Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)

Aylin DUBA, aylinduba@gmail.com

Abstract

The Open System Interconnection (OSI) model, developed by ISO (International Organization
for Standardization), defines how applications running on network-aware devices will
communicate with each other. Basically, when we need to consider the OSI model; it defines
how a prepared information will appear on another computer after passing through the network
environment, as well as it provides the communication of different hardware and software
products and the communication of different operating systems. The OSI Model does not differ
according to any type of hardware or computer network. The purpose of OSI is to enable
network architectures and protocols to be used as a component of a network product. The OSI
model expresses data transfer by dividing it into different layers. These layers follow each other
according to their execution order.

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Contents
1. Introduction to OSI Model .............................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Prior to OSI Model ........................................................................................................................ 1

1.2 Advantages of the OSI Model ....................................................................................................... 2

1.3 Disadvantages of the OSI Model ................................................................................................... 2

2. Layers of OSI Model ....................................................................................................................... 3

2.1 Layer 1: The Physical Layer.......................................................................................................... 4

2.2 Layer 2: The Data Link Layer (DLL)............................................................................................ 5

2.3 Layer 3: The Network Layer ......................................................................................................... 6

2.4 Layer 4: The Transport Layer........................................................................................................ 7

2.5 Layer 5: The Session Layer ........................................................................................................... 8

2.6 Layer 6: The Presentation Layer ................................................................................................. 10

2.7 Layer 7: The Application Layer .................................................................................................. 10

3. Difference Between OSI and TCP/IP Models ............................................................................... 11

4. OSI Protocols ................................................................................................................................ 12
References ............................................................................................................................................. 15

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 1. Introduction to OSI Model
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a conceptual model that
characterizes and standardizes the communication functions of a
telecommunications or computing system, regardless of its underlying internal
structure and technology. Its purpose is to ensure that various communication
systems work seamlessly together with standard protocols.

The basic functions of the OSI Model can be explained as follows:

• Defines how network components communicate.

• Defines how an information is displayed on another computer after it is
prepared, passing through the network environment.
• It provides communication between different hardware and software.
• Allows communication of different operating systems.

The OSI model is a model consisting of seven different layers that are related
to each other and are based on the purpose of each layer serving the upper layer.
The main purpose of dividing it into seven layers is to ensure that when any layer
is desired to be developed or changed, the event will only affect that layer and not
affect other layers. In this way, the layers can develop more quickly.

It is the first standard model adopted for network communications by all

telecommunication companies in the early 1980s. OSI was introduced in 1983 by
the major computer and telecom companies of the time, and was accepted as an
international standard by ISO in 1984. The OSI 7-layer model is widely used
because it helps visualize and communicate how networks work, as well as is of
great importance in isolating network problems. [1]

1.1 Prior to OSI Model

Before the OSI model became a standard model, networks were specific to
organizations that manufacture computer hardware. The most basic feature of

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these networks was that they usually allowed a manufacturer to connect their own
hardware. Due to the fact that many networks have different software and
hardware features, there were incompatibility problems. Companies needed to
develop and consolidate their networks in order to increase their working speed
and reduce their current costs. However, the fact that each company used different
network configurations made this situation very difficult. This situation was
resolved with the development and acceptance of the OSI Model by ISI in 1984,
because the OSI model does not vary according to any type of hardware or
computer network, unlike networks produced by companies themselves.

1.2 Advantages of the OSI Model

The advantages of the OSI Model are the following:

• It creates a common platform for software developers and hardware

manufacturers that promotes the creation of network products that can
communicate with each other over the network.
• It helps network administrators by dividing the big data exchange
process into smaller segments.
• Because the layers are independent, it prevents changes in one layer
from affecting other layers.
• Standardization of network components allows for multi-vendor
development.
• It configures the functions specific to each layer very well.
• It reduces complexity and speeds up evolution. [2]

1.3 Disadvantages of the OSI Model

The disadvantages of the OSI Model are the following:

• It defines various services multiple times. For example, the error control
service is defined in both Transport and Data Link layers.

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 • It does not allow layers to work parallel. A layer has to wait till it gets
data from its predecessor layer.
• Instead of defining similar functions in the same layer, it defines them
in different layers that add additional complexity.
• Instead of providing a summary of rarely used protocols and functions,
it defines every protocol and function in detail that makes the model
lengthy and less useful for administrators. [2]

2. Layers of OSI Model

The OSI Model, which enables network architectures and protocols to be used
as a component of a network product, is divided into 7 layers. All these 7 layers
work collaboratively to transmit the data from one person to another across the
globe.

Figure 1: OSI Model Layers [4]

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2.1 Layer 1: The Physical Layer
The lowest layer of the OSI model is the physical layer. It is responsible for
the actual physical connection between devices. This layer contains information
in bit form. This is also the layer where the data is converted into a bitstream,
which is a sequence of 1s and 0s. The physical layer of both devices must agree
on a signal rule so that 1s can be distinguished from 0s on both devices.

Figure 2: The Physical Layer [5]

The physical layer can also include some specifications such as pin layout,
radio frequencies, voltages, cabling, etc., and some physical resources such as
repeaters, modems, cabling, network hubs, and network adapters. Hub and
repeater work in this layer.

The functions of the physical layer are as follows: [3]

• Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization

of the bits by providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and
receiver thus providing synchronization at bit level.
• Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate
i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
• Physical topologies: The physical layer tells us about the arrangement
of different nodes or devices in a network.
• Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines the way in which the
data flows between the two connected devices. The various transmission
modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.

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2.2 Layer 2: The Data Link Layer (DLL)
The data link layer is very similar to the network layer, except the data link
layer facilitates data transfer between two devices on the same network. The data
link layer takes packets from the network layer and breaks them into smaller
pieces called frames. Like the network layer, the data link layer is also responsible
for flow control and error control in intra-network communication (The transport
layer only does flow control and error control for inter-network communications).

Figure 3: The Data Link Layer [5]

The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message.
The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one
node to another, over the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is
the responsibility of DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.

Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:

1. Logical Link Control (LLC): LLC provides us with error control and flow
control over the physical medium. It also identifies line protocols.
2. Media Access Control (MAC): MAC provides multiplexing for the
transmission of devices over a network. It also provides flow control. [3]

The functions of the Data Link layer are : [4]

• Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way

for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver.

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 This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the
beginning and end of the frame.
• Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds
physical addresses (MAC address) of the sender and/or receiver in the
header of each frame.
• Error Control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of error control
in which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
• Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data
may get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that
can be sent before receiving acknowledgement.
• Access Control: When a single communication channel is shared by
multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to
determine which device has control over the channel at a given time.

2.3 Layer 3: The Network Layer

It is considered as the layer responsible for the transfer of data in two different
networks from one computer to the other. This layer will not be very useful if the
transmission of data in the same network is desired. It also takes care of packet
routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number
of routes available. The network layer breaks up segments from the transport layer
into smaller units, called packets, on the sender’s device, and reassembling these
packets on the receiving device.

Figure 4: The Network Layer [5]

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The network layer has two main functions:

• Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable

from source to destination.
• Logical Adressing: In order to identify each device on internetwork
uniquely, the network layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender
& receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.
Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.

2.4 Layer 4: The Transport Layer

The Transport Layer is the layer responsible for end-to-end communication
between two devices. The data on the Transport Layer are called 'segments'.
This middleware provides the service it receives from the network layer to the
application layer as a service. It is also responsible for confirming successful
data transfer. If an error is found in the data being migrated, it retransmits the
data.

Figure 5: The Transport Layer [5]

The main functions of transport layer are: [6]

• Segmentation: Data received from session layer is divided into small

data units called segments. Each segment contains the sender and
receiver port number along with the sequence number. Port number
helps to direct the data segments to the correct application and the

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 sequence number helps to reassemble the data from data segments in
correct order.
• Flow Control: It controls the flow of data. It checks the capability of
the receiver device receiving capability before transmitting data. For
example a sender server can send the data at a rate of 200Mbps but a
receiving data can only receive data at a rate of 10 Mbps then it controls
the flow of data to 10Mbps so that the data doesn’t get lost during
transmission.
• Error Control: Transport layer also performs error control using
Automatic Repeat Request, if a data is lost during transmission, it is send
again using automatic repeat request. Transport layer also adds a group
of bits called checksum with each segment to check whether the data
received at receiver side is not corrupt.
• Connection Oriented Transmission: Connection oriented
transmission is done using transmission control protocol (TCP). TCP is
considerably slower than UDP because it provides the feedback that the
data is received or not, thus a data can be sent again if it is not received.
• Connectionless Transmission: Connectionless transmission is done
using User Datagram protocol (UDP). UDP is faster than TCP because
it doesn’t provide the feedback that the data is actually received at the
receiver side or not.

2.5 Layer 5: The Session Layer

This is the kayer responsible for opening and closing communication between
the two devices. The time between when the communication is opened and closed
is known as the session. The session layer ensures that the session stays open long
enough to transfer all the data being exchanged, and then promptly closes the
session in order to avoid wasting resources.

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 The session layer also synchronizes data transfer with checkpoints. For
example, if a 100 megabyte file is being transferred, the session layer could set a
checkpoint every 5 megabytes. In the case of a disconnect or a crash after 52
megabytes have been transferred, the session could be resumed from the last
checkpoint, meaning only 50 more megabytes of data need to be transferred.
Without the checkpoints, the entire transfer would have to begin again from
scratch.

Figure 6: The Session Layer [5]

The main functions of session layer are: [6]

• Authentication: Before a computer can be connected to a server, the

computer has to provide user name and password for the authentication.
The function of authentication and setting up a connection after
authentication is performed by session layer.
• Authorization: Once a connection is established, session layer checks
whether the connected computer is authorised to access the data, this
function of authorisation checking is also performed by session layer.
• Session Management: Session layer also checks that the data which is
received from the server in form of data packets belongs to which
application for example when you access Facebook profile through your
browser, the data transferred from the Facebook server is transferred to
your web browser application, thus the session layer helps in session
management.
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 2.6 Layer 6: The Presentation Layer
This layer is primarily responsible for preparing data so that it can be used by
the application layer. The presentation layer is responsible for
translation, encryption, and compression of data. Two communicating devices
communicating may be using different encoding methods, so layer 6 is
responsible for translating incoming data into a syntax that the application layer
of the receiving device can understand.

Figure 7: The Presentation Layer [5]

If the devices are communicating over an encrypted connection, layer 6 is

responsible for adding the encryption on the sender’s end as well as decoding the
encryption on the receiver's end so that it can present the application layer with
unencrypted, readable data.

2.7 Layer 7: The Application Layer

This is the only layer that directly interacts with data from the user. Software
applications like web browsers and email clients rely on the application layer to
initiate communications. But it should be made clear that client software
applications are not part of the application layer; rather the application layer is
responsible for the protocols and data manipulation that the software relies on to
present meaningful data to the user. Application layer protocols include HTTP as
well as SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is one of the protocols that
enables email communications).

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 Figure 8: The Application Layer [5]

The functions of the Application layer are :

1. Network Virtual Terminal

2. FTAM-File transfer access and management
3. Mail Services
4. Directory Services

3. Difference Between OSI and TCP/IP Models

OSI model acts as a reference model and is not implemented on the Internet
because of its late invention. The current model being used is the TCP/IP model.

Figure 9: OSI and TCP/IP Models [8]

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 TCP/IP Model
It is the older of the two network models.
It was developed by the US Department of
Defense (DoD.)
It has four layers.
It is simpler; it combines several layers
into one.
Session, presentation, and application
layers of the OSI model are all combined
as the application layer.
Physical and data link layers of the OSI
model are combined as the network access
layer.
It is a functional model.
Protocols were developed first, and the
model was developed later.
It is based on specific, standard protocols.
Most applications use all four layers of the
model.
OSI Model
It is a comparatively newer model.
It was developed by the International
Organization of Standardization (ISO.)
It has seven layers.
It is relatively complex.
There are separate session, presentation,
and application layers.
There are separate physical and data link
layers.
It is a conceptual framework.
The model was developed first, and the
protocols were developed later.
It is generic and independent of protocols.
Simpler applications do not need to use all
seven layers of the model.

4. OSI Protocols
OSI protocols are a family of standards for information exchange. They consist
of a set of rules that should represent a standard for physical connections, cabling,
data formats, transmission models, as well as means to ensure correction of errors
and missing data.
The OSI protocol stack works on a hierarchical form, from the hardware
physical layer to the software application layer. There are a total of seven layers.
Data and information are received by each layer from an upper layer.
After the required processing, this layer then passes the information on to the
next lower layer. A header is added to the forwarded message for the convenience
of the next layer. Each header consists of information such as source and

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destination addresses, protocol used, sequence number and other flow-control
related data.
Popular OSI protocols used in the seven layers of the OSI model can be
classified as follows in each layer: [7]

Layer 1: The Physical Layer

This layer deals with the hardware of networks such as cabling. It defines the
mechanical and electrical standards of interface devices and the types of cables
used to transmit digital signals (e.g. optical fiber, coaxial cable, wireless, etc.).

The major protocols used by this layer include Bluetooth, PON, OTN, DSL,
IEEE.802.11, IEEE.802.3, L431 and TIA 449.

Layer 2: The Data Link Layer

This layer receives data from the physical layer and compiles it into a
transform form called framing or frame. The principal purpose of this layer is to
detect transfer errors by adding headers to data packets.

The protocols are used by the Data Link Layer include: ARP, CSLIP, HDLC,
IEEE.802.3, PPP, X-25, SLIP, ATM, SDLS and PLIP.

Layer 3: The Network Layer

This is the most important layer of the OSI model, which performs real time
processing and transfers data from nodes to nodes. Routers and switches are the
devices used for this layer that connects the notes in the network to transmit and
control data flow.

The network layer assists the following protocols: Internet Protocol (IPv4),
Internet Protocol (IPv6), IPX, AppleTalk, ICMP, IPSec and IGMP.

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 Layer 4: The Transport Layer

The transport layer works on two determined communication modes:

Connection oriented and connectionless. This layer transmits data from source to
destination node.

It uses the most important protocols of OSI protocol family, which are:
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), UDP, SPX, DCCP and SCTP.

Layer 5: The Session Layer

The session layer creates a session between the source and the destination
nodes and terminates sessions on completion of the communication process.

The protocols used are: PPTP, SAP, L2TP and NetBIOS.

Layer 6: The Presentation Layer

The functions of encryption and decryption are defined on this layer. It ensures
that data is transferred in standardized formats by converting data formats into a
format readable by the application layer.

The following are the presentation layer protocols: XDR, TLS, SSL, SSH,
IMAP, FTP,MPEG, JPEG and MIME.

Layer 7: The Application Layer

This layer works at the user end to interact with user applications. QoS (quality
of service), file transfer and email are the major popular services of the application
layer.

This layer uses following protocols: HTTP, IRC, DNS, SMTP, DHCP, FTP,
Telnet, SNMP and SMPP.

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References

[1] «Imperva,» Available: https://www.imperva.com/learn/application-security/osi-model/.

[2] «computernetworkingnotes,» Available: https://www.computernetworkingnotes.com/ccna-study-guide/osi-

model-advantages-and-basic-purpose-explained.html.

[3] «businessprocessincubator,» Available: https://www.businessprocessincubator.com/content/what-is-the-osi-

model/.

[4] «geeksforgeeks,» Available: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/layers-of-osi-model/.

[5] «cloudflare,» Available: https://www.cloudflare.com/learning/ddos/glossary/open-systems-interconnection-

model-osi/.

[6] «beginnersbook,» Available: https://beginnersbook.com/2019/04/osi-model-in-computer-network/.

[7] «techopedia,» Available: https://www.techopedia.com/definition/24961/osi-

protocols#:~:text=It%20uses%20the%20most%20important,%2C%20SPX%2C%20DCCP%20and%20SCTP..

[8] «researchgate,» Available: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-logical-mapping-between-OSI-basic-

reference-model-and-the-TCP-IP-stack_fig2_327483011.

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