UNIT 4 COMMUNICATION BASICS

1. ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
The term Electromagnetic spectrum can be defined as, the distribution of entire electromagnetic
radiation based on the wave’s wavelength and frequency. Though, all the waves can travel in a
vacuum at the light speed in a broad range of frequencies, wavelengths & photon energies. This
spectrum includes the distance of all electromagnetic radiation as well as many sub-ranges, usually
called as portions like UV radiation, otherwise visible light.
The entire electromagnetic spectrum from the lowest to the highest frequency mainly comprises
all radio IR radiation, noticeable light, UV radiation, X-rays & gamma rays. Almost all
wavelengths & frequencies use electromagnetic radiation which can be utilized for spectroscopy.

The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is planned which is shown in the below figure, The visible
spectrum is arranged in the center from lesser to upper wavelengths within the order of left to
right. Therefore the left visible spectrum is indicated in violet color, whereas the right visible
spectrum is indicated with red color. The electromagnetic spectrum diagram is shown below.

In the Direction of the Left

The UV Spectrum (Ultraviolet Spectrum)

Moving more toward the left side of the visible spectrum, it lies in the UV region. Though it is not
noticeable to the human eye, and this UV region will appear in violet because it is nearer toward
the violet area of the spectrum. The range of UV spectrum lies between the 10 nm – 400 nm.

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 X-Rays

Moving toward the left side of the UV spectrum, initially, we have the X-rays which range from
0.01 nm to 10 nm. This region can also be separated into two depending on their penetrability.
These are extremely penetrable, and they have superior energy and wavelengths which ranges
from 0.01 nm to 0.1 nm.

Gamma Rays

Moving toward the left of X-rays, we have the most energetic rays like gamma rays. The
radiations of these rays do not contain any lesser edge of wavelength; however, their higher limit
lies on 0.01 nm. The energy and penetrability of these rays are very high.

In the Direction of the Right

IR Spectrum (Infrared Spectrum): When we move toward the right side of the visible spectrum,
then we have the IR spectrum region. Comparable to the Ultraviolet spectrum, the IR spectrum is
not visible, but since the area is nearer to the red color region of the visible spectrum, then it is
named as the infrared region. The wavelength range of the IR spectrum ranges from 780nm to
1mm. This kind of spectrum further split-up into three regions:
● The near-infrared spectrum ranges from 780 nm to 2,500 nm.
● Mid Infrared spectrum ranges from 2,500 nm to 10,000 nm.
● Far Infrared spectrum ranges from 10,000 nm to 1000 μm

Microwaves

When we move toward the right side of the visible spectrum, then we have the microwaves. The
wavelengths of microwaves would most possibly exist in the range of micrometer. The range of
these waves ranges from 1 mm – 10 cm.

Radio Spectrum

When we move toward the right side of the visible spectrum, then we have the radio frequency
(RF) region. The radio spectrum region overlaps with the microwave region. But, it officially
starts at 10 cm.

Electromagnetic Spectrum Uses / Applications

● Gamma rays are used for killing the bacteria in marshmallows & to sanitize medical equipment
● X-rays are used for scanning the structures of image bone
● Ultraviolet light can observe bees because flowers can stand-out visibly at this frequency
● Visible light is used to view the world by humans
● Infrared is used in laser metal cutting, night vision, and heat sensors,
● Microwave is used in radar, and microwave ovens
● Radio waves are used in radio, TV broadcasts

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 2. INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Communication is the process by which information is exchanged between individuals

through a medium.
Communication can also be defined as the transfer of information from one point in space
and time to another point.
The basic block diagram of a communication system is as follows.

● Transmitter: Couples the message into the channel using high frequency signals.
● Channel: The medium used for transmission of signals
● Modulation: It is the process of shifting the frequency spectrum of a signal to a
frequency range in which more efficient transmission can be achieved.
● Receiver: Restores the signal to its original form.
● Demodulation: It is the process of shifting the frequency spectrum back to the
original baseband frequency range and reconstructing the original form.

Modulation:

Modulation is a process that causes a shift in the range of frequencies in a signal.

• Signals that occupy the same range of frequencies can be separated.
• Modulation helps in noise immunity, attenuation - depends on the physical
medium.
The below figure shows the different kinds of analog modulation schemes that are
available

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 Modulation is operation performed at the transmitter to achieve efficient and reliable
information transmission.

For analog modulation, it is frequency translation method caused by changing the

appropriate e quantity in a carrier signal.
It involves two waveforms:
● A modulating signal/baseband signal – represents the message.
● A carrier signal – depends on type of modulation.

Once this information is received, the high frequency information must be removed from
the modulated signal. •This process is known as “Demodulation”.

3. NEED FOR MODULATION:

● Baseband signals are incompatible for direct transmission over the medium so,
modulation is used to convey (baseband) signals from one place to another.
● Advantages of using modulation technique are
o Reduce the antenna height
o Avoids mixing of signal
o Increase the range of communication
o Allow multiplexing of signal
o Allow adjustments in the bandwidth
o Improve quality of reception

a) Reduce the antenna height

For the effective transmission of a signal, the height h of the antenna should be comparable to the
wavelength λ of the signal at least the height of the antenna h should be λ / 4 in length so that the
antenna can sense the variations of the signal properly.
The antenna height must be multiple of λ/4, where λ is the wavelength.
λ = c /f
where c: is the velocity of light
             f: is the frequency of the signal to be transmitted
The minimum antenna height required to transmit a baseband signal of f = 10 kHz is calculated as
follows:

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The antenna of this height is practically impossible to install.
Now, let us consider a modulated signal at f = 1 MHz. The minimum antenna height is given by,

This antenna can be easily installed practically. Thus, modulation reduces the height of the antenna.
.
b) Avoids mixing of signal
If the baseband sound signals are transmitted without using the modulation by more than one
transmitter, then all the signals will be in the same frequency range i.e. 0 to 20 kHz. Therefore, all
the signals get mixed together and a receiver cannot separate them from each other.
Hence, if each baseband sound signal is used to modulate a different carrier then they will occupy
different slots in the frequency domain (different channels).  Thus, modulation avoids mixing of
signals.

c) Increase the range of communication

The frequency of baseband signal is low, and the low frequency signals cannot travel long distance
when they are transmitted. They get heavily attenuated.
The attenuation reduces with increase in frequency of the transmitted signal, and they travel longer
distance.
The modulation process increases the frequency of the signal to be transmitted. Therefore, it
increases the range of communication.

d) Allow multiplexing of signal

Multiplexing is a process in which two or more signals can be transmitted over the same
communication channel simultaneously.
This is possible only with modulation.
The multiplexing allows the same channel to be used by many signals. Hence, many TV channels
can use the same frequency range, without getting mixed with each other or different frequency
signals can be transmitted at the same time.

e) Allow adjustments in the bandwidth

Bandwidth of a modulated signal may be made smaller or larger than the original signal. Signal to
noise ratio in the receiver which is a function of the signal bandwidth can thus be improved by
proper control of the bandwidth at the modulating stage.

f) Improves quality of reception

The signal communication using modulation techniques such as frequency modulation, pulse
modulation reduces the effect of noise to great extent. Reduce in noise improves the quality of
reception.

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 4. TYPES OF MODULATION:

There are two type of modulation scheme based on source of information. They are:

a) Analog Modulation

i. Amplitude modulation
Modulation schemes: Double sideband with carrier (DSB-WC), Double- sideband
suppressed carrier (DSB-SC), Single sideband suppressed carrier (SSB-SC),
vestigial sideband (VSB)
ii. Angle modulation
● Frequency modulation
● Phase modulation

Modulation schemes: Narrow band frequency modulation (NBFM), Widebandλ

frequency modulation (WBFM), Narrowband phase modulation (NBPM),
Wideband phase modulation (NBPM)

iii.Pulse Modulation
Carrier is a train of pulses
Modulation schemes: Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM), Pulse width
modulation (PWM), Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

b) Digital Modulation

● Modulating signal is analog

o Modulation schemes: Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), Delta Modulationλ

(DM), Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM), Differential Pulse Code
Modulation (DPCM), Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation
(ADPCM) etc.
● Modulating signal is digital (binary modulation)
o Modulation schemes: Amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency Shift
Keyingλ (FSK), Phase Shift Keying (PSK) etc

5. MULTIPLEXING
Multiplexing is the name given to techniques, which allow more than one message to be
transferred via the same communication channel. The channel in this context could be a
transmission line, e.g. a twisted pair or co-axial cable, a radio system or a fiber optic
system etc.

a) Frequency Division Multiplexing

FDM is derived from AM techniques in which the signals occupy the same physical ‘line’
but in different frequency bands. Each signal occupies its own specific band of
frequencies all the time, i.e. the messages share the channel bandwidth.
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 FDM – messages occupy narrow bandwidth – all the time.

b) Time division multiplexing

Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a method of putting multiple data streams in a single signal
by separating the signal into many segments, each having a very short duration. Each individual
data stream is reassembled at the receiving end based on the timing.

6. AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)

A continuous-wave goes on continuously without any intervals and it is the baseband message
signal, which contains the information. This wave has to be modulated.
According to the standard definition, “The amplitude of the carrier signal varies in accordance
with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.” Which means, the amplitude of the
carrier signal containing no information varies as per the amplitude of the signal containing
information, at each instant. This can be well explained by the following figures.

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The first figure shows the modulating wave, which is the message signal. The next one is the
carrier wave, which is a high frequency signal and contains no information. While, the last one is
the resultant modulated wave.
It can be observed that the positive and negative peaks of the carrier wave, are interconnected with
an imaginary line. This line helps recreating the exact shape of the modulating signal. This
imaginary line on the carrier wave is called as Envelope. It is the same as that of the message
signal.
Mathematical Expressions
Following are the mathematical expressions for these waves.
Time-domain Representation of the Waves
Let the modulating signal be,
m(t)=AmCos(2πfmt)

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and the carrier signal be,
c(t)=AcCos(2πfct)
Where, Am and Ac are the amplitude of the modulating signal and the carrier signal respectively.
fm and fc are the frequency of the modulating signal and the carrier signal respectively.
Then, the equation of Amplitude Modulated wave will be
s(t)=[Ac+AmCos(2πfmt)]cos(2πfct)

Modulation Index μ=(Amax−Amin)/(Amax+Amin)

Bandwidth of AM Wave BW=2fm
Advantages and Disadvantages of
AM: Advantages:
● Generation and demodulation of AM wave are easy.
● AM systems are cost effective and easy to build.

Disadvantages:
● AM contains unwanted carrier component hence it requires more transmission
power.
● The transmission bandwidth is equal to twice the message
bandwidth.

To overcome these limitations, the conventional AM system is modified at the cost of

increased system complexity.
Therefore, three types of modified AM systems are discussed.

Modified AM Systems
● DSBSC (Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier) modulation
● SSBSC (Single Side Band Suppressed Carrier) modulation
● VSB (Vestigial Side Band) modulation
7. ANGLE MODULATION

Angle Modulation is the process in which the frequency or the phase of the carrier signal varies
according to the message signal.
The standard equation of the angle modulated wave is
s(t)=Accosθi(t)
Where,
Ac is the amplitude of the modulated wave, which is the same as the amplitude of the carrier
signal. θi(t) is the angle of the modulated wave.

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Angle modulation is further divided into frequency modulation and phase modulation.
● Frequency Modulation is the process of varying the frequency of the carrier signal
linearly with the message signal.
● Phase Modulation is the process of varying the phase of the carrier signal linearly with the
message signal.

7.1 Frequency Modulation

In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal varies. Whereas, in Frequency
Modulation (FM), the frequency of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal.
Hence, in frequency modulation, the amplitude and the phase of the carrier signal remains
constant. This can be better understood by observing the following figures.

The frequency of the modulated wave increases, when the amplitude of the modulating or message
signal increases. Similarly, the frequency of the modulated wave decreases, when the amplitude of
the modulating signal decreases. Note that, the frequency of the modulated wave remains constant

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and it is equal to the frequency of the carrier signal, when the amplitude of the modulating signal is
zero.
Mathematical Representation
The equation for instantaneous frequency fi in FM modulation is
fi=fc+kfm(t)
Where,
fc is the carrier frequency
kf is the frequency sensitivity
m(t) is the message signal
We know the relationship between angular frequency ωi and angle θi(t) as
ωi=dθi(t)/dt
⇒2πfi=dθi(t)/dt
⇒θi(t)=2π∫fidt
Substitute, fi value in the above equation.
θi(t)=2π∫(fc+kfm(t))dt
⇒θi(t)=2πfct+2πkf∫m(t)dt
Substitute, θi(t) value in the standard equation of angle modulated wave.
s(t)=Accos(2πfct+2πkf∫m(t)dt)
This is the equation of FM wave.

If the modulating signal is m(t)=Amcos(2πfmt)), then the equation of FM wave will be

s(t)=Accos(2πfct+βsin(2πfmt))
Where,
β = modulation index =Δf/fm=kfAm/fm
The difference between FM modulated frequency (instantaneous frequency) and normal carrier
frequency is termed as Frequency Deviation. It is denoted by Δf, which is equal to the product
of kf and Am.

7.2 Phase Modulation

In frequency modulation, the frequency of the carrier varies. Whereas, in Phase Modulation
(PM), the phase of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal.
So, in phase modulation, the amplitude and the frequency of the carrier signal remains constant.
This can be better understood by observing the following figures.

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The phase of the modulated wave has got infinite points, where the phase shift in a wave can take
place. The instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal changes the phase of the carrier
signal. When the amplitude is positive, the phase changes in one direction and if the amplitude is
negative, the phase changes in the opposite direction.
Mathematical Representation
The equation for instantaneous phase ϕi in phase modulation is
ϕi=kpm(t)
Where,

● kp is the phase sensitivity

● m(t) is the message signal
The standard equation of angle modulated wave is

s(t)=Accos(2πfct+ϕi)
Substitute, ϕi value in the above equation.
s(t)=Accos(2πfct+kpm(t))
This is the equation of PM wave.

If the modulating signal, m(t)=Amcos(2πfmt), then the equation of PM wave will be

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 s(t)=Accos(2πfct+βcos(2πfmt))
Where,
● β = modulation index = Δϕ=kpAm
● Δϕ is phase deviation
Phase modulation is used in mobile communication systems, while frequency modulation is used
mainly for FM broadcasting.
Comparison of AM and FM:
S.NO AMPLITUDE MODULATION
1. Band width is very small which is one
of the biggest advantage
2. The amplitude of AM signal
varies depending on modulation
index.
3. Area of reception is large
4. Transmitters are relatively simple &
cheap.
5. The average power in modulated wave
is greater than carrier power. This added
power is provided by modulating source.
6. More susceptible to noise interference
and has low signal to noise ratio, it is
more difficult to eliminate effects of
noise.
7. it is not possible to operate without
interference.
8. The maximum value of modulation index
= 1, other wise over-modulation would
result in distortions.
8. DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
The basic digital communication systems consist of following blocks
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FREQUENCY MODULATION
It requires much wider channel (7 to 15
times) as compared to AM.
The amplitude of FM signal is constant
and independent of depth of the
modulation.
The are of reception is small since it is
limited to line of sight.
Transmitters are complex and hence
expensive.
The average power in frequency
modulated wave is same as contained in
un-modulated wave.
Noise can be easily minimized amplitude
variations can be eliminated by using
limiter.
it is possible to operate several
independent transmitters on same
frequency.
No restriction is placed on modulation
index.
 Elements of Digital Communication Systems

1. Information Source and Input Transducer: The source of information can be analog or digital,
e.g. analog: audio or video signal, digital: like teletype signal. In digital communication the signal
produced by this source is converted into digital signal which consists of 1′s and 0′s. For this we
need a source encoder.

2. Source Encoder: In digital communication we convert the signal from source into digital signal
as mentioned above. The point to remember is we should like to use as few binary digits as possible
to represent the signal. In such a way this efficient representation of the source output results in
little or no redundancy. This sequence of binary digits is called information sequence. Source
Encoding or Data Compression: the process of efficiently converting the output of whether analog
or digital source into a sequence of binary digits is known as source encoding.

3. Channel Encoder: The information sequence is passed through the channel encoder. The purpose
of the channel encoder is to introduce, in controlled manner, some redundancy in the binary
information sequence that can be used at the receiver to overcome the effects of noise and
interference encountered in the transmission on the signal through the channel. For example take k
bits of the information sequence and map that k bits to unique n bit sequence called code word. The
amount of redundancy introduced is measured by the ratio n/k and the reciprocal of this ratio (k/n)
is known as rate of code or code rate.

4. Digital Modulator: The binary sequence is passed to digital modulator which in turns convert the
sequence into electric signals so that we can transmit them on channel (we will see channel later).
The digital modulator maps the binary sequences into signal wave forms , for example if we
represent 1 by sin x and 0 by cos x then we will transmit sin x for 1 and cos x for 0. ( a case similar
to BPSK)

5. Channel: The communication channel is the physical medium that is used for transmitting
signals from transmitter to receiver. In wireless system, this channel consists of atmosphere, for
traditional telephony, this channel is wired, there are optical channels, under water acoustic
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channels etc. We further discriminate this channels on the basis of their property and characteristics,
like AWGN channel etc.

6. Digital Demodulator: The digital demodulator processes the channel corrupted transmitted
waveform and reduces the waveform to the sequence of numbers that represents estimates of the
transmitted data symbols.

7. Channel Decoder: This sequence of numbers then passed through the channel decoder which
attempts to reconstruct the original information sequence from the knowledge of the code used by
the channel encoder and the redundancy contained in the received data Note: The average
probability of a bit error at the output of the decoder is a measure of the performance of the
demodulator – decoder combination.

8. Source Decoder: At the end, if an analog signal is desired then source decoder tries to decode the
sequence from the knowledge of the encoding algorithm. And which results in the approximate
replica of the input at the transmitter end.

9. Output Transducer: Finally we get the desired signal in desired format analog or digital.

Note: The average probability of a bit error at the output of the decoder is a
measure of the performance of the demodulator – decoder combination.

Advantages of digital communication

As the signals are digitized, there are many advantages of digital communication over analog
communication, such as −
● The effect of distortion, noise, and interference is much less in digital signals as they are
less affected.
● Digital circuits are more reliable.
● Digital circuits are easy to design and cheaper than analog circuits.
● The hardware implementation in digital circuits, is more flexible than analog.
● The occurrence of cross-talk is very rare in digital communication.
● The signal is un-altered as the pulse needs a high disturbance to alter its properties, which
is very difficult.
● Signal processing functions such as encryption and compression are employed in digital
circuits to maintain the secrecy of the information.
● The probability of error occurrence is reduced by employing error detecting and error
correcting codes.
● Spread spectrum technique is used to avoid signal jamming.
● Combining digital signals using Time Division Multiplexing. (TDM) is easier than
combining analog signals using Frequency Division Multiplexing(FDM).
● The configuring process of digital signals is easier than analog signals.
● Digital signals can be saved and retrieved more conveniently than analog signals.
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 ● Many of the digital circuits have almost common encoding techniques and hence similar
devices can be used for a number of purposes.
● The capacity of the channel is effectively utilized by digital signals.

9. COMPUTER COMMUNICATIONS

Computer communications describes a process in which two or more computers or devices transfer

data, instructions, and information. Figure below shows a sample communications system. Some
communications involve cables and wires; others are sent wirelessly through the air. As illustrated
in this figure, communications systems contain all types of computers and computing devices. For
successful communications, you need the following:

● A sending device that initiates an instruction to transmit data, instructions, or information.

● A communications device that connects the sending device to a communications channel.
● A communications channel, or transmission media on which the data, instructions, or
information travel.
● A communications device that connects the communications channel to a receiving device.
● A receiving device that accepts the transmission of data, instructions, or information. 

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All types of computers and mobile devices serve as sending and receiving devices in a
communications system. This includes mainframe computers, servers, desktop computers, notebook
computers, Tablet PCs, smart phones, portable media players, and GPS receivers. One type of
communications device that connects a communications channel to a sending or receiving device
such as a computer is a modem. Two examples of communications channels are cable television
lines and telephone lines. 

USES OF COMPUTER COMMUNICATIONS

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Computer communications are everywhere. Many require that users subscribe to an Internet access
provider. With other computer communications, an organization such as a business or school
provides communications services to employees, students, or customers. 

Wireless Messaging Services

Users can send and receive wireless messages to and from smart phones, cell phones, handheld
game consoles, and other personal mobile devices using three techniques: text messaging,
wireless instant messaging, and picture/video messaging.

TEXT MESSAGING A mobile device with text messaging, also called SMS (short message
service), capability allows users to send and receive short text messages on a phone or other
mobile device. Text messaging services typically provide users with several options for sending
and receiving messages:

● Mobile to Mobile: send a message from your mobile device to another mobile device
● Mobile to E-Mail: send a message from your mobile device to an e-mail address
anywhere in the world
● Web to Mobile: send a message from a text messaging Web site to a mobile device, or
request that a Web site alert a mobile device with breaking news and other updates, such
as sports scores, stock prices, and weather forecasts
● Mobile to Provider: send a message by entering a four- or five-digit number assigned to
a specific content or wireless service provider, followed by the message, such as a vote
for a television program contestant

WIRELESS INSTANT MESSAGING Wireless instant messaging (IM) is a real-time Internet

communications service that allows wireless mobile devices to exchange messages with one or
more mobile devices or online users. Some wireless Internet service providers partner with IM
services so that you can use your smart phone or other mobile device to send and receive
wireless instant messages. With a compatible IM service, users have these IM options:
● Mobile to Mobile: use a wireless instant messenger to communicate between two mobile
devices
● Mobile to Personal Computer: use a wireless instant messenger to communicate between
a mobile device and a personal computer
● Web to Mobile: send or forward messages from a personal computer’s instant messenger
to a mobile device 

Wireless Internet Access Points

At home, work, school, and in many public locations, people connect wirelessly to the Internet
through a wireless Internet access point using mobile computers, smart phones, handheld
game consoles, or other devices. Users access wireless Internet access points with computers or
devices that have the necessary built-in wireless capability or the appropriate wireless network

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card, PC Card, ExpressCard module, or USB network adapter. Two types of wireless Internet
access points are hot spots and mobile wireless networks.

A hot spot is a wireless network that provides Internet connections to mobile, computers and
other devices. Through the hot spot, mobile users check e-mail, browse the Web, and access any
service on the Internet. Three hot spot technologies are Wi-Fi, WiMAX, and Bluetooth. Wi-Fi
hot spots provide wireless network connections to users in public locations such as airports,
train stations, hotels, convention centers, schools, campgrounds, shopping malls, bookstores,
libraries, restaurants, and coffee shops. The coverage range for WiMAX hot spots, can be much
wider than Wi-Fi; for example, they can cover an entire city. Bluetooth hot spots provide
location-based services, such as sending coupons or menus, to users whose enabled devices
enter the coverage range.

10. MODEM

A modulator-demodulator, or simply a modem, is a hardware device that converts data from a

digital format, intended for communication directly between devices with specialized wiring,
into one suitable for a transmission medium such as telephone lines or radio. A
modem modulates one or more carrier wave signals to encode digital information for
transmission, and demodulates signals to decode the transmitted information. The goal is to
produce a signal that can be transmitted easily and decoded reliably to reproduce the original
digital data.
Modems can be used with almost any means of transmitting analog signals, from light-emitting
diodes to radio. A common type of modem is one that turns the digital data of a computer into a
modulated electrical signal for transmission over telephone lines, to be demodulated by another
modem at the receiver side to recover the digital data.
Modems are frequently classified by the maximum amount of data they can send in a given unit
of time, usually expressed in bits per second (symbol bit/s, sometimes abbreviated "bps") or
rarely in bytes per second (symbol B/s). Modern broadband modems are typically described in
megabits.
Historically, modems were often classified by their symbol rate, measured in baud. The baud
unit denotes symbols per second, or the number of times per second the modem sends a new
signal. For example, the ITU V.21 standard used audio frequency-shift keying with two possible
frequencies, corresponding to two distinct symbols (or one bit per symbol), to carry 300 bits per
second using 300 baud. By contrast, the original ITU V.22 standard, which could transmit and
receive four distinct symbols (two bits per symbol), transmitted 1,200 bits by sending 600
symbols per second (600 baud) using phase-shift keying.
The term broadband gained widespread adoption in the late 90s to describe internet access
technology exceeding the 56 kilobit/s maximum of dialup. There are many broadband
technologies, such as various DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) technologies and cable broadband.
DSL technologies such as ADSL, HDSL and VDSL use telephone lines (wires that were
installed by a telephone company and originally intended for use by a telephone subscriber) but
do not utilize most of the rest of the telephone system. Their signals are not sent through

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ordinary phone exchanges, but are instead received by special equipment (a DSLAM) at the
telephone company central office.
Because the signal does not pass through the telephone exchange, no "dialing" is required, and
the bandwidth constraints of an ordinary voice call are not imposed. This allows much higher
frequencies, and therefore much faster speeds. ADSL in particular is designed to permit voice
calls and data usage over the same line simultaneously.
Similarly, cable modems use infrastructure originally intended to carry television signals, and
like DSL, typically permit receiving television signals at the same time as broadband internet
service.
Other broadband modems include satellite modems and power line modems.

TEXTBOOKS:
1. Communication Systems- Simon Haykin, 2nd Edition, Wiley Publications.
2. Communication Systems – B.P. Lathi, BS Publication, 2006.
3. Principles of Communication Systems – H Taub & D. Schilling, Gautam Sahe, TMH,
2007 3rd Edition.

REFERENCES:
1. Electronics & Communication System – George Kennedy and Bernard Davis, TMH
2004.
2. Communication Systems Second Edition – R.P. Singh, SP Sapre, TMH, 2007.
3. Analog & Digital Communication – K.Sam Shanmugam, Wiley 2005
4. Fundamentals of Communication Systems - John G. Proakis, Masond, Salehi PEA,
2006.
5. Electronic Communication Systems- Modulation & Transmission- Robert
J.Schoenbeck, 2nd Edition, PHI

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