ores et inegratng Mate and Manwaring novation (2015)410 © Integrating Materials DOI toriseis0192.015-0038-8 e . and Manufacturing Innovation 2 SpringesOpen ural RESEARCH ARTICLE Cen Mechanical design of negative stiffness \ honeycomb materials Dixon M Correa’, Carolyn Conner Seepersad"” and Michael R Haberman'? ‘eseepenaloneluteaseds Abstract ‘hecrencal rarer | Amechanicl system exhibits negative stfess when it requies a decrease in Shur tn Termrz usa | applied force to generate an increase in displacement, Negative sifness behavior Ful it ofa formation has been of interest for use in vbro-acoustc damping materials, vibration isolation owibtieatheerd ftheatite | mechanisms, and mechanical switches. This non-intuitive mechanical response can be elicited by transversely loading 2 curved beam structure of appropriate geometry, which can be designed to exnibst either one oF two stable positions. The current work investigates honeycomb structures whose unit cells are created from curved beam structures that are designed to provide negative stness tehavior and 2 single stable postion. These characteristics allow the honeycomb to absorb large amounts, ‘of mechanical energy at @ stable plateau stres, much Ike traditional honeycombs. Unike traditional honeycomb, however, the mechanism underlying energyrabsorbing behavior i elastic buckling rather than plastic deformation, which alows the negative sifiness honeycombs to recover from large deformations. Accordingly, they are compeling candidates for applications that require disipation of multiple impacts. ‘A detailed exploration ofthe unit cell design shows that negative stfess honeycombs can be designed to dissipate mechanical energy in quantities that are ‘comparable to traditional honeycomb structures at low relative densities. Furthermore, their unique cell geometry allows the designer 10 perform trade-offs between density, stress thresholds, and energy absorption capabilties. This paper describes these trade-offs and the underlying analysis Keywords: Honeycombs; Negative stiffness, Bistabilty, Energy absorption; Elastic stiffness; Stress threshold Background Honeycombs are ordered cellular materials with prismatic cells. The cells of the honey- ‘comb can assume a variety of cross-sectional shapes, including hexagonal, kagome, square, triangular, and mixed triangular and square (1, 2), Relative’ to"other low-density shape and density [2]. The high levels of energy absorption in honeycomb materials can be explained by their characteristic stress-strain response [1]. As illustrated in Fig. 1, honeycombs com- prised of elastic-plastic materials typically exhibit a linear elastic region in which cell walls either bend or axially compress in response to in-plane compression. Beyond a critical stress level, the cell walls collapse via elastic buckling (at very low relative (©2015 Comet Ths san Open Aces ated unde th er oth Crete Cars Attn Len a Springer Scythes eerste te awake eeCone eto Itegating Materials and Manufacturing Imevaton (2015) 410 Page 2 0f 11 Fig. 1 Mechanical behaior of honeycomb (2) densities) or plastic buckling. A region of plateau stress is then observed a6 the cell walls collapse row by row. Finally, when void spac is eliminated by cell yall collapse, the structure densities and stfiness rapidly increases to approach that ofthe material in the cell wal Te superior energy absorption capabilites of honeycombs are highly dependent on the relatively fat, extended region of plateau stress in Fig. 1. Once a ert plateau stress reached, honeycomb absorb very large amounts of energy atthe plateau stress Ievel without exposing an underying structure to additional compressive stress cnless the energy imparted to the honeycomb is large enough to cause densification. Oneidise [SURED f= cnersy cbscrption applications is that SEE sbsorpion in the platen regime requirespastie cling, which means thatthe hon- eycombs must be FplaGed after a single use. While it is possible to achieve a plateau stress region with recoverable, elastic buckling for very low density structures (cf. (31), such cellular structures cannot be fabricated with typical manufacturing methods and. also demonstrate very low initial stiffness and plateau stress. Recent work has shown that negative stiffness honeycombs also provide high levels of initial stiffness, compressive strength, and energy absorption; however, these new cellu- lar structures are unique in that they provide those capabilites in a recoverable way, such that the materials can be subjected to repeated cycles of compressive loading and unloading [4, 5]. A representative negative stiffness honeycomb is illustrated in Fig, 2 Like regular honeycombs, negative stiffness honeycombs consist of an ordered config- uration of prismatic cells. Unlike regular honeycombs, the cells are designed to provide recoverable energy absorption. Recoverable energy absorption is enabled by construct: ing each unit cell from curved beams that exhibit force-displacement behavior similar to that of bistable or snap-through structures (6, 7 3, each curved beam (Fig. 4) is known to exhibit a region of positive stifiness deformation when subjected to a transverse (vertical) load (8. This positive stifiness behavior is followed by a region of negative stiffness deformation as it transi- tions from one first-mode-buckled shape to another! Heian positive FOE Supt ported by the beam is called the force threshold. The existence of negative stiffness behavior is governed by Q, the ratio of apex height, k, of the beam to its in-plane As shown in FiCone eto iterating Materials and Manufacturing Imevaton (2015) 410 Page 3 0f11 a a Fig. 2 Negative sins noneycorb et and negative sie nit el igh thickness, As established by Qiu tal. [8), a single curved beam exhibits negative stiffness behavior for a wide range of FAROSTREGAtGRTEHR|SPPFOXIMALEIPNS and transi- Lions (o BEDE DENIVORAUAWOSTERALCEUNGAZSY The dOUBIEDERRS wsized fn the honeycomb in Fig. 2 transition to bistable behavior af§fiWEHNighERIFaLOS. \While thas been known for sometime that properly constrained curved beams exhibit the behavior illustrated in Fig. 3, the authors ofthis publication have recently designed a negative stiffness honeycomb structure to leverage this behavior for energy absorption [4 5}. All f the features inthe negative stifiness honeycomb structure shown in Fig. 2 have a specific purpose. The double concentric beams are utilized to constrain the beams to transition from one fist-mode buckled shape to another va the third buckling mode, ther than the second mode, which is known to significantly reduce the force threshold of the beam and the magnitude of its negative stiffness. (The'flat/horizontal walls'constrain ‘he horizontal expansion of the unit cell upon application of in-plane compression thereby enabling snap-through-ike behavior. CAMMeRS near the intersection of the hor ‘onal and vertical walls help prevent isting ofthe el Walls during loading 002 4 08 O8 12 48 48 a Fig. 3 Nornaled fore vesus normalized displacement or singe caved beanCone eto itegating Materials and Manufacturing Imevaton (2015) 10 Page 4 of 11 Fig. 4 Shape function ane amenslon for 3 single curved bea ‘When subjected to in-plane compressive loading, « negative stiffness honeycomb exhibits the force-displacement behavior illustrated in Fig. 5 [4, 5]. ‘The force éisplacement behavior in Fig. 5 is obtained by compression testing the negative stifiness honeycomb illustrated in Fig. 2 with the dimensions shown in Fig. 6 on a universal tst- ing machine [4 5. As shown in Fig 5, the negative stifiness honeycomb exhibits are gion of positive initial stiffness approaching its force threshold, at which point the first row of curved beams begins to buckle, resulting in a region of negative stiffness. ROWS ‘oF curved beams’ buckle| sequentially, rerulting in| each [of the negative stiffness regions in Fig. 5. Together, the negative stfiness regions create an extended region of relatively constant force, similar to the plateau stress exhibited by regular honeycombs. When al beams have buckled, the load is shunted to the contacting pillas on the sides of the honeycomb, resulting in a region of high positive stifiness similar to the densification exhibited by regular honeycombs. The’ magnitude of the force Uhreshold is proportional {GUSEIFWMBEROACOIUAASTONEEIS, and che length of the plateau region is proportional to the number of rows of cells. When the negative stiffness honeycomb is unloaded, it returns to its original configuration, following the unloading path in Fig. 5. The area within the hysteresis curve represents the net energy absorbed by the negative sifiness honeycomb over the complete cycle. The properties of a negative stiffness honeycomb can be tailored by adjusting the di- mensions of the unit cells. Assuming that the characteristic cell size is fixed, regular Displacement [mm] nt elorship far arson 11 protrype ofthe honeycomb in Fg. 2 tk sintering with mensions E12 ae GH RAGHEGESODTTM as stated in Fig 6 Adopted torn 4,51Cone eto Itegating Materials and Manufacturing Imevaton (2015) 410 Page 5 of 11 Fig. 6 Experimentally teste honeycomi cell cimensins (mm) and overall honeycomb cimensons Adopted fram i, 5} honeycombs afer a single degree of design freedom—density or the thickness of the cell walls-such that adjusting the density results in unique values of plateau stress, inital stiffness, and energy absorption per cell. Srila, ASURNGUC Neca, ti ell length fxed, negative stitiness honeycombs offer two degrees of design ree oA EHH HEPNVEMIEKRSSOUHETAAS——such that i is posible to achieve a particular relative density with cells of various geometries, EG This paper describes the analysis and design of negative sifiness honeycombs for energy ab- sorption applications and outlines the type of design trade-offs tat can be achieve Methods ‘Modeling the energy absorption properties of negative stiffness honeycombs begins with the force-displacement behavior of a single curved beam. According to Qiu et al. [8], the transverse displacement of the center of a curved beam is related to the trans- vverse force applied to the center of the beam as follows: F 22 a(a 2 (a) where Fand A represent normalized force and normalized displacement, respectively ‘Those terms are related to applied transverse force, f; and transverse displacement, d, ea ° d a=% @) the area moment of inertia ofthe cell wal [iii aConte eto Itegating Materials and Manufacturing Imevaton (2015) 410 Page 6 of 11 the SUBSEPIRMEERT ofthe beam, assuming a rectangular cross section. Therefore, the relations derived in Equations 1,2, and 3 are valid for a beam with arbitrary out-of plane depth, prOMMeitisTunifornyioxdedUNrOugNOURNSTUEPEN Transverse displace- ment is measured as illustrated in Fig 4 fora beam with its undeformed shape defined 2s follows: h wis) =< sor) ® ‘Equation 1 predicts the resulting foree-displacement behavior ilustrated in Fig 3 and can be used for any curved beam geometry as long asthe beam is constrained to avoid second-mode bueling when it transitions from one first mode-buckled shape to another The fore threshold is defined bythe peak of the force- 3 5 F 5 5 a 8 | Oi 0202503 038 04 Relative Dena. p nergy pe" unt cell vers eve cen ty elongation at yield of the cell wall material, which is assumed to be DOSUGETVIONTN 12]. The maximum strain constraint determines the boundary of the negative stiffness contours in Fig. 7 For the range of relative densities plotted in Fig. 7, the compaction energy of regular hexagonal honeycombs increases with relative density. This trend is expected because the hexagonal honeycomb’s plateau stress increases quadratically with the relative density of the material, although this trend is counteracted somewhat by the decrease in distance between opposing cell walls in a denser hexagonal honeycomb. In con- trast, for the range of relative densities plotted in Fig. 7, the compaction energy of negative stiffness honeycombs tends to increase with decreasing relative density, and the effect is more pronounced for negative stiffness honeycombs with higher stress thresholds, A particular stress threshold can typically be achieved by relatively thick curved beams with relatively short apex heights or by relatively thin curved beams ‘with relatively tall apex heights. IIhellatter geometry/affords|niore\travelfanid therefore ‘eater compaction energy for beams of equivalent stress threshold with less relative density. These trends illustrate that the mechanism used for energy absorption in negative stiffness honeycombs—buckling in a snap-through-like fashion—leads to a much richer set of trade-offs than those of regular honeycombs. As shown in Fig. 7, for relatively large stress thresholds and low relative densities, the negative stiffness honeycomb provides greater compaction energy than the regular hexagonal honey- comb of equivalent relative density. This advantage diminishes as relative density in- creases because the hexagonal honeycomb's increasing plastic buckling strength leads to increasing compaction energy while the negative stiffness honeycomb’s increasing, density leads to diminishis and ultimately a lower compaction energy. It is important to note that the g apex heights, less travel and a shorter plateau region,Conte eto Itegating Materials and Manufacturing Imevaton (2015) 410 Page 10 0f 11 characteristic length of the nit cells used to generate the curves in Fig.7 was fixed at ‘While OAEOR PEEP WASNEA GENER. Adjsting those values would affect the magnitude of the compaction energy, but the trends observed in Fig. 7 ‘would not change. Regardless ofthe relative levels of compaction energy exhibited in Fig. 7, iis import ant to note that the compaction energy absorbed by the regular hexagonal honeycombs is not recoverable by virtue of the underlying plastic deformation that leads to energy absorption. The negative stiffness honeycombs, in contrast, are designed to return to their intial configurations upon removal of external loading. Indeed, preliminary phys- ical experimental results shown in Fig. 5 indicate that the negative stifiness honey- ‘combs are fully recoverable. Net energy absorbed by a negative stiffness honeycomb {depends on the area encompassed by the hysteresis curve in Fig. 5 with the extent of Inysteresis influenced by the viscoelastic behavior of the cel wall material among other factors. The presence of hysteresis indicates that the analytical predictions in Fig. 7 ‘most likely overestimate experimentally measured magnitudes of net energy absorbed by negative stfiness honeycomb. Comparisons are documented in previous research by the authors [4 5} Conclusions “Mechanical energy absorption properties of negative stiffness honeycomb materials have been eramined, In contrast to regular honeycombs, which rely on plete buckling fr in-plane mechanical energy absorption, negative stfiness honeyeombs rely on tailored clastic buckling phenomena. AS result, they are capable of ab- sorbing large amounts of mechanical energy and returning to their original config- uation, Due to their unigue energy absorption mechanism, negative stiffness honeycombs offer a ralti-dimensional design space for achieving the desiced cap- acity for energy absorption. Specifically, two parameters of the cell geometry, apex height and in-plane thickness, can be altered to achieve the desized performance This design freedom allows the fore threshold to be designed independently of relative density, which is in direct contrast to traditional honeycombs. Negative stiffness honeyeombs have been shown to have comparable levels of compaction energy per unit cell as hexagonal honeycombs but only for low relative densities that permit relatively large transverse displacements of curved beams with large apex heights, “This newiy Introduced honeycomb material offers many opportunites for future work, An inital experimental validation of the behavior ofthese materials has been conducted bythe authors (45), but addtional experimentation should be carried out to verify the compaction energy per uit cell predicted in Fig, 7. Addltional experimen- tal efforts need to be focused on comparing the predictions in this paper with @XBREF ‘Ll PHORM TOMATWIACTARETORSURINTALS. Final, whi experimental and theoretical knowledge canbe merged to design energyabsorbing materials that achieve new combinations of performance. By adjusting the geometry of the unit cell and the population of unit el ina negative stifless honeycomb, for example it i possible to independently tailor the density, force threshold, and energy absorption capabilities Potential application include bumper, orthotic, and personal protective devices such as helmets,Conte eto. iterating Materials and Manufacturing Imevaton (2015) 10 Page 11 of 1 -Abrevatlons| ‘A Normals clpacemert desl: b: Outotlane depth fer 2 negatve stfhess beam Tansee {Siploerent Fe Specie ol sss Modul of ely Nonmolass fre Fosse foe Fy Foce terete pox night er a negive snes Bom fra emer fine length ofa negtve sesh beam. 0 foto o apex Regt forces for a nagave sess bears tole themes fra negate Sfnss beam wig Beamshape coor along the vera us Bearestape coordinate ag the tant as {A Normolas Splaerent fu Mai ssl Senay de Cite Ses level cy tess reset be Viste Competing interests ‘he aor dele tht they have ro conperng ines. ‘Author contributions DMC permed the aes n Fg 7CCS and Mf cordate te ty and dad re menace Al autor senda approved the fal manuscip [Ackrowiedgements ‘le gatllysetnonlsge Profesor Ossetia Kove and, Seria Cots for he help ngenestng the ‘experimental data nF. im twas rsianenalngeneng the negate sfipess hereycom ciguaon "aot nig, 2 ad coring periary pookkconcept sates ore the desig We gael cine he funing For the Department of Defevse Sal Busnes ovaion Restrch SER) Prosar under SBIR Tone N142085 mcolaberaton wnt te Martine Apples nyse Corporation APC, ‘uthor detaits ‘echanial giesing Daarert, The Univers of Tera at Aus, Austin, TX 7272, USA, "Ano Reseach Lioratare, The Uniery of Tears Austr, 10000 Bue sed. TX 7258 USA Receive 30 December 2014 Accepted: 21 Api 2015 Published online: 02 July 2015 References 1 io Ab (1955) Cer sls sree an properties, Carige Urey Press Cambridge, UK 2 Hayes & Wang A Denes 3 McSowe D QnOg Mechais of Tes cel als Mech Vr 36631-713 5 Shacclelnstean A Toner Sorensen & lan ae Vale, Cote (0 Ua meal masks: Soence 305856205 4 Cove, Kat Contes 5, Habern M Howat, Seeperad © OT4 Negative ses haneyombs fot ‘reaver shck clot, Poceedngs ol te sl slam cation smponum Tne Une Tess hurt, sin 5. Corea: bt, Corts 5 Haterran Koa, Seepesad C0015 Negate stress henecoms or recoverable shock citon, aid Ben 129700 6M Hosen Mh Seezersad 013) Select ber rte of negative snes mesoctes o recoverable, reatceal peck eiten Ie Proceadrgs of te sl efor aseaionSmposum The Unies of ots Auth usin Fe 7 ful Shaan 9, Habema Seep G whan P G01) Avaytcaland expetinentlinesison of cts bears negate ies eerer fr psi vation and shock oben. JW Acoust 360)=12 (Qu Lang Soca & ION Acuna abe mechankm IMicoesomech Sa 1225137146 Seepesnd Dempsey 8 Ales | Mites, MeDowel D 2008 Daign of ubfurctnalhorajecrrs mazeak pa aasren oss 10, Seperad omar 8 Alen. Mist F MeDonell 200 Muto design of psa elke mater, Samper dies Maer es 1237 16='8) 1), Watts. eb yonwmatbaecom Acces "7 xe 2014 12. Leigh Db) A comparzon of genie 7 mechncal popes benacen Ket sinerog and radon ‘make bs Procecing fhe a elo bron spon, The ey of Text a Ast es, 1 ‘Submit your manuscript to a SpringerOpen? journal and benefit from: > Conveientontinesubmision Rigorous peereview > Immedatepubleason on acceptance > Open acces ate rely avaiable onne > High visit within te fl Retaining the copyright toyour article ‘Submit our next manuscript at » springeropen.com