case, there is a release of large
amounts of energy that can be used destructively through bombs or constructively through the
production of electric power.

Nuclear Fission
Nuclear fission occurs when a heavy nucleus such as Uranium-235, splits, or fissions, into two
smaller nuclei. Scientists usually accomplish this task this task by bombarding a large isotope
with a second, smaller one-commonly a neutron. The fission of Uranium-235 can be represented
by the following sequence of events.
235
92U  01 n  X  Y  neutrons
The nuclei X and Y are called fission fragments. The mass of these fragments is less than the
original mass. This „missing‟ mass is what is converted into energy according to Einstein‟s
equation ( E  mc 2 ). The following is a typical fission reaction;
235
92U  01n142
56 Ba 36 Kr 30 n
91 1

The sequence of events is as follows:

1. The Uranium-235 is bombarded by neutron.
2. The nucleus splits into two fragments, emitting several neutrons in the process.

In the equation, E  mc 2 , E is the amount of energy produced, m is the „missing‟ mass, and c is
the speed of light, which is rather a large number, which when multiplied even by a small mass,
yields a large amount of energy. Typically, the amount of energy released by the fission of a
single heavy radioactive atom is about one hundred million times the energy released in the
combustion of one molecule of the octane used in gasoline engines.
Chain Reaction
Notice that in the fission equation of Uranium-235, one neutron was used, but three were
produced. These three neutrons, if they encounter other Uranium-235 atoms, can initiate other

10
fissions, producing even more neutrons. It becomes a series of nuclear fissions called a chain
reaction.

Nuclear Fusion
When two light nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus, the process is called nuclear fusion.
Fusion in the Sun
It's not immediately obvious, but many things on the Earth are powered by nuclear fusion-
because that's what drives the Sun, and the Sun drives the Earth. If you could get close enough to
the Sun to peer inside its core and see what's going on inside, you'd see atoms of hydrogen
joining together ("fusing") to make atoms of helium, releasing huge amounts of energy in the
process. Apart from making incredible amounts of heat inside the Sun itself (the core is at a
temperature of at least 10 million degrees), the Sun's nuclear fusion also produces the solar
energy that streams out across 150 million kilometers of space sustaining pretty much all the life
we see on Earth.
Fusion Reactors
Now suppose we could make a machine that copied what happens inside the Sun here on Earth,
only in a much smaller and more controllable way. In theory, we'd just feed in hydrogen (a
simple, fairly safe gas we can make from water) at one end, combine its atoms together inside,
and get helium (a clean and safe gas) out of the other end. In the process, we'd produce huge

11
amounts of heat energy, which we could use to drive steam turbines and generators to produce
electricity, much as in any conventional power plant. There'd be no pollution, no carbon dioxide
(one of the so-called greenhouse gases that causes global warming and climate change), and no
deadly nuclear waste. We'd have simple, clean, safe, nuclear power.

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Prescribed Readings
 Krane, K. S. (1987). Introductory Nuclear Physics. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
 Cohen, B. L. (1980). Concepts of Nuclear Physics. India: McGraw-Hill Education.
 Enge, H. A. (1974). Introduction to Nuclear Physics. Boston: Addison-Wesley.

Recommended Books
 Duncan, T. (2009). Advanced Physics, 5th Edition. London: John Murray Ltd.
 Halliday, D. & Resnick, R. (1978). Physics Parts I & II. New York: John Wiley and
Sons.
 Wehr, M. R., Richards. J. A. & Adair, T. W. (1994). Physics of the Atom. Boston:
Addison-Wesley.

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