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Chapter-4 Water Retaining Structures

4.1 Dams: Purposes, different types of dam based on function, head, hydraulic
consideration, material, storage, rigidity, criteria for selection of a dam
A dam may be defined as an obstruction or a barrier built across a stream or a river.

Dams are build to serve two fundamental functions; first is to store the water as a reservoir and second is to build up
head.

❑ Dam classification (based on function):

• Storage dam/conservation dam: Storing water when inflow is higher than demand and releasing when inflow is
lesser than demand. Storage dams are usually high height and they may be constructed by concrete, stone,
earth and rock fill.
• Diversion dam: Constructed to raise the water level and divert water in another direction. Such dam doesn’t
have large storage capacity. Weirs constructed in most of the RoR projects lies in this category.
• Detention dam: These dams are constructed to store the flood water temporarily so as to retard flood runoff to
minimize the flood effects in downstream. Detention dams or check dams are also constructed to trap sediment
and big boulders or cobbles carried by flood water which is known as debris.
• Coffer Dam: Temporary small dam constructed to divert water to construct the main dam.

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❑ Dam classification (based on head):

• Low head dam: less than 15 m.
• Medium head dam: 15 –50 m
• High head dam: 50 –250 m
• Very high head dam: greater than 250 m

❑ Dam classification (based on hydraulic design):

• Overflow dam: Water flows over the dam: Concrete dams are of generally overflow dam i.e. gated spillway.
Gated over flow dam have controlled mechanism to regulate the spillway flood while the non gated overflow
dam do not have any control mechanism for spillway flood discharge.
• Non-overflow dam: Water doesn’t flow over the dam: dam designed not to overtopped (earth fill or embankment
dam and rock fill dams) and there should not be spillway portion on the crest of the dam

4.1 Dams: Purposes, different types of dam based on function, head, hydraulic
consideration, material, storage, rigidity, criteria for selection of a dam
❑ Dam classification (based on materials):
▪ Masonry dam: Masonry dams are dams made out of masonry – mainly stone and brick, sometimes joined with mortar.
They are either the gravity or the arch-gravity type. The largest masonry dam in the World is Nagarjunasagar Dam ,
Telangana, in India. Mechanized construction is not possible, choice being made due to social consideration such as
employment.

▪ Concrete dam: Plain or reinforced concrete dam, mechanized construction, better quality than masonry dam. Concrete
is most commonly used material to construct a dam. Most of the major dams in the world are built using concrete.
Gravity dams, arch dam, Buttress dam etc. can be constructed using concrete. For instance three gorges dam.

▪ Earthen dam: Made from earth material, usually constructed in an area where foundation is not good for masonry or
concrete dam and availability of cement is scarce. The biggest drawback of these dams is that they cannot be constructed
in large heights

▪ Rock fill dam: Similar to earthen dam, however these are made from rock fragments. Kulekhani dam is a example of
rock fill dam. A reinforced concrete slab layer is also provided on the upstream side to make it water tight. It is more
stable than earthen dams and its flexible nature helps it better against earthquake forces.

▪ Timber and steel dam: For small height, are very rare. Timber dams are suitable up to 9 meters height. Steel plates and
inclined struts are used for the construction of steel dam. This type of dams are suitable up to 15 to 18 meters of height.
They are not used much. They are used for secondary purpose small dams.

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❑ Dam classification (based on rigidity OR Design Principle)

❖ Rigid dam: whole body of the dam acts as a single body and dam materials are bounded together with strong bond.
• Gravity Dam: it is a solid concrete or masonry dam in which all the pressure like-water, wave , uplift etc are resisted by
weight or gravity forces.
• Arch Dam: Self weight of this dam is quite less compared to the gravity dam and hence water thrust is resisted by arching
action of the abutments. Constant radius, Variable radius and constant angle arch dams.
• Buttress dam: water thrust is resisted by the buttresses i.e. inclined structural members to support the load/water thrust.

❖ Non rigid or embankment dams: The dams made from materials like earth, rockfill etc are known as non rigid dams and the
action of seepage through the body of the dam is to be checked besides the slope failure of the dams. Non rigid dams have
capacities to adjust the post construction settlements in foundation strata so more applicable in weak foundation zone.

(a) Overflow dam (Idukku dam, Kerala)

(b) Non-overflow dam (Mica Dam, Canada)

Dam classification based on hydraulic design:

(a) Overflow dam (b) Non-overflow dam

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(b) Concrete dam (Hoover Dam, USA)

(a) Masonary dam (Graig Goch, Wales)
(c) Earthen dam (Banasura Sagar dam, Kerala)

(d) Rockfill dam (Tehri dam, Uttarakhand) (e) Steel dam (Redridge steel dam, USA)
(f) Timber dam (Green River Crib dam, USA)
Dam classification based on materials

Rigid dams
(a) Embankment dam
(b) Buttress dam (i) Gravity dams
(ii) Arch dams
(iii) Buttress dams

Non-rigid dams
Embankment dam:
Either rockfill or
(d) Concrete gravity dam
(c) Arch dam earthfill dams
Dam classification based on rigidity
(a) Rigid dams (b) Non-rigid dams

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Buttress Dam (Roselend Dam, France) Hoover Arch Dam (Hoover Dam, USA)

Kulekhani Dam

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Kulekhani Dam

Spillway Radial Gates

Kulekhani Spillway

Kulekhani Dam

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Kulekhani Dam

Intake
Tehri Dam, Uttarakhand Shaft spillways Shaft spillways

Chute spillway

Tehri dam chute spillway

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Tehri Dam, Uttarakhand

Intake

Shaft spillways Chute spillway

Tehri dam chute spillway

Embankment dams
Different types of embankment dams:
❑ Earth Dam
• Build from earth materials.
• Suitable for almost all types of foundations

❑ Types of earth dams:

1.Homogeneous earth dams
• Made of only one materials (sandy clay soils).
• Sometimes, a blanket of relatively impervious material may be placed on the upstream face.
• Poses the problem of seepage and need huge sections to make safe against piping and slope failure stability.
• Due to this, it is provided with an internal drainage system, rock toe, etc.
• Large dams are seldom designed as homogenous embankments.

2. Zoned earth dam: it is also known as Non-homogeneous dam

• It is made of the more than one types of soils: pervious and impervious.
• The core is made from impervious layer, concrete or masonry or may black clay
• Central core checks the seepage, the transition zones prevents piping through cracks which may develop in
core. The outer zone gives stability to the inner zones and also distributes the load over the large area of
foundation

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Continue..
3.Diaphragm type earth dams:
• Consists of thin impervious core at the center of the dam known as diaphragm.
• Diaphragm is made of clayey soil, cement concrete or masonry or any impervious material in the central part to
prevent seepage of water
• If Diaphragm made up of clayey soil, it is covered by drainage materials (fine silt and sand) and then covered or
supported by large boulders, cobbles etc
• Thickness of the diaphragm shall not more than 10 m or less than the height of the embankment above the
corresponding elevation, otherwise it is zoned embankment type.

❑ Rock fill dam:

• Built from rock fragments.
• Better foundation requirement than for earth dams.
• Impervious membrane provided at the center or upstream face of the dam

❑ Composite earth and rock fill dam:

• Made up of partly rock partly earth.

Concrete Vs. Embankment dam

Variants of concrete (gravity) and embankment dams:
❑ Concrete (Gravity Dams)
• Resists water and the force due to gravity action or its weight.
• Gravity dam is the bonded structure (rigid structure), stability analysis of section as a whole is adequate.
• They are the rigid structures hence pre and post construction settlement has to be considered seriously.
• Generally requires strong rock foundation.
• Expensive but durable.
• Spillways can be provided within the length of the dam.
• Chambers or galleries for drainage , tubing and ancillary works can readily be housed with the dam body
• Power houses can be placed right at the toe of the dam.

❑ Embankment Dams:
• Technically embankment dams also resist the water pressure by gravity but structurally embankment dam is different than
concrete dams.
• Embankment dams consists of individual unbounded particles hence stability ( in terms of seepage) through out the dam has
to be checked.
• They are non-rigid or flexible structure, hence do have better flexibility to settlement of foundation.
• Suitable for almost all types of foundations.
• Since local materials are used they are comparatively cheaper than concrete dams.
• Separate spillway has to be constructed at different location.
They are sensitive to overtopping and leakage , and erosion in the dam body and its foundation. It is suspected to failure more
often as compared to concrete dam.

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Criteria for selection of dam site

Dam site evaluation:
❑ Topography:
• Most preferable site will be the river valley with the neck or gorge formation to reduce the length of dam.
• Valley with the large storage capacity is most preferable.
❑ Geology and foundation conditions:
• Site good foundation is more preferable.
• Beside the foundation, geology of upstream reservoir area should also be fine to prevent failure of flanks (side
of the reservoir), less seepage flow through the river bed and banks in the storage area.
❑ Spillway site:
• Location of suitable spillway should be available.
❑ Construction materials:
• Easy availability of the construction materials, Adequacy of quantity and quality should be prime importance
in selection of quarry site of construction materials
❑ Accessibility:
• Easily accessible with good quality of access road which can be used throughout the year.
• Minimum relocation.
• Less damage to environments
• Minimum capital and maintenance cost.

Others points need to consider

➢ A healthy climate at dam site, spacious accommodation for labourers, staff quarters are necessary.

➢ For large capacity of storage, dam site is best location at the confluence of two rivers.

➢ Dam site should be such that it avoids or excludes water from those tributaries which carry a high
percentage of silt.

➢ Dam site should provide deep reservoir with small water surface to reduce evaporation loss and
submergence area and to control weed growth.

➢ The site should have less percolation losses

➢ The dam site should be selected where catchment is maximum.

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4.2 Choice of dam depending upon site condition and economy

❑ Topography:
• A narrow stream flowing between the high rocky wall with narrow gorge, concrete overflow dams are
suitable
• For low height dam and wide valleys Earth fill or rock fill dams will be suitable.

❑ Geology and foundation condition:

• Most important geological factors to be considered are strength of materials, thickness of layers, inclination
of strata, permeability, fracturing and faults . Different types of geological conditions are as follows.

4.2 Choice of dam depending upon site condition and economy

Rock Foundation:
• For rocky foundation in riverbed, concrete gravity dams are preferable, arch dam is more preferable having
strong rocks in river banks.
• The top layer weathered rock has to be removed and fissure and fault has to be sealed with grouting.
• For weak geological conditions in river bed and bank where load of concrete gravity dam can not bear by the
foundation and likely to have settlement, the non rigid dams earth fill or rock fill dams are suitable
Gravel Foundation
• Well compacted gravel foundations are suitable for earth fill and rock fill dams.
• Because of high percolation, measures has to be done for seepage control or effective water cut-off or seal has
to be provided.
Silt and fine sand foundation:
• Suitable for earth dam and low head concrete dam (8m).
• Rock fill dam is not suitable for large non-uniform settlement, excessive percolation losses and collapse during
saturation.
Clay foundations:
• Unconsolidated and high moisture clays are likely to cause enormous settlement of the dam.
• Not good for concrete dam and rockfill dam. Earthen dam is more suitable after special treatment.
Non uniform foundation:
• Foundation with hard rock and soft materials.
• Require special design and treatment of such foundation before construction of any type of dam

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4.2 Choice of dam depending upon site condition and economy

❑ Construction material availability:
• Major construction materials required for the dams are:
✓ Soil for earth fill dam.
✓ Rock fragments for riprap and rock fill dam.
✓ Cement, sand and aggregate for concrete dam.
• The most economical dam will the one for which most consumable materials are found nearby construction site.
• The availability of sand and gravel within the project site will justify the selection of concrete dam.
• Similarly rock fill dam will be good option if huge quantity of rock fragments are found at or near by dam site.
❑ Spillway:
• For the streams with large flood potential spillway design and selection is crucial while selecting the dam type.
• If the large spillway discharge is required, an overflow concrete gravity dam may be adopted.
• Gravity or concrete dam is suitable if spillway has to be placed within the dam length.
• Earth dam and rock fill dam are suitable if spillway has to be provided away from the dam site generally for
embankment dams.
❑ Earthquake:
• In seismic zones, the embankment dam is preferred due to their adaptability.
❑ Roadway over the dam:
If a roadway is to be passed over the top of the dam, it can be none else than earth or gravity dam.
❑ Generation of hydro electrical power:
Concrete or masonry gravity dams is preferred. Earth dams, being not very high, do not develop sufficient head.

4.3 General considerations for design of dams

❑ Loads on dams:
For analyzing the structural stability of the dams, the loads acting on the dam can be broadly classified into the
following types:
A. Primary loads
B. Secondary loads
C. Exceptional loads

A. Primary loads: These loads are always considered in the dam as they directly influence the stability of dam,
irrespective of the type of dam. These loads include:
i. Hydrostatic load
ii. Uplift pressure due to seepage
iii. Self-weight of the dam

B. Secondary loads: These loads generally are of lesser magnitudes or of significance to particular type of dams. These
loads include:
i. Sediment load
ii. Ice load
iii. Wind load

C. Exceptional loads: These loads generally have low probability of occurrence. Seismic loads are example of
exceptional loads.

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4.4 Design principle of Straight Gravity Dam: Strength, Stability

and Factor of Safety, Middle third rule, Elementary profile of dam
Forces acting on a gravity dam:
1. Self weight of the dam
2. Hydrostatic pressure (water pressure)
3. Uplift pressure
4. Silt pressure
5. Wave pressure
6. Ice pressure
7. Earthquake forces

Drainage Gallery

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Force acting on Gravity Dam

Gravity dam

• A gravity dam has been defined as a structure which is designed in such a sway that its own weight
resists the external forces.
• This type of a structure is most durable and solid, and requires very little maintenance
• Such a dam may be constructed of masonry or concrete.
• The highest gravity dam: Grand Dixene Dam, Switzerland (284 m), Bhakra Dam (226)- concrete dam
• The ratio of base width to height of all these structures is less than 1:1.

A typical cross-section of a concrete gravity dam.

1. Weight of dam
• Most important force for gravity dams. Stability of the dam largely depends upon this force.
• For design purpose only unit length of the dam is considered
• Cubic content of the cement concrete is determined for unit length of the dam.
• Cubic content multiplied by the density, gives the total weight (w) of the dam.

Continue…
Uplift Pressure: (Figure)
• Water seeping through the pores, cracks and fissures of the foundation materials and seeping through
bottom of the dam body through joints between the body of the dam and its foundation at the base,
exerts an uplift pressure at the base of the dam.
• It is second major external force and must be accounted for all calculations. Uplift forces virtually reduce
the weight of the body dam and acts against dam body stability.
• USBR (United States Bureau of Reclamation) recommends to take uplift pressure intensity at the heel and
toe should be taken equal to their respective hydrostatic pressure for the permeable foundation. The
uplift pressure is not affected by earthquake forces.
• When the drainage galleries are provided to relieve the uplift pressure, then the uplift pressure at the
face of the drainage gallery = hydrostatic pressure at the toe+1/3 of the difference of hydrostatic pressure
at the heel and toe.
• The uplift pressure can be controlled by constructing cut off walls at upstream face, by constructing
drainage channels between the dam and its foundation (drainage gallery) and by pressure grouting on the
foundation. A variable K i.e. coefficient of seepage having value of 0 to 1 is used for calculation of uplift
pressure & force at dam foundation.

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Continue…
Pressure due to earthquake forces
• Dams are susceptible to earthquake i.e. earth quake produce waves which are capable of shaking the
earth upon which the dam is resting in every possible direction. Earth quake impact is an equivalent to
a force imparting acceleration to the foundation of dam in the direction in which the wave is travelling
at the moment.
• For design purposes, it is resolved in to vertical and horizontal components taking horizontal and
vertical acceleration of α, where α = 0.1g to 0.2g depend on site specific and intensity of earthquake.
The data of α i.e. acceleration due to earth quake from DMG. For worst case α=0.3g and αh = αv = α

Effect of Vertical acceleration

Effects of Horizontal acceleration

Loads on dam and combination for designs

Different load combination:
❑ Following are the load combinations for stability analysis of dam.
➢ Usual load combination.
• Load under normal design elevation.
• Dead load of various reservoir components.
• Uplift force.
• Ice (in case of cold regions)
• Tail water.

➢ Unusual load combination.

•Load under maximum reservoir level.
•Dead load with various reservoir components.
•Silt
•Uplift force
•Tail water.

➢ Extreme load combination.

•Usual load combinations + Maximum credible earthquakes.

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Foundation treatment of Gravity Dam

Foundation treatment is mainly carried out to increase the strength of foundation and to prevent the seepage flow
through foundation.
The foundation treatment commonly adopted for all foundations can be divided into two steps:
1. Preparing the surface
2. Grouting the foundations

Preparing the surface:

▪ Remove entire loose soil to expose sound bed rock
▪ Final surface is stepped (deeper in heel side) to increase the frictional resistance of the dam and foundation for
improvement in the sliding problem. ( figure)
▪ The top surface is thoroughly cleaned with wet sand blasting and washing before the concreting
▪ The faults, seams, weathered and shattered (weaken) rock mass need to be removed and the cement grouting
is applied in high pressures to fill up cracked pores in rock
▪ Grouting is a common words used for foundation treatment.

Types of grouting

Consolidated grouting:
It is applied to improve strength of dam foundation. Shallow holes (called B holes of 1’’ to 2’’ dia) of 10 to 15 m
deep situated at 5 to 20 m apart in the dam foundation area.
Mixture of cement and water called grout is forced into the holes at low pressure of about 30 to 40 N/cm^2 and
it is accomplished before concreting.

Curtain grouting
It is applied to form principal barrier or curtain against seepage through foundations near to heel area and reduce
uplift pressure.
Relatively deeper holes ( called A holes of 1’’ to 2’’ dia ) of depth 30 % to 40% of upstream water head (dam
height) for strong rock and up to 70% of the upstream water head (dam height) for poor rock are made in spacing
of 1.2 to 1.5 m apart.
The holes are drilled and grouted 10 to 12 m apart and then intermediate holes are drilled and grouted.
The grouting pressure is high =2.5 D N/cm^2 where D is the depth of grouting holes in m.

Clay slurry grouting are also used for general foundation treatment in earth fill embankment or dam which will
control seepage through the foundation reducing pipe failure and exit gradient or velocity, The process is same as
in a) and b) described above.

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HOW GROUTING IS USED IN DAM FOUNDATIONS?

http://users.tpg.com.au/houlsby1/Use.htm

Seepage control measures in Earthen Dam

Seepage control thorough Embankment
• Providing filters or drains
The drains in dam body reduces the pore water pressure in the
downstream portion of the dam and thus increases the stability
of the dam permitting steep slopes and thus economic in
construction.

Rock Toe or Toe Filter

L = 3*H or 25% to 100% of horizontal distance between the
center line of the Top width to the toe.

Horizontal Blanket or Horizontal Filter

drainage filter in inclined to the toe height of the rock toe 25% to
30% of H

Chimney Drain extending upwards into the

embankment: more effective

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Design of Filter or drains

• Neither the embankment nor the foundation materials can penetrate and clog the filters
• Permeability should be high
• Drain should be of sufficient to carry anticipated flow
• Filter should not contain more than 5% of material finer than 0.074 mm

𝐷15 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐷15 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙

< 4 𝑜𝑟 5 >
𝐷85 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐷15 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
The embankment soil or the foundation soil surrounding the filter , is known as base material.
Multi layers filters consisting of materials of increasing permeabilities from the bottom to top are known as
inverted filters.
The minimum total thickness of filter is 1 m.

Causes of failure of earth dams

Earth dams may fail due to faulty design,
improper construction and poor
maintenance practices, etc.

The various causes of failure may be

classified as: Seepage failure
a) Hydraulic failure ( 40% of dam failure) i. Piping through a dam body
b) Seepage failure (33% of dam failure) ii. Piping through foundation
c) Structure failure ( 25 % of dam failure) iii. Sloughing of the downstream

Hydraulic failure Structure failures

i. Overtopping i. Sliding due to weak foundation
ii. Erosion of the u/s face ii. Slides in embankment
iii. Erosion of downstream face by gully a. Failure of U/S slope during sudden
formation drawdown
iv. Erosion of d/s toe of dam by tail water b. Failure of D/S slope during steady
seepage

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Hydraulic failure
i. By overtopping

Hydraulic failure
i. By overtopping
➢ The water may overtop the dam, if design flood is under-estimated or if the spillway is of insufficient
capacity of if the spillway gates are not properly operated.
➢ Sufficient freeboard should therefore be provided as an additional safety measure.

ii.Erosion of U/S face

➢ The waves developed during near the top water surface due to the winds, try to notch-out the soil from
the upstream face and may even sometime cause the slip of the upstream slope.
➢ Upstream stone pitching or riprap should, therefore be provided to avoid such failures.

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Hydraulic failure
ii. Erosion of the upstream face

EROSION OF UPSTREAM FACE BY WAVES BREAKING ON THE UPSTREAM SURFACE

Hydraulic failure
iii. Erosion of the downstream face by gully formation

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Hydraulic failure
iii. Erosion of downstream face by gully formation
➢ Heavy rains directly falling over the downstream face and the erosive action of the moving water may
lead to formation of gullies on the downstream face, ultimately leading to the dam failure.
➢ It can be avoided by proper maintenance, filling of the cuts from time to time during rainy season and by
grassing of the slopes. Berm at suitable heights can be provided the break the length of slopes and
reduce the velocity of surface flow.

iv. Erosion of downstream toe

➢ The d/s toe of the earth dam may get eroded due to two reasons: (i) the erosion due to cross current
that may come form the spillway buckets; and (ii) the erosion due to tailwater.
➢ It can be avoided by providing a downstream slope pitching or a riprap up to a height slightly above the
normal tailwater depth. Side walls of the spillway must be of sufficient height and length so as to prevent
the possibility of cross flow towards the earthen embankment.

Hydraulic failure
iv. Erosion of the downstream toe

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Seepage failure
i. Piping through dam body
ii. Piping through foundation

Seepage failure
i. Piping through foundation
➢ When highly permeable cavities or fissures or strata of coarse sand or gravel are present in the
foundation of the dam, water may start seeping ta a huge rate which can erode the soil resulting in holes
below the foundation.
➢ The dam may sink down in the hollow so formed, causing its failure.
➢ Piping through foundation can be prevented by providing seepage control measure in the upstream like
impervious cut-off walls and u/s impervious blanket.

ii. Piping through dam body

➢ When concentrated flow channels develop in the body of the dam, soil can get removed due to flow
leading to formation of hollows in the dam body leading to formation of hollows and subsequent
subsidence of the dam.
➢ The flow channels are generally developed due to faulty construction, insufficient compaction, cracks
developed due to dam settlement etc
➢ It can be avoided by maintaining good quality control during construction. Seepage control measures like
rock toe (toe filter), horizontal blanket (horizontal filter) at the toe portion of the dam.

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Seepage failure
iii. Sloughing of downstream toe

Seepage failure
iii. Sloughing of downstream toe
➢ The process of failure due to sloughing starts when the downstream toe becomes saturated and gets
eroded, producing a small hump or miniature slide.
➢ The miniature slide leaves a relatively steep face which becomes saturated by the seepage form the
reservoir and slumps again. This continuous slumping reduces the thickness of the dam leading to the
subsequent failure.
➢ It can be avoided by providing seepage control measures like rock toe (toe filter), horizontal blanket
(horizontal filter) at the toe portion of the dam.

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Structural failures
• Structural failures are generally caused by shear failures, causing slides.

i. Failure due to weak foundation

Structural failures
i. Sliding due to weak foundation
➢ When the foundation of the earth dam are made of soft soils such as fine silt, soft clay etc, the entire
dam by slide over the foundation.
➢ Sometimes, seams of fissured rocks, shales or soft clay may exist under the foundation and the dam may
slide over some of them, causing its failure.
➢ In this type of failure, the top of embankment gets cracked and subsides, the lower slope moves outward
forming large mud waves near the heel.
➢ It can be avoided by proper preparation of the foundation and foundation treatment if the foundation is
weak.

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Structural failures
ii. Slides in embankment
When the embankment slopes are too steep for the strength of the soil, they may slide causing dam failure.

a. Failure of U/S slope during sudden drawdown

➢ The most critical condition for u/s slope is during sudden drawdown of the reservoir.
➢ It can be avoided by controlled release of the impounded water.

b. Failure of D/S slope during steady seepage

➢ The d/s slope is likely to fail when the reservoir is full causing a steady seepage. The increased seepage
reduces the shear strength of the soil leading to slope failures.
➢ It can be avoided by providing seepage control measures for seepage through the dam body.

Structural failures
ii. Slides in embankment
a. Failure of U/S slope during sudden drawdown
b. Failure of D/S slope during steady seepage

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Design criteria (design considerations) for Earthen Dams

1. Provision for Spillway
➢ Sufficient freeboard and outlets should be provided so as to avoid the possibility of overtopping
during the design flood.

2. Provision for freeboard

➢ To ensure safety against overtopping, spillway of sufficient capacity must be provided. But to ensure
additional safety, sufficient free board must be provided to prevent overtopping and to withstand
the wave action due to wind setup.

3. Control of seepage
➢ A fill of sufficiently low permeability should be developed out of the available materials using
proper compaction and proper construction techniques.
➢ The phreatic line should remain well within the downstream face of the dam, so that no sloughing
of the face occurs.
➢ Proper internal drainage arrangements like rock toe, horizontal filter must be provided to control
seepage through dam body.
➢ In case of zoned dams proper design of transition layer (transition filter) must be done.
➢ Hydraulic gradient and seepage velocities must be under accepted design levels.

Design criteria (design considerations) for Earthen Dams

4. Stability
➢ The u/s and d/s slopes should be designed so as to be stable under the worst conditions of loading.
➢ d/s slope must be designed under full reservoir condition under steady seepage.
➢ u/s slope must be designed under sudden drawdown condition.
➢ The u/s and d/s slope should be flat enough so as to provide sufficient base width at the foundation level ,
such that maximum shear stress developed remains well below the corresponding shear strength of the soil.

5. Provision of stone pitching and ripraps

➢ The u/s face should be properly protected against wave action, and the d/s face against rain and erosion due to
tail water. The u/s face is protected by providing stone pitching up to certain level above maximum water level
and d/s face is protected by stone pitching up to the tailwater level and then grassing above the tailwater level.

6. Width of crest
➢ The crest should be wide enough to withstand wave action.

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Selection of a suitable preliminary section of earthen dam

1. Top width
➢ The top width of large earthen dams should be sufficient to keep the seepage line well within the dam, when
reservoir is full. It should also be sufficient to withstand earthquake shocks and wave action.

where, H= height of the dam

Selection of a suitable preliminary section of earthen dam

2. Freeboard
➢ The minimum height of the freeboard for wave action is generally taken to be equal to 1.5*hw (where hw is the
height of the wave).

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Selection of a suitable preliminary section of earthen dam

3. Upstream and downstream slopes
➢ The recommended values of side slopes as given by Terzaghi are tabulated in the table below.

Seepage Discharge Using Flow Net

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