Question 6.

4:

To estimate the wavelength of optical emission from the injection laser, we can use the
relationship between energy and wavelength:

E = hc/λ

Where: E is the energy (in electron volts, eV) h is the Planck's constant (4.135667696 x
10^-15 eV*s) c is the speed of light (2.998 x 10^8 m/s) λ is the wavelength (in meters)

Given that the bandgap energy (E) of the GaAs active region is 1.43 eV, we can
substitute the known values into the equation to solve for λ:

1.43 eV = (4.135667696 x 10^-15 eV*s * 2.998 x 10^8 m/s) / λ

Simplifying the equation:

λ = (4.135667696 x 10^-15 eV*s * 2.998 x 10^8 m/s) / 1.43 eV

λ ≈ 8.687 x 10^-7 m or 868.7 nm

Therefore, the estimated wavelength of optical emission from the injection laser is
approximately 868.7 nm.

To determine the linewidth in hertz, we can use the relationship between wavelength
and frequency:

λ=c/f

Where: λ is the wavelength (in meters) c is the speed of light (2.998 x 10^8 m/s) f is the
frequency (in hertz)

Given that the measured spectral width is 0.1 nm, we need to convert it to meters:

Δλ = 0.1 nm = 0.1 x 10^-9 m

Now we can substitute the values into the equation to solve for the linewidth:

0.1 x 10^-9 m = (2.998 x 10^8 m/s) / f

Simplifying the equation:

f = (2.998 x 10^8 m/s) / (0.1 x 10^-9 m)

f ≈ 2.998 x 10^18 Hz

Therefore, the linewidth of the injection laser is approximately 2.998 x 10^18 Hz

Question 6.5:

To determine the properties related to laser operation at a wavelength of 1.5 μm, we

can use the given information:

(a) The laser emission mode index (m) can be calculated using the refractive index (n) of
the InGaAsP active region:

m=n*L/λ

Where: m is the laser emission mode index n is the refractive index of the InGaAsP active
region (given as 3.5) L is the active cavity length (given as 400 μm, which is equivalent to
400 x 10^-6 m) λ is the wavelength of operation (given as 1.5 μm, which is equivalent to
1.5 x 10^-6 m)

Substituting the values into the equation:

m = 3.5 * (400 x 10^-6 m) / (1.5 x 10^-6 m)

m ≈ 9.333

Therefore, the laser emission mode index is approximately 9.333.

(b) The eligible number of wavelengths inside the cavity (N) can be determined using
the active cavity length (L) and the wavelength of operation (λ):

N=L/λ

Substituting the values:

N = (400 x 10^-6 m) / (1.5 x 10^-6 m)

N ≈ 266.667
Therefore, the eligible number of wavelengths inside the cavity is approximately
266.667.

(c) The frequency separation of the modes (Δf) in the active cavity can be calculated
using the speed of light (c), the wavelength of operation (λ), and the eligible number of
wavelengths (N):

Δf = c / (N * λ)

Where: Δf is the frequency separation of the modes c is the speed of light (2.998 x 10^8
m/s) N is the eligible number of wavelengths (approximately 266.667) λ is the
wavelength of operation (1.5 x 10^-6 m)

Substituting the values:

Δf = (2.998 x 10^8 m/s) / (266.667 * 1.5 x 10^-6 m)

Δf ≈ 797.903 x 10^12 Hz or 797.903 THz

Therefore, the frequency separation of the modes in the active cavity required to
produce constructive interference is approximately 797.903 THz.

Question 6.8:

2/2
The operation of an injection laser, also known as a semiconductor laser or diode laser,
is based on the principle of stimulated emission of photons in a semiconductor material.
Here is a brief explanation of the principles of operation along with a diagram:

Principles of Operation:

1. Active Region: The injection laser consists of a semiconductor material with a

specific bandgap energy in its active region. When electrons and holes recombine
within this region, it leads to the emission of photons.
2. PN Junction: The active region is sandwiched between two heavily doped
semiconductor layers, one p-type and the other n-type, creating a PN junction.
The p-side is rich in positive charge carriers (holes), while the n-side has an excess
of negative charge carriers (electrons).
 3. Biasing: The PN junction is biased in the forward direction by applying a voltage
across the device. This forward biasing creates an electric field that aids in the
injection and recombination of electrons and holes in the active region.
4. Carrier Injection: As the forward bias voltage is applied, electrons from the n-side
and holes from the p-side are injected into the active region. This process is
facilitated by the difference in energy levels between the valence band of the p-
side and the conduction band of the n-side.
5. Radiative Recombination: Within the active region, electrons and holes combine,
resulting in radiative recombination. This recombination process releases energy
in the form of photons, generating light.
6. Optical Feedback: The active region is enclosed between two partially reflective
mirrors or facets. These mirrors provide optical feedback by reflecting a portion
of the generated light back into the active region, creating an optical resonator.
7. Laser Emission: The reflected photons undergo multiple reflections between the
mirrors, amplifying the light through stimulated emission. The amplified photons
aligned in the same direction and phase escape through the partially transmitting
mirror, resulting in a laser beam.

Diagram:

mathematicaCopy code
_______________ | | ________| Active | | | Region | | |_______________| | ^ | | | | | | | | ______|____
| | | PN | | | | Junction | | | |___________| | | | | | | | | | | | _______|______ | | | | | |______|
Reflective |__| | Mirror | |______________|

Semiconductor Materials for Wavelength Range 0.8 to 1.7 μm: To cover the wavelength
range of 0.8 to 1.7 μm, different semiconductor materials are used due to their specific
bandgap energies. Here are some commonly used materials and the reasons for their
choice:

1. Gallium Arsenide (GaAs): GaAs is suitable for emission in the near-infrared range,
including the 0.8 to 0.9 μm region. It has a direct bandgap energy suitable for
efficient light emission and is widely used due to its mature technology and well-
established fabrication processes.
2. Indium Phosphide (InP): InP is commonly used for emission in the range of 1.0 to
1.7 μm. It also has a direct bandgap energy that matches this wavelength range.
InP-based lasers offer good performance and reliability for applications in
telecommunications and fiber optics.
3. Indium Gallium Arsenide (InGaAs): By varying the composition of Indium (In) and
Gallium Arsenide (
Question 6.9:

(a) AlyGa1−yAs/AlxGal−xAs: The range of bandgap energies for AlyGa1−yAs/AlxGal−xAs

can be determined by considering the range of compositions for aluminum (Al) and
gallium (Ga) in the alloy. The bandgap energy of the alloy can be approximated using a
linear interpolation between the bandgap energies of AlAs (Eg_AlAs) and GaAs
(Eg_GaAs).

The bandgap energy of the alloy can be expressed as: Eg = (1 - y) * Eg_AlAs + y *

Eg_GaAs

where y is the composition of GaAs in the alloy.

Similarly, the range of bandgap energies for AlxGal−xAs can be determined by

considering the range of compositions for aluminum (Al) and gallium (Ga) in the alloy.
The bandgap energy of the alloy can be approximated using a linear interpolation
between the bandgap energies of AlAs (Eg_AlAs) and GaAs (Eg_GaAs).

The bandgap energy of the alloy can be expressed as: Eg = (1 - x) * Eg_AlAs + x *

Eg_GaAs

where x is the composition of GaAs in the alloy.

Therefore, the range of bandgap energies for AlyGa1−yAs/AlxGal−xAs depends on the

specific values of y and x chosen within the allowed compositional range.

(b) In1−xGaxAsyP1−y/InP: Similar to the previous case, the range of bandgap energies
for In1−xGaxAsyP1−y/InP can be determined by considering the range of compositions
for indium (In), gallium (Ga), arsenic (As), and phosphorus (P) in the alloy. The bandgap
energy of the alloy can be approximated using a linear interpolation between the
bandgap energies of InP (Eg_InP) and InAs (Eg_InAs) for the phosphide-arsenide system.

The bandgap energy of the alloy can be expressed as: Eg = (1 - y) * (1 - x) * Eg_InP + (1 -

y) * x * Eg_InAs

where x is the composition of GaAs in the alloy and y is the composition of InP in the
alloy.

Therefore, the range of bandgap energies for In1−xGaxAsyP1−y/InP depends on the

specific values of x and y chosen within the allowed compositional range.
 Or
(a) AlyGa1−yAs/AlxGal−xAs: The range of bandgap energies for AlyGa1−yAs/AlxGal−xAs
alloys depends on the values of y and x, which represent the compositions of Aluminum
(Al) and Gallium (Ga) in the alloy, respectively.

For AlyGa1−yAs, the bandgap energy (Eg) can be approximated using the formula:

Eg(AlyGa1−yAs) = y * Eg(GaAs) + (1 - y) * Eg(AlAs)

Where: Eg(GaAs) is the bandgap energy of GaAs (approximately 1.43 eV) Eg(AlAs) is the
bandgap energy of AlAs (approximately 2.16 eV)

Similarly, for AlxGal−xAs, the bandgap energy can be approximated as:

Eg(AlxGal−xAs) = x * Eg(GaAs) + (1 - x) * Eg(AlAs)

Therefore, the range of bandgap energies for the AlyGa1−yAs/AlxGal−xAs alloy system
would span from the minimum value of min(Eg(AlyGa1−yAs), Eg(AlxGal−xAs)) to the
maximum value of max(Eg(AlyGa1−yAs), Eg(AlxGal−xAs)), depending on the specific
values of y and x chosen within their compositional ranges.

(b) In1−xGaxAsyP1−y/InP: Similar to the previous case, the range of bandgap energies
for In1−xGaxAsyP1−y/InP alloys depends on the values of x and y, which represent the
compositions of Indium (In), Gallium (Ga), Arsenic (As), and Phosphorus (P) in the alloy.

The bandgap energy of In1−xGaxAsyP1−y can be estimated using the following

empirical relationship:

Eg(In1−xGaxAsyP1−y) = (1 - x) * Eg(InP) + x * Eg(GaAs) - (y * x * ΔEg)

Where: Eg(InP) is the bandgap energy of InP (approximately 1.35 eV) Eg(GaAs) is the
bandgap energy of GaAs (approximately 1.43 eV) ΔEg represents the bowing parameter
related to the change in bandgap energy due to the alloy composition.

The range of bandgap energies for In1−xGaxAsyP1−y/InP alloys would depend on the
specific values of x and y chosen within their compositional ranges, similar to the
previous case.
Question 6.10:

To estimate the gain factor (B) for the DH injection laser, we can use the relationship
between the threshold current (Ith), the loss coefficient (α), and the mirror reflectivity (R):

B = Ith / (α * (1 - R)^2)

Where: B is the gain factor Ith is the threshold current (given as 50 mA, which is
equivalent to 0.05 A) α is the loss coefficient (given as 10 cm^(-1), which is equivalent to
1000 m^(-1)) R is the mirror reflectivity (given as 0.3)

Substituting the values into the equation:

B = 0.05 A / (1000 m^(-1) * (1 - 0.3)^2)

B = 0.05 / (1000 * 0.7^2) A

B ≈ 1.02 x 10^(-5) A^(-1)

Therefore, the estimated gain factor (B) for the DH injection laser is approximately 1.02 x
10^(-5) A^(-1).

or
To estimate the gain factor (B) for the DH injection laser, we can use the following
formula:

B = (2 * R / L) * ln(1 / (1 - R))

Where: R is the mirror reflectivity (0.3) L is the optical cavity length (50 μm)

First, we need to convert the dimensions from micrometers (μm) to centimeters (cm):

L = 50 μm = 50 x 10^-4 cm

Substituting the values into the formula:

B = (2 * 0.3 / (50 x 10^-4)) * ln(1 / (1 - 0.3))

B = (0.6 / (50 x 10^-4)) * ln(1 / 0.7)

B = (0.6 / (50 x 10^-4)) * ln(1.4286)

B ≈ 8.5714

Therefore, the estimated gain factor for the DH injection laser is approximately 8.5714.

Question 6.11:

To estimate the loss coefficient in the optical cavity of the injection laser, we can use the
following formula:

α = (1/L) * ln(1/(T1 * T2 * exp(-β * Jth)))

Where: α is the loss coefficient L is the optical cavity length (350 μm) T1 and T2 are the
mirror reflectivities at the ends of the cavity (0.5 and 0.65, respectively) β is the gain
factor (22 × 10^-3 cm A^-1) Jth is the threshold current density (2 × 10^3 A cm^-2)

First, we need to convert the dimensions from micrometers (μm) to centimeters (cm):

L = 350 μm = 350 x 10^-4 cm

Substituting the given values into the formula:

α = (1/(350 x 10^-4)) * ln(1/(0.5 * 0.65 * exp(-22 × 10^-3 * 2 × 10^3)))

α = (1/(350 x 10^-4)) * ln(1/(0.5 * 0.65 * exp(-44)))

α = (1/(350 x 10^-4)) * ln(1/(0.5 * 0.65 * 2.4155 x 10^-19))

α ≈ 7.706 cm^-1

Therefore, the estimated loss coefficient in the optical cavity is approximately 7.706
cm^-1.
Or
To estimate the loss coefficient in the optical cavity of the injection laser, we can use the
threshold current density (Jth), the gain factor (β), and the mirror reflectivity values (R1
and R2) at either end of the cavity. The loss coefficient (α) can be calculated using the
following equation:
α = (Jth / β) * ln(1 / (R1 * R2))

Given: Jth = 2 × 10^3 A/cm^2 β = 22 × 10^(-3) cm^(-1) R1 = 0.5 R2 = 0.65 L = 350 μm

Converting the length from micrometers (μm) to centimeters (cm):

L = 350 μm = 350 x 10^(-4) cm

Substituting the values into the formula:

α = (2 × 10^3 A/cm^2 / (22 × 10^(-3) cm^(-1))) * ln(1 / (0.5 * 0.65))

α = (2 × 10^3 / 22) * ln(1 / 0.325)

α = 90.909 * ln(3.0769)

Using the natural logarithm of 3.0769, we find:

ln(3.0769) ≈ 1.123

Substituting the value back into the equation:

α ≈ 90.909 * 1.123

α ≈ 102.081 cm^(-1)

Therefore, the estimated loss coefficient in the optical cavity is approximately 102.081
cm^(-1).

Question 6.13:

To calculate the internal quantum efficiency of the gallium arsenide injection laser, we
can use the measured differential external quantum efficiency (ηd) and the loss
coefficient (α). The internal quantum efficiency (ηi) is related to these parameters
through the equation:

ηi = ηd / (1 - (α * L))

Given: ηd = 45% (or 0.45) α = 20 cm^(-1) L = 500 μm

First, we need to convert the length from micrometers (μm) to centimeters (cm):
L = 500 μm = 500 x 10^(-4) cm

Substituting the values into the equation:

ηi = 0.45 / (1 - (20 cm^(-1) * 500 x 10^(-4) cm))

ηi = 0.45 / (1 - 0.1)

ηi = 0.45 / 0.9

ηi = 0.5

Therefore, the internal quantum efficiency of the gallium arsenide injection laser is 50%
or 0.5.
Or

3/3
To calculate the internal quantum efficiency of the gallium arsenide injection laser, we
need to consider the loss coefficient (α), the cavity length (L), and the refractive index (n)
of gallium arsenide.

The internal quantum efficiency (ηint) can be determined using the following formula:

ηint = 1 - exp(-2αL/n)

Given: α = 20 cm^(-1) L = 500 μm = 500 x 10^(-4) cm n = 3.6

Substituting the values into the formula:

ηint = 1 - exp(-2 * 20 * 500 x 10^(-4) / 3.6)

ηint = 1 - exp(-0.5556)

Using the exponential function, we find:

exp(-0.5556) ≈ 0.574

Substituting the value back into the equation:

ηint ≈ 1 - 0.574
ηint ≈ 0.426

Therefore, the internal quantum efficiency of the gallium arsenide injection laser is
approximately 42.6%.

Question 6.16:

To estimate the required threshold current at a temperature of 60 °C for the AlGaAs

laser, we need to consider the threshold current density (Jth) at 15 °C, the threshold
temperature coefficient (T0), and the change in temperature (∆T) from 15 °C to 60 °C.

The threshold current (Ith) can be calculated using the following formula:

Ith = Jth * A

Where: Jth is the threshold current density at 15 °C (3000 A/cm²) A is the area of the
contact stripe (20 × 100 μm²)

First, we need to convert the dimensions from micrometers (μm) to centimeters (cm):

A = (20 μm) * (100 μm) = (20 × 10^-4 cm) * (100 × 10^-4 cm) = 2 × 10^-3 cm²

Now, we calculate the threshold current at 15 °C:

Ith(15°C) = Jth * A = 3000 A/cm² * 2 × 10^-3 cm²

Ith(15°C) = 6 A

Next, we calculate the change in temperature (∆T) from 15 °C to 60 °C:

∆T = 60 °C - 15 °C = 45 °C

Finally, we estimate the required threshold current at 60 °C using the threshold

temperature coefficient (T0):

Ith(60°C) = Ith(15°C) * exp(T0 * ∆T)

Ith(60°C) = 6 A * exp(180 K * 45 °C)

Using the Kelvin-Celsius conversion (1 K = 1 °C), we have:

Ith(60°C) = 6 A * exp(180 * 45)

Ith(60°C) ≈ 6 A * exp(8100)

Using the exponential function, we find:

exp(8100) ≈ 2.371 x 10^35

Substituting the value back into the equation:

Ith(60°C) ≈ 6 A * 2.371 x 10^35

Therefore, the estimated required threshold current at a temperature of 60 °C for the

AlGaAs laser is approximately 1.4226 x 10^36 A.

Or
To estimate the required threshold current at a temperature of 60 °C for the AlGaAs
laser, we can use the threshold current density (Jth) at 15 °C, the threshold temperature
coefficient (T0), and the change in temperature (ΔT).

Given: Jth = 3000 A/cm^2 (at 15 °C) T0 = 180 K (threshold temperature coefficient) ΔT =
60 °C - 15 °C = 45 °C

First, we need to calculate the change in threshold current density (ΔJth) due to the
change in temperature:

ΔJth = T0 * ΔT

ΔJth = 180 K * 45 °C

ΔJth = 8100 A/cm^2

Next, we can calculate the required threshold current (Ith) at 60 °C by multiplying the
change in threshold current density by the area of the contact stripe:

Ith = ΔJth * (contact stripe area)

Given: Contact stripe dimensions: 20 × 100 μm

Converting the dimensions from micrometers (μm) to centimeters (cm):

Contact stripe width (W) = 20 μm = 20 x 10^(-4) cm Contact stripe length (L) = 100 μm
= 100 x 10^(-4) cm

Calculating the contact stripe area (A):

A=W*L

A = (20 x 10^(-4) cm) * (100 x 10^(-4) cm)

A = 2 x 10^(-3) cm^2

Substituting the values into the formula:

Ith = 8100 A/cm^2 * 2 x 10^(-3) cm^2

Ith = 16.2 A

Therefore, the estimated required threshold current at a temperature of 60 °C is

approximately 16.2 A.

External modulators, specifically Electro-Optic Modulators (EOM) and Electro-

Absorption Modulators (EAM), utilize the Pockels effect and Franz-Keldysh effect,
respectively, for manipulating the intensity or phase of an optical signal. These
modulators play a crucial role in optical communication systems and other applications
that require fast and efficient modulation of light. Let's discuss each of these effects in
more detail:

1. Pockels Effect: The Pockels effect, also known as the electro-optic effect, is a
phenomenon in which the refractive index of a material changes in response to
an applied electric field. This effect is exploited in electro-optic modulators, such
as Pockels cells, which can control the phase or polarization of light passing
through them.

The Pockels effect relies on the electro-optic coefficient of a material, denoted as r.

When an electric field is applied to a material with a non-zero electro-optic coefficient,
the refractive index of the material changes proportionally to the applied electric field.
This change in refractive index alters the phase of the transmitted light, allowing for
modulation.
Pockels modulators often use crystals like Lithium Niobate (LiNbO3) or Lithium Tantalate
(LiTaO3), which exhibit a significant electro-optic effect. By applying an electric field
across the crystal, the refractive index is modified, enabling the modulation of the
transmitted light.

2. Franz-Keldysh Effect: The Franz-Keldysh effect is another electro-optic effect used

in external modulators, particularly electro-absorption modulators. Unlike Pockels
modulators that manipulate the phase of light, Franz-Keldysh modulators control
the absorption characteristics of the material.

The Franz-Keldysh effect occurs in a semiconductor material when an electric field is

applied. It leads to a shift in the bandgap energy and changes the absorption
characteristics of the material. By varying the electric field, the absorption of light
passing through the material can be modified, enabling intensity modulation.

In Franz-Keldysh modulators, semiconductor materials like Indium Gallium Arsenide

(InGaAs) or Indium Phosphide (InP) are commonly used. The bandgap energy of the
semiconductor material can be tuned by applying an electric field across the device,
allowing for efficient intensity modulation of the transmitted light.

Both the Pockels effect and Franz-Keldysh effect are essential in external modulators,
providing versatile means of manipulating light for various applications in optical
communications, fiber optic networks, laser systems, and optical sensing.

b)
Q-switching and mode-locking are techniques used in pulse lasers to generate short
and intense laser pulses. These techniques are particularly important in pulsed lasers,
such as pulsed mode (PM) lasers, to achieve high peak powers and ultrafast pulse
durations. Let's explore Q-switching and mode-locking in more detail:

1. Q-switching: Q-switching is a method used to produce short and high-energy

laser pulses by manipulating the quality factor (Q-factor) of the laser cavity. The
Q-factor represents the ratio of energy stored in the laser cavity to the energy
dissipated per cycle.

In Q-switched lasers, an active Q-switch is employed to rapidly control the loss or

transmission of the laser cavity. The Q-switch is typically an electro-optic or acousto-
optic device that can rapidly change its optical properties in response to an external
signal.
The Q-switch is initially set to a high-loss state, preventing laser oscillation and allowing
the population inversion to build up in the gain medium. When a high-energy pulse is
desired, the Q-switch is rapidly switched to a low-loss state, allowing the stored energy
in the gain medium to be released as a short and intense laser pulse. This sudden
change from high-loss to low-loss state causes a rapid build-up of the laser emission,
resulting in a high peak power pulse.

Q-switching is widely used in applications such as laser marking, material processing,

range finding, and medical procedures like tattoo removal. Common Q-switching
techniques include electro-optic Q-switching and acousto-optic Q-switching.

2. Mode-locking: Mode-locking is a technique used to generate a train of ultrashort

laser pulses with a very high pulse repetition rate. In mode-locked lasers, the laser
cavity is designed to support multiple longitudinal modes, and the laser gain
medium can produce short pulses with a wide spectral bandwidth.

Mode-locking is achieved by creating a balance between the round-trip time of the laser
cavity and the gain recovery time of the laser medium. This balance is accomplished by
using an optical device called a mode-locking mechanism, which can be an external
modulator, saturable absorber, or a combination of both.

The mode-locking mechanism selectively amplifies or attenuates different longitudinal

modes of the laser, causing them to synchronize and interfere constructively. This
synchronization leads to the formation of ultrashort pulses with durations typically in
the femtosecond or picosecond range.

Mode-locked lasers are extensively used in various applications such as scientific

research, ultrafast spectroscopy, micromachining, and telecommunications.
Femtosecond lasers, which are based on mode-locking techniques, enable the study of
ultrafast phenomena and have revolutionized fields like nonlinear optics and ultrafast
laser spectroscopy.

In summary, Q-switching and mode-locking are techniques employed in pulse lasers to

generate short and intense laser pulses. Q-switching enables the generation of high-
energy pulses, while mode-locking allows for the production of ultrashort pulses with
high repetition rates. These techniques find broad applications in areas where precise
control of pulse duration, peak power, and pulse repetition rate is required.