Land Decontamination and

Solid Waste Management

Ir Professor Irene M. C. Lo, PhD, JP, FHKIE, FASCE

Chair Professor, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering
The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology
 Former Penny’s Bay
Contaminated by Cheoy Lee
Shipyard  Disney Theme Park

2
 Brownfield site development
• In HK, brownfield generally
refers to agricultural or rural
land in the New Territories
which is deserted and has been
changed for open storage,
container yards, depots, rural
industries, recycling yards.
• For example, northern Fanling,
northern Kwu Tong, Hung Shui
Kiu, southern Yuen Long and
northern New Territories as sites
with ‘high development
potential of over 1,500 hectares
(1 ha = 10000 m2).
• In the US, any
previously developed
land that is not currently
in use, but it was used
for industrial or
commercial purposes
with known or
suspected pollution of
not seriously
contaminated.
3
 For example: Lok Ma Chau Loop or
North East NT New Development Areas

1. Lok Ma Chau Loop; 2. Hung Shui Kiu;

3. Kwu Tung North/Fanling North; 4. many brownfields
Soil Contamination in Kwu Tung North- 環評亦有檢測古洞北新發展區以外的附近地皮，
Case Study (Aug 2013) 於其中一幅地皮18至18.45米地底抽取的土壤樣本，
錄得砷含量由114毫克至947毫克不等。報告亦指
出，除天然的砷外 (砷含量屬異常高) 。
EIA Report on North East New Territories
New Development Areas (NENT NDAs) 古洞北不少土地用作五金廠、建材廠、汽車修理
等用途，均造成某程度土地污染。政府計劃斥資
Planning and Engineering: 1200億元開拓古洞北及粉嶺北 (新界東北發展)，
環評報告顯示，古洞北單是3幅政府地皮土壤，已
A total of 38 soil samples were collected 被驗出含有俗稱砒霜的重金屬「砷」，錄得含量
from 10 inspection pits and 2 boreholes 介乎24毫克至430毫克。
from November 2009 to January 2010. 但由於部分地皮是私人擁有，環評難作評估，未
The test results indicated that the 來政府收回土地後要再作勘測。
concentration of metal “Arsenic (As)” (i.e.
ranged from 24 mg/kg to 430 mg/kg) of
35 soil samples collected from all 12
sampling locations have exceeded the
RBRGs from Rural Residential (i.e. the
stringent set of RBRG) to Industrial (i.e.
the most relax set of RBRG) land uses.
Soil Standard for As =21.8 mg/kg
http://www.epd.gov.hk/eia/register/repor
t/eiareport/eia_2132013/eia/html/eia_in
dex.htm
 Land Contamination Assessment
in Hong Kong

• EIAO (Environmental Impact Assessment

Ordinance) Requirements:

– Contamination Assessment Plan (CAP)

(1) Desktop review; (2) site survey; (3) prepare CAP for EPD’s approval
– Contamination Assessment Report (CAR)
(1) Site investigation; (2) soil & groundwater analysis; (3) propose remediation
methods for EPD’s approval
– Remediation Action Plan (RAP)
– Remediation Report (RR)
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Hong Kong
Soil Standard:

Risk-Based
Remediation
Goals (RBRGs)
 HK RBRGs
Risk-based Remediation Goals (RBRGs) were developed in 2007 for
four different post-restoration land use scenarios which people
could be exposed to contaminated soil and groundwater.
Urban Rural
Industrial Public parks
residential residential
• Sites located in an • Sites located in a • Any site where • Receptors include
urban area where rural area where activities involve individuals and
main activities main activities manufacturing, families who
involve habitation involve habitation chemical or frequent parks and
by individuals. by individuals. petrochemical play areas where
processing, storage there is contact
of raw materials, with soil present in
transport lawns, walkways,
operations, energy gardens and play
production or areas.
transmission etc.

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Metals
Antimony 29.5 29.1 261 97.9
Arsenic 22.1 21.8 196 73.5 Total 54
Barium 10,000* 10,000* 10,000* 10,000* Contaminants of
Cadmium 73.8 72.8 653 245 concern (COC)
Chromium III 10,000* 10,000* 10,000* 10,000*
Chromium VI 221 218 1,960 735 9
Ex-situ Cement-based Solidification/Stabilization (S/S) Technology
For metal contaminated soils
Cement

Curing for
14-28 days

Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP): Universal Treatment Standard (UTS) & 10
Unconfined Compression Strength (UCS)
Portland cement is very effective in S/S
technology for treating inorganics (metals)

Hydration of C3S:
2(3CaOSiO2) + 6H2O → 3 CaO2SiO23H2O + 3Ca(OH)2 (1)
(C3S) (C-S-H) (C-H)
Hydration of C2S:
2(2CaOSiO2) + 4H2O → 3CaO2SiO23H2O + Ca(OH)2 (2)
(C2S) (C-S-H) (C-H)

Portland Cement compositions

C3S (3CaO▪SiO2): tricalcium silicates
C2S (2CaO▪SiO2): dicalcium silicates
C3A (3CaO▪Al2O3): tricalcium aluminate
C4AF (4CaO▪Al2O3▪Fe2O3): tetracalcium aluminoferrite
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 Mechanisms of Cement Binding
Calcium silicate hydrate
C3S (C-S-H ) gel +
+ Water
C2S Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2

Ettringite
C3A + CaSO4
(3CaO▪Al2O3▪3CaSO4▪12H2O)
Main binding component for providing
C-S-H gel strength and immobilizing heavy metals

(Singh and Pant, 2006)

Hong Kong University of

Science and Technology 12
Criteria for beneficial reuse of cement-based
S/S treated soil as on-site fill materials

Test Requirement

Unconfined Compressive Strength

≥ 1 MPa1
(UCS)

Toxicity Characteristic Leaching TCLP Limits for Universal

Procedure (TCLP) Treatment Standard1

Notes:
1. Practical Guide for Investigation and Remediation of Contaminated
Land, 2011 (Hong Kong)
2. Unconfined compressive strength requirement is described in the
USEPA guidelines (1986) – Handbook for Stabilization/Solidification of
Hazardous Wastes, EPA/540/2-86/001. The acceptance criteria for UCS
previously recommended in Hong Kong was 1 MPa (1000 kPa).
 Universal Treatment Standards for on-site reuse of
cement-based S/S treated soils
Parameters (1)(2) TCLP Limits (mg/L)
Antimony 1.15
Arsenic 5
Barium 21
Cadmium 0.11
Total Chromium 0.6
Lead 0.75
Mercury – All Others 0.025
Nickel 11
Zinc 4.3
Notes:
1. Universal Treatment Standard – US 40 CFR 268.48
2. For other RBRGs metal contaminants Cobalt, Copper, Manganese, Molybdenum and Tin, they must be reduced by at least 90 percent in mobility for
respective metals through Cement Solidification/Stabilization remedial treatment. The reduction of mobility of metal contaminants (leachable metals contaminants)
should be confirmed through TCLP tests (i.e., to carry out TCLP test for the untreated soil and for the soil after treatment and to compare the concentrations of the
metals in the leachates). 14
Curing Room for Solidified Products- 14 to 28 days curing time

Compressive Strength Equipment

TCLP Testing Equipment
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 Case study:
former Kai Tak airport decontamination
(1) Contamination Assessment Plan (CAP): Site survey
(2) Contamination Assessment Report (CAR)

– Digging excavation pits for

soil and ground water
sampling
 (2) Contamination Assessment
Report (CAR)- cont.
Metals TPH /
Assessment Only Metals &
VOCs /
Area (m3) TPH (m3)
SVOC (m3)
North
Apron South Apron
311.3 169.8 113.2
South Area

Apron Ex-GFS
155.8 17,488.6 NIL
Area

Narrow Strip
of NIL 49.5 NIL
Runway North Apron

Runway
NIL NIL NIL
Area

Total 467.1 17,707.9 113.2

Ex-GFS area: supplying fuel

Using S/S technology for metal contaminated soils

(3) Remediation Action Plan (RAP)
 Solid Waste
• Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)
– Domestic Waste
– Commercial and industrial (C&I) waste

• Construction & Demolition (C&D)

Waste

• Special Waste
e.g., animal carcasses,
asbestos, clinical waste,
livestock waste,
 MSW composition in Hong Kong
MSW disposal
MSW generation = 2.13 kg/capita/day
MSW disposal to landfill = 1.35
kg/capita/day

What is the MSW recycling rate in 2014

?
(2.13-1.35)/2.13 = 37%

But in 2019, the recycling rate drops to

30%

Note: Others include bulky items and other putrescible,

miscellaneous materials
Hong Kong University of
Source: HKEPD, 2016
Science and Technology 21
Current MSW Collection in HK

(SENT, NENT, WENT)

Main Collection and Disposal Routes of Municipal Solid Waste in

Hong Kong (HKEPD, 2011) 22
A Sustainable Waste Management System

源頭减廢

廢物分類

不能回收廢物

熱能處理
轉廢為能
技術

堆填

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All landfills will be filled by 2022/23
&
the earliest time to have our
1st waste-to-energy incinerator will
be in 2025.
(1) Landfill extension;
(2) Incineration (waste-to-energy)
(3) Waste charging
 Incineration – Moving Grate (活動爐排焚化技術)
Tuas South MSW Incineration Plant, Singapore

1. Ulu Padan plant of 1,100 tpd capacity;

2. Keppel Seghers Tuas of 1,700 tpd;
3. Senoko of 2,400 tpd;
4. Tuas South of 3,000 tpd.
5. Semakau Landfill

90% of incinerators for municipal solid

waste uses the moving grate
incineration system
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 大型活動爐排焚化廠 (Examples)

Urban Ski Slope just beside the chimney

It is a multi-purpose plant that is already catching the

Amsterdam's Afval Energie eyes of the world.
Bedrijf Waste Fired Power Plant Copenhagen’s state of the art plant (Amager Bakke)
(AEB WFPP” 4400 tpd). That sets new standards for environmental performance,
plant has 22% energy energy production and waste treatment. Innovative
efficiency—and in 2007, AEB built technology and architecture integrate to form a future
the new WFPP that has an in which waste- to-energy plants are welcomed in any
energy efficiency rate of 32%, backyard.
among the highest in the Commissioned : 2018
world. 400,000 tonnes per year (~1100 tpd).

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Electricity Production Depending on Energy
Content of MSW:

 Energy content of MSW depends on:

 Composition of the waste
 Moisture content of the waste

 Standard test:
 Burn the sample completely in a bomb calorimeter.
 Measure the rise in temperature of a surrounding water
bath. Result obtained is known as high heat value (HHV),
or gross heat value.
HHV= CΔT where C= heat capacity of the calorimeter
However, energy lost in vaporized water should be taken
into account.
→Low heat value (LHV), or net energy may be used to
provide a more realistic estimate of energy recovery. 27
Energy Content of MSW:

 The composition of MSW varies around the world, so

does its energy content.
 higher % of food waste; lower energy content.

 Khan and Abu-Ghararah (1991) have developed an

equation to estimate HHV:
HHV (kJ / kg ) = 53.5( F + 3.6CP ) + 372 PLR

Where F is the mass % of food

CP is the mass % of cardboard & paper
PLR is the mass % of plastic, rubber, and leather
e.g., mass% of food = 20%, then F=20

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Energy Content of MSW:

 Energy lost in vaporized water is due to:

 Moisture in the waste
 Hydrogen in the waste that react with oxygen to form water

 Using 2440 kJ/kg as the latent heat of vaporization of

water at 25oC, 1 kg of vaporized moisture loses 2440 kJ.

QL = 2440(W + 9 H )
where QL = latent heat of water vapor released (kJ)
W = kg of moisture in the waste
H = kg of hydrogen in dry waste

Note: 2 H + O  H2O (so 1 kg of hydrogen produce 9 kg of water

vapor)
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Example:
Typical MSW has moisture content of 20%, and 6% of the dry
mass of MSW is hydrogen. HHV for a typical MSW is about
12900 kJ/kg. Estimate the LHV.

Solution:
 For 1 kg of waste, there will be 0.2 kg of moisture and 0.8 kg of
dry waste. Energy content of the water vapor released when
1kg of waste is burned is:
QL = 2440 × [0.2 + 9 × (0.8 × 0.06 )] = 1540kJ
• If this energy is not recovered, the 12900 kJ/kg energy
content is reduced to:

LHV = 12900 − 1540 = 11360kJ / kg

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Integrated Waste Management
Facility (IWMF)

This incinerator is of 3000 tpd capacity and would

produce 480 GWh of electricity per year, so it can
support 100,000 households. 31
Integrated Waste Management
Facility (IWMF)

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Advanced Incineration Process (with enhanced air
pollution control system)
 Air Pollution Control System

• Lime scrubber to neutralize acid gases (NOx, SOx,

HCl)
•Activated carbon injection to adsorb metals and
dioxin
•Bag house/filter to remove soot, smoke and
particulates
•Selective catalytic reactor (SCR) to convert
nitrogen oxides to nitrogen
In Germany

National standard

Design standard

Avg value
 The appearance of an incinerator is also important

Lai Chi Kok (1000 tpd; 1969-1990)

Germany
Overseas Incinerators
AVA Frankfurt, Germany

Ariake, Tokyo

Maishima , Osaka
Environmental Protection Dept. Project
Integrated Waste Management Facilities 廢物(垃圾)綜合處理設施
Type of Agreement Design Build Operate設計興建運作
Tender Invitation Date End of 2015
Plant Size 3,000 tonnes / day
Major Activity  Reclamation and Civil Works
 Waste receiving facilities
 Waste incinerators
 Boilers of waste heat recovery system
 Steam turbines, generators and condensers of waste heat
recovery system
 Flue gas treatment facilities
 Ash treatment facilities
Estimated Construction Cost HK$19 Billion (190 億)

Incineration Plant in Taipei

Video: 4 min