UNIT 1

1. Discuss the typical network hierarchy of access networks, distribution networks, and core networks.
Access Networks:
• Access networks refer to the portion of the network that connects end-user devices to the network
infrastructure. It is the closest network level to the end-users.
• Access networks can include various technologies such as wired (e.g., Ethernet, DSL) and wireless
(e.g., Wi-Fi, cellular networks) connections.
• The primary function of the access network is to provide connectivity and access to end -users.
Distribution Networks:
• The distribution network, also known as the aggregation network or metropolitan are a network
(MAN), sits between the access networks and the core networks.
• Its purpose is to aggregate traffic from multiple access networks and connect them to the core
network.
• The distribution network is responsible for routing and forwarding data betwe en access networks and
the core network.
Core Networks:
• The core network, often referred to as the backbone network, forms the central part of a
telecommunications network.
• It is responsible for routing data between different distribution networks, across different
geographical regions or countries.
• The core network is designed to handle large volumes of data traffic and provide high-speed
connectivity.

2. Explain the key elements and their relationships of a modern networking ecosystem, including end
users, network providers, application providers and application service providers.
In a modern networking ecosystem, several key elements and their relationships play a crucial role in
enabling effective communication and service delivery. These key elements include end users, network
providers, application providers, and application service providers. Let's explore their roles and
relationships:
End Users: End users are the individuals or organizations that utilize the network and its services. They
can be employees, customers, or individuals accessing applications and services over the network. End
users interact with applications provided by application providers and rely on network infrastructure
provided by network providers to access these services.
Network Providers: Network providers, also known as service providers or carriers, are responsible for
building and maintaining the underlying network infrastructure. They provide the physical and virtual
connectivity required for data transmission. Network providers offer services such as internet
connectivity, data transmission, and network management. They ensure the network is reliable, secure,
and has sufficient capacity to handle data traffic.
Application Providers: Application providers develop and deliver software applications that run on top
of the network infrastructure. These applications can be productivity tools, communication platforms,
collaboration software, or specialized industry-specific software. Application providers design their
applications to leverage the network infrastructure provided by network providers to deliver their
services to end users.
Application Service Providers (ASPs): Application service providers, also known as cloud service
providers, offer hosted services and applications to end users. They leverage the network infrastructure
and platforms provided by network providers to deliver their services over the internet. ASPs may offer
software-as-a-service (SaaS), platform-as-a-service (PaaS), or infrastructure-as-a-service (IaaS)
 solutions. Examples of ASPs include cloud storage providers, email service providers, and web -based
application providers.

The relationships among these key elements in a modern networking ecosystem are interconnected:
• End users rely on network providers to access the applications and services provided by application
providers and ASPs.
• Network providers collaborate with application providers to ensure that their network infrastructure is
compatible with the applications and services being offered.
• Application providers depend on network providers to ensure their applications can be accessed
reliably and securely by end users.
• ASPs utilize the network infrastructure provided by network providers to deliver their hosted services
and applications to end users.

3. Write an overview of the major categories of packet traffic on the Internet and internets, including
elastic, inelastic, and real-time traffic.

Elastic Traffic:
• Elastic traffic refers to data flows that are sensitive to network congestion and can adapt their
transmission rate accordingly.
• It includes applications such as web browsing, email, file transfers, and cloud-based services.
• Elastic traffic can tolerate delays and variations in transmission time without significant impact on user
experience.
• Transmission rates can be dynamically adjusted based on available bandwidth and network conditions.
Inelastic Traffic:
• Inelastic traffic refers to data flows that have strict timing requirements and are less tolerant to delays
and variations.
• It includes applications such as video streaming, online gaming, and voice over IP (VoIP).
• Inelastic traffic requires a consistent and predictable network performance to ensure quality and real-
time experience.
• Quality of Service (QoS) mechanisms and prioritization techniques are often employed to manage
inelastic traffic.
Real-time Traffic:
• Real-time traffic refers to data flows that require immediate and continuous transmission with low
latency.
• It includes applications such as real-time video conferencing, voice calls, and live streaming.
• Real-time traffic has stringent timing requirements and requires low delay and jitter to maintain smooth
and uninterrupted communication.
• Quality of Service (QoS) mechanisms, such as traffic prioritization and dedicated network resources, are
essential to support real-time traffic.

Other Traffic Categories:

Best Effort Traffic: Best effort traffic refers to data flows that do not require specific timing or guaranteed
quality of service. It includes general internet browsing, social media, and non-time-sensitive applications.

Bulk Traffic: Bulk traffic refers to large data transfers such as software updates, backups, and file
downloads. It typically utilizes available bandwidth and may be scheduled during of f-peak hours to
minimize congestion impact.
4. Explain the concept of quality of service.
• Quality of Service (QoS) refers to the set of techniques and mechanisms used to manage and prioritize
network traffic to meet specific performance requirements and ensure a satisfactory user experience.
• QoS aims to provide different levels of service to different types of network traffic, based on their
respective priorities, bandwidth requirements, latency sensitivity, and reliability needs.
• QoS mechanisms involve various aspects of network management, including traffic classification,
prioritization, congestion control, resource allocation, and traffic shaping.
• Traffic Classification: QoS begins with the identification and classification of different types of network
traffic based on their characteristics, such as application type, source/destination, or protocol used.
• Prioritization: Once classified, network traffic can be assigned different levels of priority. Higher-priority
traffic, such as real-time communication or critical applications, is given preferential treatment over
lower-priority traffic during congestion or resource contention.
• Congestion Control: QoS mechanisms aim to prevent or manage network congestion by monitoring
network conditions and taking appropriate actions, such as dropping or marking packets, applying
traffic shaping, or triggering flow control mechanisms.
• Resource Allocation: QoS techniques involve allocating network resources, such as bandwidth or buffer
space, to different traffic classes based on their priorities or service level agreements (SLAs).
• Traffic Shaping: Traffic shaping involves regulating the flow of network traffic to ensure that it conforms
to predefined policies and desired performance parameters, such as maintaining a certain rate, limiting
burstiness, or enforcing traffic contracts.
• SLA Enforcement: QoS mechanisms can enforce service level agreements between service providers
and customers, ensuring that agreed-upon performance metrics, such as latency, packet loss, or
throughput, are met.

5. Explain the concept of quality of experience.

• Quality of Experience (QoE) refers to the overall subjective assessment of the user's perception of the
quality and usability of a particular service or application in a networking environment.
• QoE takes into account various factors that influence the user's experience, including technical
parameters, usability, responsiveness, and user expectations.
• Unlike Quality of Service (QoS), which focuses on objective network performance metrics, QoE places
emphasis on the end-user's subjective perception and satisfaction.
• QoE encompasses multiple dimensions, such as audio/video quality, responsiveness, interactivity,
reliability, ease of use, and overall user satisfaction.
• QoE is influenced by factors such as network performance, application design, content quality, user
interface, responsiveness, availability, and even user context, expectations, and preferences.
• Network performance metrics, such as latency, packet loss, and throughput, play a role in shaping the
user's perception of QoE, but they are not the sole determinants.
• QoE evaluation often involves subjective assessments through user surveys, feedback, focus groups, or
user experience testing, alongside objective measurements and analytics.
• Service providers and application developers strive to optimize QoE by considering factors like efficient
network resource management, content delivery, responsive user interfaces, and personalized
experiences.

6. What is congestion? Why does it occur?

• Congestion in modern networking refers to a state where network resource s, such as bandwidth or
buffers, are overwhelmed by the volume of traffic, leading to degraded performance, increased latency,
and packet loss.
• Congestion occurs when the demand for network resources exceeds the available capacity. It often
happens in situations where there is a high volume of data traffic or when network resources are
under-provisioned.

Causes of congestion can include:

• Increased data traffic: As the number of connected devices and data-intensive applications grows, the
overall traffic volume on networks increases, potentially leading to congestion.
• Network bottlenecks: Congestion can occur at points of network congestion, such as routers, switches,
or links that have limited capacity compared to the amount of traffic they need to handle.
• Network topology: Inefficient network design or suboptimal routing decisions can lead to congestion by
funneling a large amount of traffic through a limited number of paths or nodes.
• Bursty traffic: Traffic patterns that exhibit sudden bursts of high volume can overwhelm network
resources and cause congestion, especially if the network is not adequately provisioned to handle these
fluctuations.
• Misconfigured network devices: Incorrect configuration of network devices, such as improper buffer
settings or QoS policies, can contribute to congestion by inefficiently managing traffic.
• Congestion can have detrimental effects on network performance, leading to increased packet loss,
delays, and reduced throughput. This can result in poor user experience, degraded application
performance, and service disruptions.
To mitigate congestion, various techniques can be employed, including:

• Traffic shaping and admission control: These techniques regulate the flow of traffic, limiting the rate at
which packets are transmitted, and preventing excessive traffic from overwhelming network
resources.
• Quality of Service (QoS) mechanisms: QoS mechanisms prioritize traffic based on its importance and
allocate resources accordingly, ensuring that critical traffic receives preferential treatment during
congestion.

7. Explain the concepts of network convergence and unified communications.

Network Convergence:
Network convergence refers to the integration and merging of various types of communication
networks into a single platform or infrastructure. In traditional networks, different types of
communication, such as voice, data, and video, were transmitted over separate networks. With
network convergence, these different types of communication are carried over a single network
infrastructure, usually an IP-based network.The goal of network convergence is to simplify network
management, improve efficiency, and enable new services and applications. By consolidating multiple
networks into one, organizations can reduce costs associated with maintaining separate infrastructures
and improve overall communication capabilities.Network convergence is typically achieved through the
use of technologies such as Voice over IP (VoIP), which allows voice communication to be transmitted
over IP networks, and data convergence technologies like MPLS (Multiprotocol Label Switching) that
enable the integration of data traffic from various sources into a single network.

Unified Communications:
Unified Communications (UC) refers to the integration of various communication tools and channels
into a unified platform or system. It combines real-time communication services, such as voice and
video calling, instant messaging, presence information, with non-real-time communication services like
email, voicemail, and SMS, into a cohesive and integrated user experience.
 The key objective of unified communications is to provide seamless communication and collaboration
across different devices and channels. Users can access and manage their communications from a single
interface, regardless of whether they are using a desk phone, mobile device, or computer.
Unified communications platforms often leverage IP-based networks to transmit and manage different
types of communication. They may incorporate features like presence awareness (knowing if someone
is available or busy), unified messaging (consolidating voicemail, email, and other messages in one
inbox), and collaboration tools (screen sharing, document sharing, virtual meetings) to enhance
productivity and efficiency.

UNIT 2
1. Why traditional network architecture are inadequate for transmission for carried a data? How this
limitation is solved?
Traditional network architectures, such as circuit-switched networks, were designed primarily for
voice communication and were inadequate for transmitting data efficiently. There are several
limitations of traditional network architectures for data transmission:
Limited Bandwidth: Traditional networks allocated fixed bandwidth for each communication channel,
which was not scalable for data transmission. Data, especially large volumes of it, requires higher
bandwidth to be transmitted effectively.
Inefficiency: Circuit-switched networks establish a dedicated connection for the duration of a call,
even if there are periods of silence or inactivity. This approach is inefficient for data transmission, as it
leads to wasted bandwidth during idle periods.
Lack of Flexibility: Traditional networks were designed to handle specific types of communication,
such as voice or video. They lacked the flexibility to adapt to different data formats and transmission
requirements, limiting the types of data that could be effectively transmitted.
To overcome these limitations, several solutions have been developed:
Packet Switching: Packet switching breaks data into small packets and transmits them independently
across the network. This allows more efficient use of network resources and enables data to be
transmitted in a non-continuous manner, improving efficiency and reducing wasted bandwidth.
Quality of Service (QoS): QoS mechanisms prioritize different types of traffic based on their
requirements. This ensures that time-sensitive data, such as voice or video, receives higher priority
and is transmitted with minimal delay and packet loss.
Network Upgrades: Upgrading network infrastructure with newer technologies, such as fiber optics or
wireless technologies like 4G/5G, allows for higher data transmission speeds and increased capacity,
addressing the limitations of traditional networks.

2. Explain the SDN architecture.

• SDN is an architectural approach that separates the control plane and data plane of a network,
enabling centralized control and programmability of network resources.
• The SDN architecture consists of three key components: the Application Layer, the Control Layer, and
the Infrastructure Layer.
• Application Layer: This layer consists of applications and services that interact with the network. These
applications can be custom-built or third-party software that utilizes the programmable nature of
SDN.
• Control Layer: The control layer is responsible for managing and controlling the network. It includes
the SDN controller, which acts as the centralized brain of the network. The controller communicates
with network devices through a southbound interface, such as OpenFlow, to instruct how the data
plane should handle network traffic.
• Infrastructure Layer: This layer comprises the physical and virtual network devices, such as sw itches,
routers, and virtual switches, which form the data plane. The devices receive instructions from the
controller and forward network traffic accordingly.
• SDN allows network administrators to define network policies and configurations in a centralized
manner. This simplifies network management, as changes can be made programmatically and applied
uniformly across the network.
• The programmability of SDN enables dynamic network provisioning, traffic engineering, and fine -
grained control over network traffic flows.

3. Write short note on CCNx

CCNx (Content-Centric Networking) is a networking architecture that is based on the principles of

content-centric communication, where network nodes communicate based on the content they are
interested in, rather than the location of the content. CCNx is designed to be a more efficient and
scalable alternative to traditional IP-based communication, particularly for content distribution and
information-centric networking.
CCNx is built on a set of core protocols and concepts, including:
1. Named Data Networking (NDN): NDN is a network layer protocol that is used to name and retrieve
content directly, without the need for IP addresses or location-based identifiers.
2. Content-centric routing: CCNx uses content-centric routing to forward packets based on data names,
rather than IP addresses. This enables efficient and scalable content distribution, as packets can be
forwarded to multiple nodes along the path to the requested content.
3. Content-centric security: CCNx provides security at the content level, rather than at the network level.
This ensures that content is protected from unauthorized access or modification, regardless of its
location or how it is transmitted.
4. Content-centric application programming interface (API): CCNx provides a standardized API for
content-centric networking, enabling developers to build applications that can retrieve and transmit
content directly, without the need for complex network routing or addressing schemes.
Overall, CCNx represents a shift towards content-centric networking, where the focus is on the content
itself, rather than its location or transmission path. By enabling efficient and scalable content
distribution and retrieval, CCNx has the potential to revolutionize the way we communicate and share
information over computer networks.

4. Write short note on REST (Representation State Transfer).

• REST (Representation State Transfer) is an architectural style and set of principles for designing
networked applications that communicate over the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
• REST is based on the idea of resources, which are identified by unique URIs (Uniform Resource
Identifiers), and can be accessed and manipulated using standard HTTP methods, such as GET, POST,
PUT, DELETE.
• RESTful APIs (Application Programming Interfaces) follow the principles of REST to provide a
standardized and scalable approach to building web services.
Key principles of REST include:
• Stateless communication: Each request from a client to a server contains all the necessary information
for the server to process the request, without relying on the server's previous state.
• Uniform interface: REST APIs have a consistent and uniform interface, with standard HTTP methods for
operations and the use of URIs to identify resources.
• Client-Server architecture: REST separates the concerns of the client (user interface) and server (data
storage and processing), allowing them to evolve independently.
• Cache ability: Responses from a RESTful API can be cached to improve performance and reduce server
load.
• Layered system: REST allows for the use of intermediate layers, such as proxies or gateways, to
enhance scalability, security, and load balancing.
• RESTful APIs are widely used in modern networking and web development due to their simplicity,
scalability, and platform independence.
• REST promotes a stateless and lightweight approach, making it well-suited for distributed systems and
web-based applications.

5. Write short note on:

A. Group Table:
• The Group Table is a fundamental component of the OpenFlow protocol, which is used in Software -
Defined Networking (SDN) architectures.
• The Group Table allows for the creation of group actions that can be applied to packets flowing
through OpenFlow switches.
• In the Group Table, groups are defined based on a set of actions to be performed on packets. These
actions can include forwarding packets to multiple ports, performing load balancing, multicast, or
other customized packet handling operations.
• The Group Table provides flexibility and scalability in network management by enabling centralized
control over complex packet forwarding behaviors.
• Group entries in the Group Table are referenced by flow rules, allowing network administrators to
define packet handling instructions in a more concise and efficient manner.
• The Group Table is particularly useful in scenarios where packets need to be processed differently
based on specific conditions or require advanced forwarding mechanisms beyond basic port -based
forwarding.
B. OpenFlow Pipeline:
• The OpenFlow Pipeline represents the sequence of processing stages that network packets traverse in
an OpenFlow-enabled switch.
• The OpenFlow Pipeline typically consists of a series of tables, such as the Match Table, Flow Table, and
Action Table, which are processed in a specific order.
• Each table in the OpenFlow Pipeline performs a specific function, such as matching packet fields,
looking up flow entries, executing actions, or making forwarding decisions.
• The OpenFlow Pipeline allows for flexible packet processing and forwarding based on the rules
defined in each table.
• The Match Table is the first stage of the pipeline, where packet headers are examined to match
against defined criteria, such as source/destination IP addresses, ports, or VLAN tags.
• The Flow Table is used for flow classification and stores flow entries that define how packets matching
specific criteria should be processed.
6. Give an overview of Open Daylight concept.
• OpenDaylight (ODL) is an open-source software-defined networking (SDN) platform and community-
led project aimed at developing a common and open framework for SDN and network functions
virtualization (NFV).
• ODL is designed to provide a flexible and scalable platform for building SDN applications and services,
enabling centralized network management and control.
• The project is supported by a diverse community of developers, network operators, and vendors,
fostering collaboration and innovation in the field of SDN.
• The core component of OpenDaylight is the OpenDaylight Controller, which serves as the central
control point for managing network devices and orchestrating network operations.
• The OpenDaylight Controller implements various protocols and interfaces, including OpenFlow,
NETCONF, RESTCONF, and others, to communicate with network devices and enable programmability.
• ODL provides a modular architecture, allowing for the integration of additional functionality through
plugins and extensions. These plugins enhance the capabilities of the platform and support various
use cases.
• The project aims to foster interoperability by providing a standardized and open platform that
supports multiple vendors' equipment and promotes vendor-neutral solutions.
OpenDaylight offers a range of features and capabilities, such as network topology discovery, flow
management, service chaining, virtual network overlays, and network analytics.
7. Write short note on action bucket in group table.
• In the context of Software-Defined Networking (SDN) and OpenFlow protocol, the Group Table allows
for the creation of groups that define specific actions to be applied to packets flowing through
OpenFlow switches.
• An Action Bucket is a fundamental concept within the Group Table, which represents a set of actions
that can be executed on packets belonging to a specific group.
• The Action Bucket is associated with a group entry in the Group Table and defines the actions to be
performed on packets that match the group entry.
• Multiple Action Buckets can be defined within a group entry, allowing for different sets of actions to
be executed on packets based on specific conditions.
• Each Action Bucket consists of a sequence of actions, such as modifying packet headers, sending
packets to specific output ports, or executing other packet handling operations.
• The actions within an Action Bucket are executed in the order specified, providing flexibility in defining
the packet processing behavior for the group.
• OpenFlow switches process packets by matching them against flow entries in the Flow Table and then
applying the associated Action Bucket defined in the Group Table.
• Action Buckets enable advanced packet handling capabilities, such as load balancing, multicast, and
customized forwarding behaviors, by allowing multiple actions to be performed on packets within a
group.
• The use of Action Buckets within the Group Table allows for efficient and centralized control over
complex packet forwarding behaviors, contributing to the flexibility and programmability of Software -
Defined Networking.

8. Explain the functions of SDN control plane architecture (Southbound API, Northbound API)
The control plane in a Software-Defined Networking (SDN) architecture is responsible for managing
network behavior and providing instructions to the data plane. The control plane can be divided into two
main components: the southbound API and the northbound API.
The southbound API is a set of protocols and interfaces used to communicate between the co ntrol plane
and the data plane. The southbound API enables the control plane to program the behavior of network
devices, such as switches and routers. The main functions of the southbound API include:
1. Network device discovery: The southbound API enables the control plane to discover and identify
network devices connected to the network.
2. Flow programming: The southbound API enables the control plane to program the behavior of
network devices, such as defining forwarding rules and quality of service (QoS) policies.
3. Packet handling: The southbound API enables the control plane to handle packets, such as setting
packet header fields or modifying packet payloads.
The northbound API, on the other hand, is a set of protocols and interfaces used to communicate
between the control plane and network applications. The northbound API enables network applications
to interact with the control plane and program network behavior based on their specific requirements.
The main functions of the northbound API include:
1. Network abstraction: The northbound API enables network applications to view the network as a set
of virtual resources, abstracting away the underlying network hardware.
2. Network policy management: The northbound API enables network applications to define and
manage network policies, such as security policies or QoS policies.
3. Network service orchestration: The northbound API enables network applications to orchestrate the
deployment and management of network services, such as firewalls or load balancers.

UNIT 3

1. Explain the key benefits of NFV

• Increased Agility: NFV allows network functions to be decoupled from proprietary hardware and
implemented as software.
• This decoupling enables rapid provisioning, deployment, and scaling of network functions, leading to
increased agility in network management and service delivery.
• Cost Efficiency: NFV eliminates the need for dedicated hardware appliances by virtualizing network
functions on standard servers.
• This reduces capital and operational costs associated with purchasing, maintaining, and upgrading
specialized hardware.
• Scalability and Flexibility: Virtualized network functions can be easily scaled up or down based on
demand, allowing network operators to dynamically allocate resources and adapt to changing traffic
patterns.
• NFV provides the flexibility to add, remove, or modify network functions without significant hardware
changes.
• Faster Service Deployment: With NFV, new services and network functions can be deployed more
quickly, reducing time-to-market for service providers.
• Virtualized network functions can be instantiated and configured on-demand, enabling rapid service
activation and customization.
• Improved Service Orchestration: NFV enables centralized management and orche stration of network
functions, simplifying the configuration, monitoring, and control of the network infrastructure.
• Service orchestration platforms can automate complex service provisioning workflows, enhancing
operational efficiency.
• Enhanced Network Resilience: NFV introduces redundancy and fault tolerance mechanisms that
improve network resilience.
• Virtualized network functions can be distributed across multiple servers or data centers, ensuring high
availability and failover capabilities.

2. Discuss the overview of NFV architecture.

Network Functions Virtualization (NFV) is an architecture that aims to replace traditional network
appliances with software-based virtualized network functions (VNFs) running on standard hardware.
The NFV architecture is designed to enable network operators to deploy and manage network functions
more efficiently and flexibly, while reducing costs and increasing scalability.
The NFV architecture is composed of three main components:
• NFV Infrastructure (NFVI): The NFVI provides the hardware and software infrastructure necessary to
support VNFs, including servers, storage, network switches, and hypervisors. VNFs: VNFs are software -
based network functions that provide network services, such as firewalls, routers, and load balancers.
VNFs run on the NFVI and can be dynamically deployed, scaled, and managed.
• NFV Orchestrator (NFVO): The NFVO is responsible for managing the lifecycle of VNFs, including
deployment, scaling, and termination. The NFVO also manages the allocation of resources within the
NFVI and ensures that VNFs are deployed and managed according to service -level agreements (SLAs).
The NFV architecture is based on a set of key principles, including:
• Decoupling of hardware and software: NFV aims to separate the hardware and software components
of network functions, enabling network functions to be deployed on standard hardware and reducing
the need for expensive proprietary hardware.
• Virtualization: NFV utilizes virtualization technologies, such as hypervisors, to enable multiple VNFs to
run on the same physical hardware, maximizing resource utilization.
• Automation: NFV enables network functions to be automatically deployed, scaled, and managed,
reducing the need for manual intervention and enabling network operators to respond quickly to
changing network conditions.
• Orchestration: NFV requires a centralized management and orchestration system to manage the
deployment and lifecycle of VNFs, ensuring that network functions are deployed and managed
according to SLAs

3. Write short note on VLAN.

• Logical Segmentation: VLAN is a technology that allows the logical segmentation of a physical network
into multiple virtual networks.
• It enables network administrators to group devices together based on their functional or
departmental requirements, regardless of their physical location.
• Broadcast Domain Isolation: By creating VLANs, broadcast domains can be isolated. Broadcast traffic
generated within one VLAN is contained within that VLAN and does not propagate to other VLANs.
• This helps reduce network congestion and improves overall network performance.
• Security and Access Control: VLANs provide enhanced security and access control by isolating network
traffic between different groups.
• Devices within the same VLAN can communicate with each other, while communication between
devices in different VLANs requires routing or firewall policies.
• Simplified Network Management: VLANs simplify network management by allowing administrators to
logically group devices based on their roles or locations.
• This makes it easier to manage network policies, apply security measures, and allocate network
resources efficiently.
• Flexibility and Scalability: VLANs offer flexibility and scalability by allowing networks to be easily
reconfigured and expanded without the need for physical changes.
• New devices can be added to existing VLANs or placed into new VLANs as per network requirements.

4. Explain the concept of virtual private network.

• A virtual private network (VPN) is a secure and encrypted connection that allows users to access a
private network or the internet over a public network, such as the internet.
• It provides a secure way to transmit data by establishing a private and encrypted tunnel between the
user's device and the destination network.
• Secure Connection: A VPN creates a secure connection by encrypting the data transmitted between
the user's device and the VPN server.
• This encryption ensures that the data remains confidential and protected from unauthorized access or
interception.
• Privacy and Anonymity: By using a VPN, users can mask their real IP address and location. Instead,
they appear to be connecting from the VPN server's location.
• This helps protect their privacy and adds an extra layer of anonymity while browsing the internet.
• Remote Access: VPNs are commonly used to provide remote access to corporate networks.
• Employees can securely connect to their organization's network from outside the office, allowing
them to access files, applications, and resources as if they were directly connected to the internal
network.
• Bypassing Restrictions: VPNs can be used to bypass geographic restrictions or censorship imposed by
governments, ISPs, or websites.
• By connecting to a VPN server in a different location, users can access content or services that may be
restricted in their own region.

5. What is relationship between SDN and NFV?

• Complementary Technologies: SDN and NFV are complementary technologies that work together to
enable more flexible, agile, and efficient networks. While SDN focuses on separating the control plane
from the data plane to centralize network management and control, NFV aims to virtualize network
functions, replacing dedicated hardware with software-based instances.
• Integration and Synergy: SDN and NFV are often integrated to harness their combined benefits. SDN
provides the programmability and centralized control required to dynamically deploy, manage, and
orchestrate the virtualized network functions (VNFs) enabled by NFV. The flexibility of SDN allows for
efficient service chaining, routing traffic through the appropriate VNFs.
• Increased Agility: The combination of SDN and NFV enables network operators to achieve greater
agility. SDN's programmability allows for dynamic network configuration and policy enforcement,
while NFV enables the rapid deployment and scaling of VNFs. Together, they facilitate on -demand
provisioning, efficient resource utilization, and quick response to changing network requireme nts.
• Cost Reduction: SDN and NFV offer cost-saving opportunities in modern networking. With SDN,
network administrators can optimize network resources, reduce manual configurations, and simplify
operations. NFV eliminates the need for dedicated hardware appliances, reducing capital and
operational expenses associated with physical infrastructure.
• Service Innovation: SDN and NFV enable service providers to introduce innovative and differentiated
services. By decoupling network functions from hardware, NFV allows for the rapid introduction and
scaling of new services. SDN's programmability and centralized control facilitate service customization,
dynamic service chaining, and service orchestration.
 UNIT 4

1. Explain the concept of differentiated service

Differentiated Services (DiffServ) is a Quality of Service (QoS) architecture for IP networks that
provides a scalable and flexible approach to QoS. The DiffServ architecture is based on the concept of
traffic classification and marking, in which network devices classify packets into different traffic classes
based on their QoS requirements and mark them with a Differentiated Services Code Point (DSCP)
value.
In the DiffServ architecture, each network device along the path of a packet examines the DSCP value
and applies a specific QoS treatment based on the value. The QoS treatment may include queuing,
shaping, or policing, depending on the network policies and the requirements of the traffic class.
DiffServ provides a more scalable approach to QoS than the Integrated Services (IntServ) architecture
because it does not require per-flow state to be maintained in the network devices. Instead, traffic is
classified into a small number of traffic classes, each of which is associated with a specific QoS
treatment. This allows for more efficient use of network resources and easier management of QoS
policies.
DiffServ also provides a flexible approach to QoS because the traffic classes can be configured to meet
the specific requirements of different applications or users. For example, a network administrator
might configure a high-priority traffic class for real-time applications such as voice or video, while
configuring a lower-priority traffic class for non-critical applications such as web browsing or file
transfers.
Overall, DiffServ is a widely used and effective QoS architecture that provides a scalable and flexible
approach to managing network traffic based on its QoS requirements.

2. Write short note on Integrated service architecture

Integrated Services (IntServ) is a Quality of Service (QoS) architecture for IP networks that provides end-
to-end QoS guarantees for individual applications. The IntServ architecture is based on the concept of
resource reservation, in which network resources such as bandwidth and buffer space are reserved in
advance for specific flows of traffic.
In the IntServ architecture, each application that requires QoS guarantees must request and reserve
network resources using the Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP). RSVP is used to establish a
reservation between the source and destination devices, specifying the QoS requirements for the flow
of traffic. The network devices along the path of the flow then reserve the necessary resources to
ensure that the QoS requirements are met.
IntServ provides a fine-grained approach to QoS, allowing applications to specify the exact QoS
requirements they need, such as minimum bandwidth, maximum delay, or maximum packet loss. This
allows for precise control over the QoS of individual applications, but can be difficult to scale to large
networks with many applications.

IntServ is typically used in small-scale networks or in situations where QoS guarantees are critical,
such as in real-time multimedia applications. However, due to the complexity of the resource
reservation process and the difficulty of scaling to large networks, many networks today use
alternative QoS architectures such as Differentiated Services (DiffServ), which provides a more
scalable approach to QoS.
 3. Write short note on layered approach of QoE/QoS model.

The layered approach of QoE/QoS model is a framework for managing Quality of Service (QoS) and
Quality of Experience (QoE) in a network. The model is based on the concept of dividing the network
into multiple layers, with each layer responsible for a specific aspect of QoS or QoE.

The layered approach typically includes three layers: the service layer, the Application layer, and the
network layer.

• Service layer: The Service layer is responsible for managing end-to-end communication between
devices and ensuring reliable delivery of data. This layer includes technologies such as TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol), which provides reliable data delivery, and UDP (User Datagram
Protocol), which provides low-latency data delivery.

• Application layer: The application layer is responsible for managing the user-facing aspects of
network services, such as user interfaces and application functionality. This layer includes
technologies such as HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), which is used for web browsing, and RTP
(Real-time Transport Protocol), which is used for real-time multimedia applications.

• Network layer: The network layer is responsible for providing basic network connectivity and
ensuring that packets are delivered to their intended destination. This layer includes technologies
such as routing, switching, and addressing.

The layered approach of QoE/QoS model allows network administrators to manage QoS and QoE at
different levels of the network, depending on the specific needs of the application or service. For
example, a network administrator might use QoS techniques such as traffic shaping and prioritization at
the transport layer to ensure reliable delivery of real-time multimedia data, while using application-
level QoS techniques such as video optimization to improve the quality of the user's experience.

4. Write short note on QoS architecture framework.

Quality of Service (QoS) is a set of technologies used to manage network traffic and ensure that critical
applications receive the necessary bandwidth and priority to function properly. The QoS architecture
framework defines a set of components and processes that are used to implement QoS in a network.
The QoS architecture framework includes several components, including:
1. Classification: This component is used to identify and classify traffic based on its type, such as voice,
video, or data. Classification is typically performed using Layer 3 or Layer 4 information, such as IP
address, protocol type, or port number.
2. Marking: Once traffic has been classified, it is marked with a QoS label that indicates its priority and
treatment. The QoS label is used to ensure that traffic receives the appropriate level of service as it
traverses the network.
3. Queuing: Queuing is used to manage traffic congestion by storing packets in a buffer and prioritizing
their transmission based on their QoS label. Queuing can help ensure that high-priority traffic is
transmitted ahead of lower-priority traffic, even during times of network congestion.
4. Policing: Policing is used to enforce QoS policies by limiting the amount of traffic that is allowed on
the network. Policing can be used to prevent non-critical traffic from consuming too much bandwidth
and impacting the performance of critical applications.
5. Shaping: Shaping is similar to policing, but instead of dropping excess traffic, it delays traffic that
exceeds the QoS policy. This can help ensure that critical applications receive the necessary bandwidth
even during times of network congestion.
5. Explain the factors that influence QoE.
Quality of Experience (QoE) is a measure of how well a user perceives the performance and quality of a
network or application. Several factors can influence QoE, including:
1. Network performance: The performance of the network, including factors such as latency, jitter, and
packet loss, can have a significant impact on QoE. A slow or unreliable network can lead to delays,
interruptions, and poor quality of service, which can negatively affect the user's experience.
2. Application performance: The performance of the application being used, such as a video
streaming service or a VoIP application, can also affect QoE. If the application is slow to load or
experiences frequent buffering or freezing, the user's experience may be negatively impacted.
3. User expectations: The user's expectations and previous experience with similar services can
influence their perception of QoE. If a user has high expectations for a service based on previous
experiences or advertising, they may be more likely to perceive poor QoE if the service does not
meet their expectations.
4. User behavior: The user's behavior can also impact their perception of QoE. For example, if a user is
multitasking or using a device with a small screen, they may be less likely to notice minor delays or
interruptions in the service.
5. Environmental factors: Environmental factors, such as background noise or poor lighting, can also
impact QoE. If a user is using a service in a noisy or distracting environment, they may have a harder
time focusing on the service and may perceive lower QoE as a result.
Overall, QoE is a complex and multi-faceted concept that is influenced by a variety of factors. To
optimize QoE, it is important to consider these factors and design networks and applications that
provide reliable and responsive performance while meeting user expectations.

6. What are the ways that how QoE measures

There are several ways to measure Quality of Experience (QoE) in a network or application. Somecommon
methods include:
1. Subjective testing: Subjective testing involves gathering feedback from users about their experience using a
particular service or application. This can be done through surveys, interviews, or focus groups. Subjective testing
can provide valuable insights into how users perceive the quality of a service and can help identify areas for
improvement.
2. Objective testing: Objective testing involves measuring specific metrics related to the performance and quality
of a service or application, such as latency, jitter, and packet loss. These metrics can be measured using network
monitoring tools or performance testing software. Objective testing can provide a quantitative measure of the
quality of a service or application and can help identify specific issues that may be impacting QoE.
3. Quality of Experience models: Quality of Experience models use a combination of subjective and objective
testing to measure QoE. These models typically use a set of parameters that are known toaffect QoE, such as
video quality, audio quality, and network performance, and use statistical analysis to calculate a QoE score.
Quality of Experience models can provide a comprehensive measure of QoE and can be used to compare the
performance of different services or applications.
4. Quality of Service metrics: Quality of Service (QoS) metrics, such as packet loss, latency, and jitter, can also be
used as proxies for QoE. While QoS metrics do not directly measure the user's experience, they can be used to
identify issues that may be impacting QoE and can be used in combination with other testing methods to provide
a more complete picture of QoE.
Overall, measuring QoE requires a multi-faceted approach that takes into account both subjective and objective
factors. By using a combination of testing methods, network administrators can gain a comprehensive
understanding of the quality of their services and applications and make informed decisions about how to
optimize QoE.
 UNIT 5

1. Describe the concept of cloud computing

Cloud computing is a model for delivering computing resources, including servers, storage, networking,
and applications, over the internet. With cloud computing, users can access these resources on-
demand, without having to own or manage their own infrastructure. Cloud computing offers several
benefits, including scalability, flexibility, and cost savings.
There are several deployment models for cloud computing, including:
1. Public cloud: A public cloud is a cloud computing environment that is owned and operated by a
third-party provider, such as Amazon Web Services (AWS), Microsoft Azure, or Google Cloud Platform.
Public clouds are accessible over the internet and provide resources on-demand to multiple
customers.
2. Private cloud: A private cloud is a cloud computing environment that is owned and operated by a
single organization, either on-premises or hosted by a third-party provider. Private clouds are typically
used by organizations that require greater control over their infrastructure, such as government
agencies or financial institutions.
3. Hybrid cloud: A hybrid cloud is a cloud computing environment that combines elements of both
public and private clouds. In a hybrid cloud, some resources are hosted in a public cloud, while others
are hosted in a private cloud. This allows organizations to take advantage of the benefits of both
deployment models.
4. Community cloud: A community cloud is a cloud computing environment that is shared by several
organizations with common interests, such as healthcare providers or educational institutions.
Community clouds allow organizations to share resources while maintaining greater control over their
infrastructure than they would in a public cloud.
5. Multi-cloud: A multi-cloud is a cloud computing environment that uses resources from multiple
cloud providers. Multi-clouds allow organizations to take advantage of the strengths of different cloud
providers and avoid vendor lock-in.

2. Write short note on layers of IoT reference model

The Internet of Things (IoT) reference model is a conceptual framework that provides a structured
approach to designing and deploying IoT solutions. The IoT reference model consists of four layers as
well as management capabilities and security capabilities that apply across layers.
Device layer: The device layer includes, roughly, the OSI physical and data link layers.
Network layer: The network layer performs two basic functions. Networking capabilities refer to the
interconnection of devices and gateways. Transport capabilities refer to the transport of IoT service and
application specific information as well as IoT-related control and management information. Roughly,
these correspond to OSI network and transport layers.
Service support and application support layer: The service support and application support layer
provide capabilities that are used by applications. Generic support capabilities can b e used by many
different applications. Examples include common data processing and database management
capabilities. Specific support capabilities are those that cater for the requirements of a specific subset
of IoT applications.
Application layer: The application layer consists of all the applications that interact with IoT devices.
Management capabilities layer: The management capabilities layer covers the traditional network
oriented management functions of fault, configuration, accounting, and performance management.
Security capabilities layer: The security capabilities layer includes generic security capabilities that are
independent of applications.
3. Write short note on SDN security
Software-defined networking (SDN) is a network architecture that separates the control plane fromthe
data plane, allowing network administrators to manage network traffic and resources more efficiently.
However, this separation of control can also introduce security challenges, as it creates new attack
surfaces and potential vulnerabilities. To address these security challenges, SDN security solutions
typically include several key components:
1. Authentication and authorization: SDN security solutions typically use authentication and
authorization mechanisms to ensure that only authorized users and devices can access the network and
its resources. This can include technologies such as identity and access management (IAM) systems,
digital certificates, and multifactor authentication.
2. Encryption: SDN security solutions typically use encryption to protect network traffic and prevent
unauthorized access and interception. This can include technologies such as SSL/TLS (Secure Sockets
Layer/Transport Layer Security) and IPsec (Internet Protocol Security).
3. Intrusion detection and prevention: SDN security solutions typically include intrusion detection and
prevention systems that monitor network traffic for signs of suspicious activity and block or alert
administrators about potential threats. This can include technologies such as firewalls and intrusion
detection systems (IDS).
4. Policy management: SDN security solutions typically include tools for managing network policies and
access controls, allowing administrators to define and enforce security policies across the network. This
can include technologies such as network access control (NAC) and policy-based routing.
5. Monitoring and analytics: SDN security solutions typically include tools for monitoring network
performance and identifying anomalies and potential security threats. This can include
technologies such as network traffic analysis (NTA) and security information and event
management (SIEM) systems.

4. Explain NFV security

Network Function Virtualization (NFV) is a network architecture that aims to virtualize and
consolidate network functions onto commodity hardware and software. While NFV offers many
benefits, such as increased flexibility, scalability, and cost savings, it also introduces new security
challenges that must be addressed to ensure the integrity and availability of network services.
Some key considerations for NFV security include:
1. Virtualization security: As NFV relies heavily on virtualization technology, virtualization security is a
critical component of NFV security. This includes measures such as secure hypervisors, virtual machine
isolation, and virtual network security.
2. Service chain security: NFV environments typically involve multiple virtualized network functions that
are chained together to provide network services. Ensuring the security of these service chains is critical
to prevent attacks that could disrupt network services or compromise sensitive data.
3. Access control: NFV environments must be protected from unauthorized access to prevent
attackers from gaining control of virtualized network functions or accessing sensitive data. Access
control measures may include user authentication, authorization, and auditing.
4. Monitoring and analytics: Monitoring and analytics tools can help detect and respond to security
threats in real-time. These tools may include intrusion detection and prevention systems, security
information and event management systems, and network performance monitoring tools.
5. Compliance: NFV security must comply with relevant industry standards and regulations, such as the
Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) or the Health Insurance Portability and
Accountability Act (HIPAA). Overall, NFV security is a critical component of any NFV deployment, and
requires a comprehensive and layered approach to ensure the integrity and availability of network
services. By implementing robust security measures and adhering to industry standards and best
practices, organizations can minimize the risks associated with NFV environments.
5. What are the cloud services defined by NIST?
The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) defines the following cloud services in modern
networking:
Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS):
IaaS provides virtualized computing resources, including virtual machines, storage, and networks.
Users can deploy and manage their own software and applications on the cloud infrastructure.
It offers scalability, flexibility, and cost-effective resource allocation.
Platform as a Service (PaaS):
PaaS provides a platform with pre-configured computing resources and tools for application development,
deployment, and management.
Users can focus on developing their applications without worrying about underlying infrastructure or
software updates.
It offers a streamlined development environment and reduces the time to market for applications.
Software as a Service (SaaS):
SaaS delivers complete software applications over the internet on a subscription basis.
Users can access and use the software through web browsers without the need for installation or
maintenance.
It offers convenience, scalability, and automatic updates, reducing the burden on users to manage
software.

6. Sensors
• Sensors are devices that detect and measure physical or chemical phenomena and convert them into
electrical signals or other readable forms.
• They convert physical signals into electrical signals that can be processed by electronic systems.
• Sensors are widely used in industries such as automotive, healthcare, aerospace, and environmental
monitoring.
• They enable the collection of data on parameters like temperature, pressure, humidity, motion, and
proximity.
• Sensors can be categorized into different types, including temperature sensors, pressure sensors,
proximity sensors, and motion sensors.
• They play a crucial role in automation, safety systems, monitoring and control, and data acquisition.
• Sensors can be integrated into IoT (Internet of Things) networks, enabling the seamless transmission of
data for real-time analysis and decision-making.

7. Actuators:
• Actuators are devices that convert electrical, hydraulic, or pneumatic signals into physical action or
movement.
• They are crucial in controlling and manipulating mechanical systems.
• Actuators can generate linear, rotary, or oscillatory motion.
• They play a vital role in various industries such as robotics, manufacturing, automotive, and aerospace.
• Common types of actuators include electric actuators, hydraulic actuators, pneumatic actuators, and
piezoelectric actuators.
• Actuators enable precise control over movements and positioning of components or systems.
• They are used in applications like robotic arms, valves, motors, and brakes.
• Actuators are often integrated with sensors and microcontrollers to create feedback loops for accurate
control and automation.
8. Microcontrollers:
• Microcontrollers are compact integrated circuits that combine a processor, memory, and input/output
peripherals on a single chip.
• They serve as the "brain" of electronic devices and control their operation.
• Microcontrollers are commonly used in a wide range of applications, including embedded systems,
consumer electronics, automation, and IoT devices.
• They execute instructions stored in their memory to perform tasks and manage inputs and outputs.
• Microcontrollers come in various architectures and sizes, with different levels of processing power and
memory.
• They enable efficient and low-cost control of electronic systems, offering features like analog-to-digital
conversion, timers, and communication interfaces.
• Programming languages such as C and assembly are commonly used to develop software for
microcontrollers.
• Microcontrollers have revolutionized the field of electronics, making it possible to create intelligent and
interconnected devices with enhanced functionality and performance.
9. Transceivers:
• Transceivers are devices that enable bidirectional communication between electronic devices.
• They integrate both transmitter and receiver functions into a single unit.
• Transceivers are commonly used in wireless communication systems, networking equipment, and
telecommunications.
• They facilitate the transmission and reception of data, voice, or video signals over v arious media,
including wireless, optical, or wired connections.
• Transceivers support different communication protocols and standards, such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth,
Ethernet, and cellular networks.
• They enable devices to communicate with each other, forming networks and enabling data exchange.
• Transceivers can be found in devices like smartphones, routers, modems, and satellite communication
systems.
• They play a crucial role in enabling wireless connectivity, data transfer, and the Internet of Things (IoT).
• Advancements in transceiver technology have led to faster data rates, improved signal quality, and
enhanced range in wireless communication systems.

10. RFID (Radio Frequency Identification):

• RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) is a technology that uses electromagnetic fields to automatically
identify and track objects.
• RFID systems consist of tags or labels attached to objects, readers or transceivers, and a backend
database or system for data management.
• RFID tags contain a unique identifier and can store additional information about the object they are
attached to.
• RFID tags can be passive (powered by the reader's electromagnetic field) or active (with their own
power source).
• RFID technology enables efficient inventory management, supply chain tracking, and contactless
identification in various industries.
• It has applications in retail, logistics, healthcare, access control, and asset tracking.
• RFID provides advantages like fast and accurate data capture, improved visibility, and automation of
processes.
• The technology has evolved to include smaller, more durable tags and long-range readers, enabling
broader adoption and new use cases.
• RFID is often integrated with other systems, such as inventory management or access control systems,
to enhance overall functionality and efficiency.

11. IoTivity:
• IoTivity provides a standardized framework for seamless device -to-device connectivity, regardless of the
underlying network protocols or platforms.
• It enables devices to discover, connect, and communicate with each other securely and efficiently.
• IoTivity supports multiple operating systems and platforms, including Linux, Android, and Windows,
allowing for broad compatibility.
• It offers a set of APIs and tools for developers to build IoT applications and services.
• The framework supports various communication models, such as device -to-device, cloud-to-device, and
device-to-gateway.
• IoTivity incorporates security measures like secure authentication and encryption to protect IoT data
and ensure privacy.
• It promotes the development of interoperable IoT ecosystems and helps overcome fragmentation in the
IoT industry.
• IoTivity has been widely adopted by manufacturers, developers, and organizations aiming to build
scalable and interoperable IoT solutions.
• The framework continues to evolve and improve with the input and contributions from a vibrant open -
source community.

12. Iobridge
• IoBridge provides a complete end-to-end platform that is secure, private, and scalable for everything
from do-it-yourself (DIY) home projects to commercial products and professional applications.
• IoBridge is both a hardware and cloud services provider.
• The IoT platform enables the user to create the control and monitoring applications using scalable Web
technologies.
• ioBridge features end-to-end security, real-time I/O streaming to web and mobile apps, and easy-to-
install and easy-to-use products.
Some of the major features of ioBridge’s technology are.
• The tight integration between the embedded devices and the cloud services enable many of the
features shown in the diagram that are not possible with traditional web server technology.
• Note that the off-the shelf ioBridge embedded modules also include web-programmable control or
“rules and actions.”
• This enables the ioBridge embedded module to control devices even when it is not connected to the
ioBridge cloud server.
• The major offerings on the device side are firmware, Iota modules, and gateways.
• Firmware is added where possible to devices to add the functionality to communicate with ioBridge
services.
• Iotas are tinyembedded firmware or hardware modules with either Ethernet or Wi-Fi network
connectivity.
• Gateways are small devices that can act as protocol converters and bridges between IoT devices and
ioBridge services.
• In essence, the IoT platform provides a seamless mashup of embedded devices with web services.