Designing For The Climate Emergency

© RIBA Publishing, 2022
Published by RIBA Publishing, 66 Portland Place, London, W1B 1AD
ISBN 978 1 85946 964 4
The rights of Sofe Pelsmakers, Elizabeth Donovan, Aidan Hoggard and Urszula
Kozminska to be identifed as the Authors of this Work have been asserted in
accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 sections 77 and 78.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission of the copyright owner.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Commissioning Editor: Alex White
Assistant Editor: Scarlet Furness
Production: Sarah-Louise Deazley
Designed and typeset by Sara Miranda Icaza
Printed and bound by Short Run Press, Exeter
While every effort has been made to check the accuracy and quality of the information
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[Any other information can go here]
DOI: 10.4324/9781003297246
V About the Authors
VI Acknowledgements
VII Introduction
1 CHAPTER 0
CLIMATE EMERGENCY FUNDAMENTALS
16 CHAPTER 1
EXPLORING YOUR CONTEXT – RESEARCHING
AND ANALYSING YOUR SITE (STEP 1)
65 CHAPTER 2
DEFINING A DESIGN CONCEPT,
AND CREATING VALUES AND GOALS (STEP 2)
106 CHAPTER 3
IMAGINING CLIMATE EMERGENCY
DESIGN STRATEGIES (STEP 3)
146 CHAPTER 4
TESTING AND DEVELOPING CLIMATE
EMERGENCY DESIGN STRATEGIES (STEP 4)
216 CHAPTER 5
VALIDATING AND COMMUNICATING
YOUR APPROACH (STEPS 4 AND 5)
265 Afterword
266 Annex I: Technical insulation data table
267 Annex II: Worked example of U-value calculation
268 Glossary
273 Further reading
274 References
277 Index
282 Image credits
This book is dedicated to all our students, who
as future architects are the change we need.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Sof ie Pelsmakers (she/her) is an environmental architect, educator

and researcher. She is author of The Environmental Design
Pocketbook, co-author of Energy | People | Buildings: Making
Sustainable Architecture Work and co-guest editor of Design Studio
Volume 1: Everything Needs to Change: Architecture and the Climate
Emergency. Her research and teaching focuses on holistic sustainable
architecture and the resilience and capacity of people and living
environments to respond to and adapt to current and anticipated
societal and climatic challenges. Sofe is actively engaged in making a
difference in architecture by training the next generation of architects
and infuencing those in practice through her teaching, publications,
and public speaking/workshops. She is currently Associate Professor
at Tampere University, Finland, where she teaches sustainable
architecture and chairs the ASUTUT Sustainable Housing Design
research group.
Elizabeth Donovan (she/her) is an educator, researcher and architect

with a focus in holistic sustainable architecture, specialising broadly
on the plethora of design approaches, history and theory, lexicon, and
bridging discourse and practice within the feld. She is passionate
about making a difference through education and combines research
and different pedagogies to ensure designing for the climate
emergency is integrated into studio learning environments. She is
currently an Associate Professor in Sustainable Architecture at Aarhus
School of Architecture in Denmark.
Aidan Hoggard (he/him) is an architect and educator with a focus on

holistic sustainable design and architectural education in a climate
emergency. In his teaching Aidan brings technical approaches
for simulation and validation into holistic design frameworks and
encourages students to integrate iterative, performance-informed
design. He is currently Director of Learning and Teaching and
co-leader of the MSc in Sustainable Architecture at the School of
Architecture at Sheffeld University in the UK. In his spare time he is
working towards a doctorate in education.
Ula Kozminska (she/her) is an architect, researcher and educator with

a focus on circular architecture, materials and structures, designing
with reused materials and for future reuse, and implications of circular
design for urban planning. Her current research and teaching involves
investigations into holistic approaches to sustainable architecture in the
Nordic region, with emphasis on circularity and participation, inclusive
design and eco-feminist theory. She is currently Associate Professor in
Sustainable Architecture in Aarhus School of Architecture, Denmark.
V
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This book builds on many before it, and on years of teaching,

researching (and practising) sustainable architecture. The book is also
in many ways a refection of our own teaching practices and is based
on discussion with each other, our students and fellow colleagues over
the years about the diffculty of integrating sustainability knowledge
into design projects. We are indebted to our hundreds of students and
several colleagues for their work and our enriching discussions and
insights. It simply would not exist without them. The book would also
not exist without all our students whose work is included to illustrate
key principles and plurality in climate emergency design approaches.
While there are too many to mention here, the following individuals
supported and encouraged and infuenced our sustainability teaching
practices and insights more than they will ever know over the years:
David Bass, Stephen Choi, Jenni Poutanen, Essi Nisonen, Dalia Milian-
Bernal, Panu Lehtovuori, Fionn Stevenson, Walter Unterrainer and
Thomas Hilberth.
We also would like to thank the anonymous peer reviewers and our
student reviewers, who helped direct us at crucial stages: Alexander
Throm, Claire Wilkinson, Damien Poblete, Eetu Hyvönen, Eleanor
Derbyshire, Elin Keyser, Elina Luotonen, Essi Nisonen, James Harrington,
Heidi Sukanen, Hugo Shackleton, Jenny Catinka Bjerketvedt, Kristian
Knorr Jensen, Marian Alkali, Mario Kolkwitz, Michael Jenkins, Nelly
Therese Melberg, Nick Cole and Phuong Uyen Nguyen. Thank you also
to the RIBA publishing team, in particular Alex White as our editor and
the production team led by Sarah-Louise Deazley.
This book also received generous sponsorship from Tampere
University, the Faculty of the Built Environment in Finland and the
Aarhus School of Architecture in Denmark for assistance with image
production. Specifcally, thank you to Essi Nisonen, Annika Korhonen,
Eetu Lehmusvaara, Tuulia Kivistö, Henri Käpynen and Rasmus Gregor
Jørgensen.
Finally, Sofe would like to thank her co-authors, as she cannot
imagine having embarked on this adventure without them. For moral
support and encouragement, a special thank you to Essi, Federico,
Jenni, Marleena, Sini and Raul. Liz would like to thank her co-authors
for this exciting challenge, her students for being content guinea
pigs and her family and friends for moral support. Aidan would like to
thank his wonderful co-authors for the best working relationship ever.
Also Karim Hadjri, Daniel Jary and Ian Hicklin for support throughout
the writing of this book. Ula would like to thank her co-authors for
guidance, discussions and determination. For moral support, a special
thank you to her family, Kinga, Iza and Zbyszek.
More material can be found on www.arch4change.com.
VI
INTRODUCTION
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Sixth

Assessment Report came out while we were writing this book, in the
midst of a year in which records were broken in different parts of the
world (e.g., the hottest temperatures recorded, the longest heatwaves,
the worst wildfres, with droughts in some parts and foods in others).
Climate change is not distant. It is real, and it is already happening. We
are in a climate emergency.
This is because globally, we have been burning fossil fuels such as
coal, oil and natural gas at an incredible rate and scale. These human
processes release CO2 (and other) emissions into the atmosphere that
change the climate and intolerably heat up the very planet that has
sheltered us for millions of years.
The urgency and scale of the transformation that is needed is
unprecedented. Failure is not an option: with every degree that global
temperatures rise (it is already 1.1°C globally, and we’re trying to limit
that rise to 1.5°C), we risk unhinging ecosystems further, leading to
more extreme events and increased loss of lives, livelihoods, homes
and cities, and devastation to the natural world.
That is why each country is shifting towards a zero-carbon or carbon-
neutral society. But this can only be achieved if we also stop using
fossil fuels for the construction and operation of the buildings we
design, and transform and start using the available resources we have
responsibly on a global scale. In the EU, built environment processes
are responsible for 36% of the CO2 emissions alone. And it is not just
CO2 that matters: every minute of the day, we use resources that can
never again be replenished and that create waste, destroy natural
and human habitats, and pollute the air, water and soil we rely on,
jeopardising human life and wellbeing, and other species. Design
choices we make affect people and communities thousands of
miles away. We import cheaper materials from regions halfway across
the world and ignore the environmental and human costs of doing so.
It is undeniable that our decisions in the architect’s offce signifcantly
contribute to environmental and ecological impacts, such as the
deforestation of tropical forests, local resource depletion and scarcity,
and global heating that melts ice caps, drowning islands and low-lying
countries. As a result, the crisis we face now is different, more serious
and more urgent than those that came before.
Even if the world stopped emitting greenhouse gases today, we
would not escape the effects of climate change. Signifcant changes
in the type, frequency, intensity, duration and distribution of climate-
induced hazards can be expected, even under relatively modest
climate change scenarios. For example, an increase in temperature
of 2°C is likely to result in the extinction of 15–40% of all species. A 3°C
or 4°C increase will result in millions of people being displaced due to
VII
DESIGNING FOR THE CLIMATE EMERGENCY
fooding. A rise of 4°C or more is likely to seriously affect global food

production.1 There is no denying that adaptation to climate change is
necessary for our survival and should be a priority for all of us.
As architects, we are co-creators and custodians of the built
environment. Therefore, we are jointly responsible for the current
climate and ecological crises. As architects, we can – and must –
be part of the radical change needed, and we must understand
the impact of local decisions on the global scale. Despite this
awareness, almost every architecture project continues to contribute
to the current climate crisis, injustices and ecological breakdowns
worldwide. Instead, our architectural responses need to be drastically
different than they have been so far. Every single project needs to not
only minimise but reverse these damaging processes immediately
› see Glossary and create a positive and restorative impact › – this is an essential
and Note 1.02 part of a climate emergency design approach.
We must make an urgent shift in the values we hold, and how and
why we do things. There is no room for error. Instead of seeing
this as alarmist or an attack on our creative pursuits, it requires
determination, conviction and optimism to trust that we are part of
the solution, not the problem. And it requires more, not less, creative
thinking.
HOW TO USE THIS BOOK
This book guides you as an architecture student to create truly

sustainable designs, refecting the urgency of the necessary climate
emergency actions – not only minimising the damaging impacts
of building, but also focusing on leaving a positive legacy. The book
tackles the quadruple challenges of the climate emergency:
• adapting to a changing climate

• climate change mitigation (ensuring our actions don’t exacerbate
the crisis further)
• creating positive and restorative designs
• improving climate justice locally and globally.
It also takes a baseline position that your design should meet the
needs of the current users and climate, while also being suitable
beyond 2100. What this all means is explored further in the book.
The book focuses on holistic design approaches through 10 key
climate emergency design themes, going beyond the urgent energy
and CO2 solutions, and ensuring that consistently high values in all
areas of sustainable architecture are integrated into your design
projects. We often refer to these simply as ‘themes’ in the text.
Uniquely, the book is structured around the fve different stages of
the design process through six illustrated chapters. It focuses on the
climate emergency at each stage – what you should think about, and
when you should think about it. The book also refects the years of
study, and what a Year 1 or Year 3 student should aim for, leading to
VIII
INTRODUCTION
step-changes towards eventual architecture practice. Given the design

process focus, this book will also be helpful to architectural design
teachers and those in practice.
A particular theme can also be traced throughout the book for a
more thorough understanding through the use of internal references
(signposted with an arrow ›). You can read the book in one stretch,
or dip in and out as you are moving through your design process,
or when you are tackling specifc topics. It is intended to be used in
conjunction with your architectural studies and is not intended to
cover basic architecture teaching or be used without peer or teacher
support, but as an integrated part of this process.
Other unique features:
• Key information and extra notes are drawn out from the main
text for ease of use. This includes useful information for work in
practice.
• Key recommendation checklists are included to help you through
the design process, evaluating your own design or those of others
(see Chapter 5, Section 5.4.1. on how to use them).
• An extensive glossary of key terms is provided, referred to in the
book margin with an arrow (›).
› see Note 0.03 • The UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) ›, the RIBA 2030
› see Note 0.04 Sustainable Outcomes metrics › and the RIBA Plan of Work
› see Note 0.09 › are signposted. The book’s learnings exceed the minimum EU
criteria for architecture education and are aligned with the UK’s
ARB and RIBA 2021 sustainability criteria.
• Key readings, case study projects and student examples are
suggested for further in-depth study and inspiration. We have
› See Figure 1 selected over 200 case studies › that demonstrate aspects of
high-quality climate emergency design and illustrate one or more
of the themes. Projects are unlikely to be exemplary across all
themes due to the constraints that exist in current practice, but
we have selected examples that offer learning and inspiration
in specifc themes. These and other case studies also feature on
www.arch4change.com.
STRUCTURE OF THE BOOK
The book is structured as follows:
• Chapter 0 explains what holistic, sustainable architecture is and

sets out how to achieve this through the 10 key climate emergency
design themes and the fve design steps (explore, defne, imagine,
test, feedback), including how to use them.
• Chapter 1 guides you through the frst step of the design process,
including why context matters and how to kick off your contextual
explorations, guided by the 10 climate emergency design themes.
• Chapter 2 follows by creating goals and concepts for your design in
the climate emergency, illustrated by different sustainable design
approaches.
IX
• Chapter 3 focuses on key design recommendations to help your

design decision-making at the early design stage. This includes
life-cycle design strategies and avoiding injustices in your design,
and sustainable strategies for green and blue infrastructure and
passive resilience at the site scale.
• Chapter 4 builds on this and provides more in-depth design
recommendations and rules of thumb for further developing
and ‘testing’ your design, focusing on the environment, material
selection, passive resilience at the building scale, and energy, CO2 Figure 0 Map showing the
and performance issues. location of the different case
studies listed in this book
• Chapter 5 covers project ‘feedback’ processes, focusing on as inspirational examples
validation and communication processes and tools, entirely within the 10 different climate
illustrated by student projects. emergency design themes.
GLOBAL CASE STUDIES
X
CHAPTER 0
CLIMATE
EMERGENCY
FUNDAMENTALS
0.1 HOLISTIC SUSTAINABLE ARCHITECTURE 2
0.2 10 CLIMATE EMERGENCY DESIGN THEMES 3
0.2.1 Theme 1: Future and global responsibility 4
0.2.2 Theme 2: Infrastructure 4
0.2.3 Theme 3: Environment 5
0.2.4 Theme 4: Passive resilience 5
0.2.5 Theme 5: Energy and CO2 6
0.2.6 Theme 6: Materials 6
0.2.7 Theme 7: Health and wellbeing 6
0.2.8 Theme 8: People and community 7
0.2.9 Theme 9: Delight 7
0.2.10 Theme 10: Performance 8
0.2.11 How to use the 10 climate emergency 8
design themes
0.3 INTEGRATED DESIGN 10
0.4 THE FIVE-STEP ITERATIVE DESIGN PROCESS 11
0.4.1 Step 1 – explore 12
0.4.2 Step 2 – defne 12
0.4.3 Step 3 – imagine 13
0.4.4 Step 4 – test 13
0.4.5 Step 5 – feedback 13
0.4.6 Five-step design process checklist 14
0.5 SUMMARY 14
DOI: 10.4324/9781003297246-1
0.1 HOLISTIC SUSTAINABLE ARCHITECTURE 0.01 NOTE
Over the past 50 years, architects have responded to different crises Interconnections in design
through their designs, often with a singular focus. Some aspects An example of interconnected
› see Chapter 2 were considered more carefully while others were neglected. › aspects would be the
We now need an architecture that considers all these concerns extraction of natural
together in one approach. Instead of focusing on any single materials in a way that
affects groundwater quality
aspect, we need a holistic, sustainable architecture – one that
and biodiversity habitats
comprehensively considers and achieves exemplary standards in
in regions some distance
all the aspects of sustainable architecture. It should also take into
away. These interconnections
› see Glossary account the interconnections between different aspects, i.e., systems
should not be ignored.
and Note 0.01 thinking. › We refer to this as ‘holistic sustainable architecture’, or a
› see Chapter 2 climate emergency design approach. ›
Figure 0.1 illustrates the principle of high standards in all aspects
of sustainability, and that we can no longer prioritise some
sustainability aspects at the expense of reduced standards
elsewhere. However, this does not stop you from prioritising certain
aspects in your project, as long as all the other aspects are included
and meet exemplary standards.
Holistic sustainable architecture is the frst principle of architecture
› see Chapter 2 for the climate emergency ›, and includes the quadruple climate
change challenges (i.e., climate change mitigation, adaptation,
› see Introduction restorative design and climate justice). › These four aspects must
be included in sustainable architecture. Climate emergency design
Figure 0.1 To achieve holistic
requires a culture shift and a new ethical position. It is about taking
sustainable architecture, certain
a position on the ethical responsibility that we have as architects,
sustainability aspects cannot
and it is based on a conviction to do the right thing (far beyond the be prioritised at the expense of
project brief). reduced standards elsewhere
(middle diagram). Instead,
all aspects must meet high
standards, even when some
themes are prioritised (diagram
to the right).
2
0.2 10 CLIMATE EMERGENCY DESIGN THEMES 0.02 PRACTICE
To ensure that your design is holistic you will need to understand the Interdisciplinary work
key principles of the 10 climate emergency design themes early in in practice
› see Figure 0.2 your studies. These themes are: › In practice, high standards in
Theme 1: Future and global responsibility all 10 climate emergency
Theme 2: Infrastructure themes are required. These
Theme 3: Environment are not the sole responsibility
Theme 4: Passive resilience of the architect, but the
Theme 5: Energy and CO2 entire interdisciplinary
Theme 6: Materials design team will work on
them, ensuring that any
Theme 7: Health and wellbeing
unintended consequences
Theme 8: People and community
are minimised. The architect
Theme 9: Delight
is well placed to ensure that
Theme 10: Performance
each of the 10 themes is
The themes are not numbered in order of importance. Still, they
suffciently considered and
refect a logical progression of how you are most likely to encounter
integrated and that high
them in your design process (from broader values to the macro- and
standards are met.
micro-scale), and in order of design decision-making priority (from
› see Note 3.15 passive to more active design strategies). ›
The 10 climate emergency themes should help to inspire and focus
your project values, concept and aims, and act as a starting point to 0.03 NOTE
imagine, experiment and test your holistic sustainable architecture
› see Table 0.1 design options. › UN Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs)1
The UN SDGs were
established in 2015 to ensure
a better and more inclusive
future for everyone in the
world by 2030. The SDGs
consist of 17 high-level goals,
with 169 more specifc targets.
Many of the goals may not
appear immediately relevant
to architecture, but each
one is connected to the built
environment. In this book, the
UN SDGs are broadly mapped
against the 10 climate
emergency design themes
to help you (and your tutors)
see which UN SDGs are
included in the curriculum
when selecting themes. UN
SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities
and Communities) is a thread
throughout each theme.
Figure 0.2 The 10 climate

emergency design themes.
3
Following is a summary of the 10 climate emergency themes used 0.04 NOTE

throughout this book, with the UN Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs), the RIBA Sustainable Outcomes and the RIBA 2030 Climate RIBA 2030 Sustainable
› see Notes 0.03 Challenge targets mapped to each of the themes. › Outcomes
and 0.04
The RIBA has developed
0.2.1 Theme 1: Future and global responsibility project goals for operational
This theme expresses the personal values you hold, and that should energy use, water use,
also infuence your work as an architect. After all, you are a global embodied carbon, and health
citizen. Decisions you make locally affect local environments and and wellbeing metrics (i.e.,
communities and those thousands of miles away. This is why your daylight provision, indoor
design responses must: air quality, prevention of
overheating). Targets are set
• ensure climate, social and spatial justice for 2025 and 2030 based on
• provide inclusive and affordable design for all the UK’s legislative landscape,
• work for future generations with the aim of achieving
• adapt to future scenarios with adaptable buildings, including net-zero-carbon construction
climate change adaptation by 2050 (see Chapter 2,
Table 2.11). Other countries
• include ‘end of life’ strategies (see Theme 6).
have their own, often more
ambitious, carbon neutrality
targets. However, the RIBA’s
UN SDGs: 1, 3, 5, 6, 10, 11, 12, 13, 16 ambition to prioritise energy
RIBA Sustainable Outcomes: Sustainable Communities and use reduction through
Social Value, Good Health and Wellbeing passive design and energy
effciency is geographically
RIBA 2030 Climate Challenge: Best Practice Health Metrics independent, and is a sound
principle that this book also
advocates (see Chapter 3,
Theme 4).
0.2.2 Theme 2: Inf rastructure
Considerate urban design, neighbourhood planning and sustainable
infrastructures can signifcantly support or hinder later opportunities
for sustainable design at the building scale. This theme focuses on
sustainable human-made services and facilities provided for cities and
places to function at minimal impact. It includes design aspects such as:
• sustainable densities
• connectivity and accessibility (sustainable transportation, walking,
cycling)
• provision of blue and green infrastructure (Theme 3), energy
infrastructure (Theme 5) and social infrastructure (Theme 8).
UN SDGs: 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15

RIBA Sustainable Outcomes: Sustainable connectivity and transport, Sustainable land-use and
ecology, Sustainable Water Cycle
RIBA 2030 Climate Challenge: Sustainable outcome metrics for drinkable water use, achieved
through water effciency, harvesting rainwater and reusing water on site. It also recommends
› see Theme 5 sustainable outcome metrics for operational energy use. ›
4
0.2.3 Theme 3: Environment

This theme relates to the ‘resources’ that the site and its surroundings
offer while restoring the planet’s health. The environment keeps
all species, including humans, alive and healthy through the air we
breathe, the water we drink, the food we harvest and the resources
provided for shelter. Looking after the planet’s health means looking
after our own health. Your design approaches should:
• respond to the local (present and future) climate (see also Themes
1 and 4)
• include considerate land use (e.g., green- grey- and brownfeld
sites, or previously built-on land)
• promote restorative design – enhance green infrastructure
(vegetation) and design for the non-human
• integrate blue infrastructure (water)
• counteract any environmental pollution (water, soil, air or noise –
see also Theme 7).
UN SDGs: 1, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15

RIBA Sustainable Outcomes: Sustainable land-use and ecology, Sustainable Water Cycle
RIBA 2030 Climate Challenge: Sustainable outcome metrics for drinkable water use. It also
recommends enhancing biodiversity on site.
0.2.4 Theme 4: Passive resilience

Passive resilience means harnessing freely available resources
from the climatic context through site-responsive design, thereby
minimising the need for additional energy use. You should always
use passive design strategies frst to reduce the building’s energy
requirements and the need for active systems. These passive design
strategies include:
• making use of free resources (sunlight, ventilation)
• harnessing good natural daylight (see also Theme 7)
• optimising building fabric effciency
• designing solar shading
• ‘purge ventilation’ and cooling in summer.
UN SDGs: 1, 3, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13

RIBA Sustainable Outcomes: Net Zero Operational Carbon Emissions, Good Health and
Wellbeing
RIBA 2030 Climate Challenge: Best Practice Health Metrics
5
0.2.5 Theme 5: Energy and CO2

Only after passive resilience has been considered should you consider
which active systems could meet the drastically reduced energy
needs – principles of (nearly) zero-energy or zero-carbon buildings:
• operational carbon, embodied carbon of materials, principles of
whole-life carbon
• renewable energy technologies
• energy-effcient active systems.
UN SDGs: 7, 9, 11, 12, 13

RIBA Sustainable Outcomes: Net Zero Operational Carbon Emissions
RIBA 2030 Climate Challenge: Sustainable outcome metrics for operational energy use,
achieved through fabric effciency frst, followed by energy system effciency and fnally, on-site
renewable energy production.
0.2.6 Theme 6: Materials

To create low-energy and healthy buildings that have a low impact
on people and the planet, your choice of materials is crucial. Do we
need to build new at all? Can we reuse structures and transform
existing spaces? And if not, can we reclaim materials for reuse in a new
proposal? Where materials come from, how they are made and used,
and what happens at the end of your proposed building’s lifespan
matters even more than before. This theme covers design principles of:
• reusing structures and materials
• circular design and construction
• using biogenic materials such as timber
• designing out waste by effcient use of materials
• low-impact materials
• local knowledge and craftsmanship
• undertaking a whole-life carbon approach (see also Theme 5)
• using life-cycle assessment (LCA) and life-cycle costing (LCC).
UN SDGs: 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16

RIBA Sustainable Outcomes: Net Zero Embodied Carbon Emissions
RIBA 2030 Climate Challenge: Sustainable outcome metrics for embodied carbon of new
buildings; it recommends reusing and improving existing buildings.
0.2.7 Theme 7: Health and wellbeing

Your designs should promote people’s physical, psychological and
social health and wellbeing by designing spaces that keep them
comfortable. People cannot be healthy on an unhealthy planet, so this
theme is closely connected to other themes.
6
Design principles include:

• good indoor environmental quality (IEQ): visual, thermal and
acoustic comfort and good indoor air quality (IAQ)
› see Glossary
and Table 2.2 • adaptable architecture ›
› see Glossary • physical wellbeing (e.g., active architecture ›)
and Table 2.8
• other themes: providing equal access to spaces (Theme 1), access
and connection to green and other infrastructures and restorative
design (Themes 2 and 3), passive resilience (Theme 4), specifying
healthy materials (Theme 6), social infrastructure (Theme 8),
creation of delightful spaces and places (Theme 9).
UN SDGs: 2, 3, 10, 11, 15

RIBA Sustainable Outcomes: Sustainable Communities and Social Value, Good Health and
Wellbeing
RIBA 2030 Climate Challenge: Best Practice Health Metrics
0.2.8 Theme 8: People and community

Diverse people occupy our cities and spaces, and they should have
a voice and be represented in the spaces you create and be part
of creating it (see also Theme 1). These democratic processes
need to be inclusive and lead to a plurality of design responses –
because one solution does not ft all. Moreover, you need to create
social infrastructure, or spaces and places that support people and
communities getting together in different ways to create social bonds
and belonging. In summary, this theme focuses on your design
interventions that include:
• democratic processes (co-creation, participation)
• diverse, affordable and inclusive design (see also Theme 1)
• social infrastructure (see also Themes 7 and 8).
UN SDGs: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 10, 11, 16, 17

RIBA Sustainable Outcomes: Sustainable Communities and Social Value
0.2.9 Theme 9: Delight

Beautiful spaces, places, experiences, events and atmospheres give
people delight and contentment, positively affecting wellbeing
(Theme 7). Spaces and buildings we love are more likely to be looked
after, creating long-life designs. Your design should create spaces that
are wonderful to inhabit and carefully crafted with users and their
needs in mind. Your design needs to:
• create beautiful, joyful and delightful spaces and atmospheres for
all users and the public
• create sensory delight
• show quality of craftsmanship and tectonics.
7
0.05 NOTE
UN SDGs: 1, 3, 10, 11
RIBA Sustainable Outcomes: Sustainable Communities and How can design tutors use
Social Value the 10 climate emergency
design themes?
As a teacher, you can explicitly
include a combination of
0.2.10 Theme 10: Performance
climate emergency themes
Designing sustainable architecture and zero-carbon buildings means in each design brief. This
little if this is only achieved on paper – when these standards are will support the incremental
not met in reality, once the spaces are handed over to the users. in-depth learning of new
You should create a ‘performance risk plan’ as part of your design themes and enable students
project to map out your project’s ‘risk areas’: i.e., how will your design to apply climate emergency
intentions be sustained and met over time? What information is themes in their design
missing in your contextual research that increases the risk to the projects. Mapping learning
project’s ultimate performance? What things are important to check activities and outcomes
to ensure your climate emergency design works in reality? This can and assessment criteria
include aspects related to: against the selected climate
emergency design themes
• people’s satisfaction
in the project brief enables
• spatial performance students to work towards
• material performance an in-depth understanding
• system and building performance. of each of the themes.
Ensuring that students gain
an in-depth understanding
and applied knowledge of
UN SDGs: 4, 9, 11, 12, 13
all the themes by the time
RIBA Sustainable Outcomes: Sustainable Life Cycle Cost, they graduate will require
Sustainable Water Cycle, Net Zero Operational Carbon coordination across all years
Emissions, Net Zero Embodied Carbon Emissions of study (see Table 0.1).
RIBA 2030 Climate Challenge: Sustainable outcome metrics
for operational energy use and for embodied carbon of
new buildings as well as Best Practice Health Metrics,
recommending full breakdown of all energy use; also to assist
in undertaking building monitoring and building performance
evaluations after the building is completed, including collecting
and sharing data on energy, water and embodied carbon.
0.2.11 How to use the 10 climate emergency

design themes
If this is your frst attempt at a sustainable design project, focus on
selecting those climate emergency themes that support your project
values and concept, while working towards eventually integrating
them all into your design projects as you progress through your
› see Figure 0.3 studies. › Climate emergency Theme 1, future and global
responsibility, environment (Theme 3) and people and community
(Theme 8) should always be included in each design project in
› see Table 0.1 each year of study. ›
8
TABLE 0.1 HOW TO USE THE 10 CLIMATE EMERGENCY 0.06 PRACTICE

› see Notes 0.05 DESIGN THEMES ›
and 0.06 Use of the 10 climate
emergency design themes in
We recommend that:
□ You cover all the themes for the exploratory phase of your project
practice
› see Chapter 1 (i.e., contextual research and analysis). ›
All ten of the climate
emergency design
□ You do not need to include all 10 climate emergency themes in the themes must be included
design of each of your projects, especially for your frst attempt at a
in your design concept
sustainable design project.
□ Your project should be restorative and enhance climate justice as and responses from the
beginning of the project
part of future and global responsibility (Theme 1).
through to completion
□ You include themes of environment (Theme 3) and people and and beyond (after
community (Theme 8) in each project’s design concept. As a Year 1
commissioning). After all, the
student, these are suffcient to achieve a basic understanding.
climate emergency will not
□ In Year 2 or above, select at least one additional theme that be tackled on paper, but must
supports your concept and project values to study in depth.
be achieved in reality.
□ In Year 3, you should incorporate at least fve themes in your
design concept, with at least three at a level of in-depth design.
□ In your advanced study (Master’s), set goals for seven to eight
themes in your year 4 design concepts, and all of the themes
in your Year 5 design concepts, with at least half of them taken
through to in-depth design.
□ If you are stuck, start with passive resilience (Theme 4) or materials
› see Chapter 2 (Theme 6) in addition to the other three themes. ›
□ You challenge yourself in each project, exploring new themes
rather than those themes more familiar from previous projects.
□ You work towards understanding and applying each of the 10
climate emergency themes as you progress through your studies.
□ By the end of your studies, you have in-depth knowledge of all
10 climate emergency themes to prepare you for the design of
› see Figure 0.3 holistic sustainable architecture in practice. ›
PROGRESSIVE LEARNING
PROGRESSIVE LEARNING
E LEARNING
innovate &
create new
evaluate & knowledge
reflect on & ideas Figure 0.3 Incremental or step-
deeper knowledge by-step learning supports in-
understanding depth learning and progressive
apply application of different topics in
knowledge your own projects. Eventually,
understand you will have built up the
& remember knowledge and skills to design
general INCREASED COMPLEXITY for the climate emergency over
knowledge the course of your studies.
9
0.3 INTEGRATED DESIGN 0.07 PRACTICE
Integrated design is crucial and fundamental for a successful, well- Integrated design in practice
integrated and holistic sustainable project. It is often said that In practice, integrated design
‘sustainability’ is too expensive and is removed when budgets are cut requires input from many
at the end of the design process; however, this is not true for well- project members (clients, end
› see Glossary integrated projects. It is tough to remove (i.e., value-engineer ›) users, engineers, ecologists,
‘sustainability’ when it is at the core of your design. Additionally, etc.). It is important to value
passive resilience principles such as considering orientation have very and respect the input and
little – if any – cost but have a signifcant impact on the performance expertise from all team
› see Themes 4 of your building. › Therefore, your approach to climate emergency members. Having a clear
and 10 and strong project defnition,
architecture needs to be integrated into all aspects of the design
values and design concept
process. It is conceived in the frst two steps of the design process, i.e.,
helps the design team aim to
› see Chapter 1 contextual research › and conceptual design. ›
› see Chapter 2 meet collective goals.
Integrated design is complex, as you need to consider different
design variables as a unifed whole while juggling inputs from various
sources. In your studies, these different inputs are likely to be from
peers, your tutors, a ‘client’ or users, and sometimes an engineer or
other consultants. In this, you need to learn to be a problem solver,
balancing the different inputs while prioritising the key elements and
values that will make your project successful and give it meaning. It is
easy to get lost in this stage, which is why your project defnition (e.g.,
concept, brief and narrative) is essential to remind you of your core
› see Note 0.07 project values and goals while also communicating it clearly. ›
and Chapter 2
Figure 0.4 The fve-step

iterative design process,
developed from Signe
Kongebro’s work at Henning
Larsen Architects and further
developed by the authors,2 and
with Essi Nisonen.
10
0.4 THE FIVE-STEP ITERATIVE 0.08 NOTE

DESIGN PROCESS
What is iterative design?
The design process is a messy and tacit process, which you learn and Design is a self-critical
develop throughout your education. To simplify it, this book uses a and self-refective iterative
› see Note 0.08 fve-step iterative design process. › This is based on other practice process; this means that
› see Note 0.09 processes, such as the RIBA Plan of Work ›, but it is tailored to an you repeat it by going back
educational model. This is the basis for many creative models of to improve and refne the
learning and designing. Your design typically gets better through design to ensure it meets the
intended vision. You can also
each iteration, as each one helps you to evaluate if your design
go back and forth between
solution works, and improve your design if it does not.
different steps to refne
The fve steps help you to create your project’s values and a way to your design. For example,
› see Figure 0.4 develop these, all the way from a project vision and concept into you might need to explore
and Chapter 2 different proposals to test and gain feedback on. › Each of the steps is (Step 1) the site conditions
› see Table 0.2 further explained below. › more to test (Step 4) the
impact of your design on the
surrounding landscape (see
Figure 0.4 and Chapter 4,
INTRODUCTION CH APTER
1 Section 4.2).
& CHAPTER 0
CONCLUSION
GLOSSARY
Exp
lo
k re
ac
b
ed
0.09 NOTE
Fe
5
CH
R
RIBA Plan of Work

TE
AP
The RIBA Plan of Work has

CHAP
TER 2
eight stages and guides the

design team from the early
D efine
stage of project conception to

detailed design, construction,
project completion and
Te s
post-completion monitoring.
tin
This book’s fve-step design

3
g
process maps to the RIBA

R
TE
Plan of Work, as shown in

P
A
Figure 0.5.
H
C
Im a g in e
4
CH APTER
RIBA PLAN OF WORK

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Figure 0.5 The RIBA Plan of
Strategic Preparation Concept Spatial Technical Manufacturing Work and the fve-step design
Definition and Briefing Design Coordination Design & Construction Handover Use
process (explore, defne,
EXPLORE DEFINE IMAGINE TESTING/FEEDBACK imagine, test, feedback)
step 1 step 2 step 3 step 4-5
mapped against the book
DESIGN PROCESS chapters.
11
› see Chapter 1 0.4.1 Step 1 – explore › 0.10 NOTE

Usually, the design process starts with exploring the context of your
Individual or team design?
project, which includes gaining an understanding of the site’s location,
In architecture school,
climate, history, environment, culture and so on. It also includes a
many projects are designed
deeper understanding of the project brief and the functional and individually and help you
user requirements. To explore the site and project brief includes to learn design thinking
desktop research, but it is also necessary to visit and experience and how to apply subject
the site and its environment and, if possible, interact with potential knowledge in design. In
users. It is important to gather background information on the practice, buildings are not
project; organise, analyse and synthesise this information; and designed or built by one
understand how it influences your design approaches. The person, but combine the
information in Chapter 1 about what context to include will help you expertise of many team
› see Chapter do this. › Simply knowing what the wind direction is, how much members. Teamwork
1.2 and Note 1.01 rainfall occurs on the site, or that there is a high proportion of older skills and approaches are
people living in the area means little unless you also investigate important to learn during
the implications of this knowledge for your own design approach. your architecture studies.
Remember that this step includes investigating all 10 climate More and more architecture
› see Table 0.1 emergency design themes. › This step will help you to defne your schools now encourage
› see Chapter 2 project and develop a design concept (Step 2). › group projects, but if there
are no group projects, you
RIBA PLAN STRATEGIC can seek out other views
OF WORK 0 DEFINITION by approaching your fellow
students for ideas and
feedback (Step 5). We refer to
this as peer support.
› see Chapters 0.4.2 Step 2 – def ine ›
2 and 3
Your design concept is the main idea for the architectural approach
based on your project’s values, and it should be generated from the
earlier contextual explorations (Step 1). The more holistic your design
concept is at this early stage (i.e., the more themes included), the
more it will reduce the negative environmental, climatic and societal
impacts. Questions to ask at this stage are: what do you want
to achieve? What is important to include in your project, and
what is at its heart? Developing the design concept is an iterative
› see Note 0.08 process ›, and you need to refne your design concept with an open
mind when new project information and knowledge become known
to you throughout the design process and later steps. Without this, 0.11 NOTE
you will end up with an ill-judged project that is ‘out of context’ and
is therefore unlikely to be sustainable (e.g., you propose a youth What does ‘testing’ my
centre when elderly facilities are really what the community needs). design mean?
Conceptual designers may start a project with an immediate design Testing your design means
critical self-refection and a
concept (before undertaking Step 1). If this is the case, the concept still
process of iterative design.
needs testing in context based on Step 1, setting values and goals and
This requires development
› see Note 1.03 integrating some of the 10 climate emergency design themes. ›
with deeper understanding
RIBA PLAN PREPARATION CONCEPT from drawing, making
OF WORK 1 & BRIEFING
2 DESIGN (physical and digital)
models, material studies and
fabrication of components,
but also performance
validation – for example,
daylight and energy
simulations (see Chapter 5).
12
› see Chapters 0.4.3 Step 3 – imagine › 0.12 NOTE

2 and 3
In this step, you imagine and create different design strategies,
What does ‘feedback’ mean?
options and ideas that help you to meet your project values, goals and
In architecture school,
ambitions as set out in the earlier steps. At this stage, it is important not ‘feedback’ refers to the
only to approach your design strategies rationally but also intuitively dialogue with fellow students
and through drawing and making. You should also focus on the and tutors about your project
climate emergency themes that you consider most important in your to refne and improve it at
› see Glossary design, using rules of thumb › to make your initial design propositions. different stages (Step 5).
Your design values, goals and concepts can often be communicated In practice, the process of
through a vision statement and diagrams and conceptual sketches that feedback is closely related
› see Note 5.03 capture the restorative world you aim to create. › to performance (Theme 10)
and refers to understanding
RIBA PLAN SPATIAL TECHNICAL
OF WORK 3 COORDINATION
4 DESIGN
whether what we designed
and built works in reality
(technically, materially,
spatially and for users).
› see Chapters 0.4.4 Step 4 – test › As a student, there is an
4 and 5 opportunity for feedback
In this step, you are testing and checking the quality of your proposal
if you work with the local
and if it meets your sustainability goals. It includes testing and
community by gaining their
comparing your different design options, ideas and approaches views and input on your
with each other. This is where you will further develop your climate proposals at different stages
emergency design strategies in more depth, and combine contextual (Theme 7).
› see Note 0.11 and conceptual design by testing your ideas to scale and in context. ›
It includes asking questions about the intervention that you
propose: is it in the right place? What kind of a neighbour is it to
the surrounding context? Do my proposed solutions work? Are the
openings in the right place? Are they large enough? Do the designed
spaces convey the imagined atmosphere? Do my design options
meet the (climate emergency design) objectives, aims and concepts
I set earlier? This is an iterative process where the design is
tested, ref ined and re-tested through design development and
improvements to meet the design concept and ambitions.
RIBA PLAN TECHNICAL MANUFACTURING

OF WORK 4 DESIGN
5 6 HANDOVER 7 USE
& CONSTRUCTION
› see Chapter 5 0.4.5 Step 5 – feedback ›

To gain different perspectives on and insights into your design
approaches, you should obtain feedback at different stages from
› see Note 0.12 your peers, tutors and the local community. › Each opportunity for
guidance from others is a means for you to refect on your approaches,
and helps you to refne, improve and iterate your climate emergency
design responses, as well as learn for future projects (whether as a
student or in practice). Clear and explicit communication of your
climate emergency concept, design approach and decision-making
through different media is fundamental to gaining feedback, leading
to improvements.
RIBA PLAN MANUFACTURING

OF WORK 5 6 HANDOVER 7 USE
& CONSTRUCTION
13
0.4.6 Five-step design process checklist Figure 0.6 The fve-step

process by Ariya Vetchapho:
Table 0.2 summarises the key questions you should consider in each
Step 1 explores the Mekong
of the fve design steps. These questions are not exhaustive. They are river in the wet season, which
intended to start your design development process helping you to defned the project (Step 2),
self-critically and self-refectively evaluate your own design process and the project concept (Step
› see Table 0.2 and the resulting design. › 3, imagine). The pavilions were
then tested in more depth (Step
4), while clear communication
0.5 SUMMARY helped to obtain feedback
(Step 5). See also Figure 5.41.
This chapter set out the background to holistic sustainable architecture
because we can no longer design with a fragmented approach to
sustainability. One way of achieving holistic sustainable architecture is
by integrating the 10 key climate emergency design themes into your
design projects over the course of your fve-year architecture education.
This challenge will take years of practice to achieve fully, and you are
› see Table 0.1 not expected to practise all of these in each project. › Instead, use
your education as an opportunity to gain knowledge, and to explore
14
and test as many of the different themes as possible to give you the
best and broadest knowledge for when you enter practice and can
continue making change.
Remember to ‘think global, act local’, and at a minimum integrate
future and global responsibility (Theme 1), environment (Theme 3) and
people and community (Theme 8) into each project. It is important
that we take responsibility to minimise the impacts of our designs
at all scales and across borders, but it is also an opportunity to create
restorative designs that aim to offset aspects of previous damage.
TABLE 0.2 FIVE-STEP DESIGN PROCESS CHECKLIST
› see Chapter 1 □ Have you explored the project’s context, organised it and analysed it? ›
› see Table 0.1 STEP 1 – □ Have you explored some of the 10 key climate emergency design themes? ›
EXPLORE
□ What are the main implications of the contextual conditions and project needs for your
own design response? Have you mapped them?
□ How does your project’s context inspire a climate emergency design concept and
approach?
STEP 2 – □ What are the key aspects and values that inspire you?
DEFINE □ Has your concept evolved throughout the design process based on any new information?
□ Can you develop a one-sentence vision, project title or diagram based on the context and
key values (and some of the 10 key themes)?
□ Are the key themes identifed earlier carried through in key project values and ambitions?
(If not, make sure they are.)
□ Which of the 10 key themes best support your concept and project values and will be
› see Table 0.1 developed in more depth? (This is in addition to Themes 1, 3 and 8.) ›
□ Are there other important focus areas that should be included in your project’s ambitions
and values?
STEP 3 –
IMAGINE □ Which different design options and solutions have you identifed that can help meet your
project’s objectives? (Note: you should always have more than one option, and you should
be comparing options.)
□ Have you iteratively developed and refned design solutions in your project? (The frst
design option is usually not the only or right solution.)
□ What compromises must you make in the design or in the ambitions? Does this affect the
design concept? Are there other options to explore?
□ How will you test (validate) your different design options and solutions? (Drawings,
models, rules of thumb, simple comparative before/after, solar shading analysis, energy
› see Chapter 5 model, etc.) ›
STEP 4 –
TEST □ Do the shortlisted design options work? Do they meet the project values and ambitions
you set out earlier?
› see Chapter 1, □ Which of the options work ‘best’, and why? Consider a SWOT analysis or similar. ›
Section 1.5.1,
page 63 □ Can you gain feedback from local stakeholders through different stages of the design?
□ Have you clearly and explicitly communicated your climate emergency concept and
› see Chapter 5 STEP 5 – approach through different media to open up discussion and obtain feedback from others? ›
FEEDBACK □ Have you engaged in dialogue with your fellow students and tutors to gain feedback and
different perspectives on your design at different stages? This will help you to improve,
refne and develop your design project iteratively.
15
CHAPTER 1
EXPLORING YOUR
CONTEXT–RESEARCHING
AND ANALYSING
YOUR SITE
(STEP 1) 1.1
1.2
INTRODUCTION: CONTEXTUAL DESIGN
WHY WE CARE ABOUT THE CONTEXT
17
17
1.2.1 Contextualism, contextual design 19
or place-based design
1.2.2 Climatic design 19
1.3 EXPLORE: STARTING YOUR 20
CONTEXTUAL RESEARCH
1.3.1 Selecting a site 21
1.3.2 Methods for contextual research 24
1.4 10 THEMES: RESEARCH, MAP AND ANALYSE 27
1.5 FROM SITE ANALYSIS TO DEFINING YOUR 62
DESIGN PROJECT (STEP 1 TO STEP 2)
1.5.1 Synthesising your research 63
1.5.2 Communicating your research 64
1.6 SUMMARY 64
DOI: 10.4324/9781003297246-2
EXPLORING YOUR CONTEXT – RESEARCHING AND ANALYSING YOUR SITE
1.1 INTRODUCTION: CONTEXTUAL DESIGN 1.01 NOTE
Thorough contextual research is crucial to create sustainable Contextual research

architecture that is successful and bespoke while contextually based infuences your conceptual
and appropriate for its surroundings – architecturally, environmentally, approach
socially and culturally. At every scale, sustainable architecture should Contextual research is
integrate the natural structure of the site with the built environment. often combined and
communicated through
Contextual research, often called site analysis, is an essential and
notes, sketches, images,
signifcant pre-design activity that explores, documents, analyses
diagrams and inventory
and synthesises the potentials and challenges of a project site. It is maps representing the key
the understanding and response to the site characteristics which observations, conditions,
ensures a project is contextually founded, and it is essential for the interpretations and fndings.
sustainability of a project. These are then analysed
Further, it is the starting point for every design, as each site and synthesised into key
encompasses many complex and dynamic factors and is unique, with fndings that should inform
explicit character and atmosphere. Carrying out a comprehensive your conceptual approach,
project goals and objectives,
site analysis combined with the programmatic circumstances will set
as well as the form and layout,
the parameters to inform your climate emergency design concept,
and material, structural and
› see Chapter 2 goals, processes and future decision-making. › Your concept may
aesthetic decisions.
include your project’s approach to the site and how it integrates
with the broader situation or neighbourhood. For example, whether
› see Glossary environmental remediation › is needed; how existing infrastructure
can be used; how the project may coexist, interact or enhance the
current context; or even knowing when to not build on a particular
site. Your goal should always be to leave your site better than
you found it. While site research and analysis examine the existing
conditions, it is essential to consider a broader perspective, including
both imminent and future situations. The perspective in which
we complete our analysis modifes the information gathered. For
example, how is your site considered from the perspective of a
different time span, demographic, animal, plant or insect? This is
essential, for example, when designing for unpredictable climatic
changes resulting from the climate emergency.
This chapter covers many basic principles that set out why and how
to undertake initial contextual exploration, what to look for, and how
it can defne, imagine and generate a sustainable design proposal. If
you already have experience in contextual research, try to dig deeper
and fnd more intensive information to increase the complexity of your 1.02 NOTE
contextual foundation.
Examples of positive and
restorative design
1.2 WHY WE CARE ABOUT THE CONTEXT Examples of restorative
design (also referred to
The site where your project is situated is more than an inactive piece
as regenerative design)
of ground; even the most urban and contaminated site contains
may include exceeding
living organisms, and complex entangled systems and networks. the replacement of
Your design proposal will affect these dynamic natural, social and lost biodiversity from a
physical relationships. Once an intervention is made on the site, you development or producing
are likely changing the site forever. This brings a responsibility to more clean energy than is
› see Glossary ensure that the intervention is restorative › and appropriate for the needed by a development
and Note 1.02 present and the future. Therefore, it is vital that your project integrates and using this to supply the
with your site’s positive aspects and tries to mitigate the negative wider community.
17
impacts by creating a sustainable intervention. Additionally, each Figure 1.1 Siv Ravnsbæk and
› see Glossary site has a carrying capacity ›, which indicates the density and the Villads Birch Hastrup’s site
analysis combines digital
programmatic, structural and typological interventions that can be
drawings, hand drawings
supported without harming the social, environmental and ecological
and collage, indicating the
conditions. complexity and richness of their
To ensure a restorative design, you should frst be aware of these site – visualising the overlapping
variables of soil, nature,
networks and capacities within your site – this is why thorough
functions and daylight.
contextual research and analysis is needed.
In short, your project is never isolated and is always context-bound.
While you may choose to create contrast rather than harmony
with your site, there should always be a dialogue between your
project and its context. To start contextual research, ask yourself the
following questions:
• What networks and relationships (human and non-human,
including biodiversity) exist on the site that your design project can
integrate with?
18
• What resource inputs are available to support and even enhance 1.03 NOTE
your project? (Existing buildings, local climate, geology and
geography, solar access, water, materials, energy, biodiversity, Contextual versus conceptual
social networks, etc.) design or design styles
• What waste outputs should be dealt with on your site? (Material Conceptual design is often
waste, site contamination, sewage, exhaust, airborne particles, derived from abstract ideas
odour, noise, etc.) that are placeless. Design
styles are largely based on
• How can your project be restorative for the site, including human
visual trends and fashions
and non-human users (fora and fauna)?
that are currently popular but
1.2.1 Contextualism, contextual design do not respond to a project’s
or place-based design place or performance needs.
Contextual design, however,
› see Glossary Contextualism, contextual design or place-based design › differs
uses context (or place) as a
› see Glossary from conceptual design › or an architectural style. It is an approach generator of concepts and
based on local values that have been around for centuries with values. Conceptual design
› see Note 1.03, vernacular architecture ›, illustrating early examples of design which should be tested and refned
Chapter 2 and grew from place that used the available resources and knowledge. in relation to a project’s
Glossary
Local knowledge is valuable because it is appropriate. […] It context to make it suitable for
provides specif ic information about the climate, plants, trees, a climate emergency. Design
animals, water flows and everything else making up the place’s styles have little to offer in
textures. If we are to minimise destructive ecological impacts in climate emergency design.
our design, it is precisely this kind of knowledge that we need.1
Contextual design includes the spirit of a place, also referred to as its
› see Glossary genius loci ›, which focuses on the unique identity of a place and its
local natural systems, landscape and environment. In addition to local
knowledge, it is essential to understand the different scales of context
on your project and, in turn, how your project impacts them. For
example, global, regional, local and micro-scales are all affected by the 1.04 NOTE
climate, cultural, social, geological and political aspects.
Weather, climate and
Fundamentally, the context includes all the distinct climatic zones
characteristics, constraints, opportunities and conditions in While weather refers to the
which your project is located. This includes contextual parameters immediate atmospheric
of a place such as the environmental and passive resilience aspects situation in a particular place,
(orientation, wind direction, solar angle, rainfall, overshadowing, climate refers to the Earth’s
climate), its people and community, but also the often (in)visible atmosphere. It indicates
atmosphere and history of a place (e.g., previous events and stories, the average weather over
or existing physical structures and materials), as well as its projected an extended period – e.g.,
future (e.g., climatic changes leading to future sea-level rises or several decades. Thus,
river fooding). Any of these contextual parameters can inspire and climate change is registered
› see Figure 1.2 generate ideas for your design concept. › slowly. Additionally, there
are three types of climate:
1.2.2 Climatic design macroclimate (the climate on
the large scale of a region),
An essential part of contextual design is climatic design. Climatic
mesoclimate (the climate of
design addresses the challenge of designing buildings that maximise a smaller region that may
the potential of local climatic conditions. Designing with the climate be infuenced by prominent
in mind is especially crucial with predicted future climate changes, as natural features such as hills
all buildings are affected by climatic conditions, and it is necessary to or forests) and microclimate
protect both inhabitants and the structure itself. (the very local climate that
is infuenced by buildings or
small natural features such as
trees or ponds).
19
large roof eaves

open interior external shading Figure 1.2 Climatic sections
for effective
spaces to prevent heat
sunshading that highlight the different
fully openable gain
window for passive building design
ventilation high level of
shaded insulation to strategies in a hot-humid
windows to minimize heat climate (left) and in a cool
reduce transfer to inside
overheating
climate (right), showing
how different climatic
zones infuence a building’s
relationship to its site.
trees for lightweight stilted planting reduces high thermal prevailing

solar construction house for radiated heat mass to absorb breeze for
shading using thermal wind heat during day ventilation
capacity materials
HOT CLIMATE COLD CLIMATE
› see Glossary As you may know, the climate is affected by latitude ›, distribution of 1.05 NOTE
› see Glossary land and sea, wind systems and the altitude › of the location. However,
the distance from the sun is the main factor that impacts the climate, Effect of climate on
determining seasonal changes and climatic zones. Therefore, climate controlling indoor thermal
is often defned by zones or regions with broadly similar climatic environment
conditions, for example equatorial, Mediterranean and polar; or cool, Key ways of controlling the
› see Figure 1.3 temperate, subtropical, tropical or desert climates. › indoor thermal environment
You must be aware of what climatic zone your project is placed in, in different climates include
the massing or shape of the
as this will affect the building typology and design approach.
building, building fabric,
thermal mass, fenestration
1.3 EXPLORE: STARTING (including the orientation,
YOUR CONTEXTUAL RESEARCH size and positioning of
windows), solar control,
If you are an advanced student, starting your project may be a known
(including shading), surface
process; however, it can be both an exciting and overwhelming fnishes and ventilation. These
activity as a new student. Depending on your year of study, you may passive design approaches
be provided with different amounts of information, requirements and vary based on the climate.
› see Chapter 2, constraints. You may also be provided with a specifc brief, programme ›, Airtight envelopes with good
Table 2.1 site or a combination of preliminary decisions that you are being insulation are desirable to
asked to respond to. These make up the two initiating phases of the reduce heat loss in a cool
› see Chapter 0 design process: explore (Step 1) and defne (Step 2). › The exploring climate. In contrast, thermal
phase or contextual research (Step 1) is divided into three sub-phases – mass is crucial in hot-dry
research, analysis and synthesis. While you may have done site analysis climates due to diurnal
before, work through all these steps to interpret different aspects that temperature variations
can be utilised to embed sustainability within your project. This section (see Glossary). In warm-
outlines how information and insights can be collected about your humid climates, lightweight
context, and how this better informs your design. buildings with maximised
cross-ventilation perform best
(see Figure 1.2).
20
1.3.1 Selecting a site

As a student, sometimes you will be provided with a site, and
sometimes you can choose. The level of choice can vary considerably,
from indicating where on a provided site you would like to place your
building, to having complete freedom to choose within a city, region,
county or even country without any constraints (often the case with
your fnal degree or thesis project). Despite the different scenarios
of choosing a site for your project, it should always be based on
considerable thought and contextual research, selecting the optimum
location for your programme or, if given a site, deriving a suitable
programme for that site.
Sites differ in almost all variables, across the urban–rural spectrum,
and in scale, size, character and atmosphere – in short, the context.
Sites are often categorised into green-, grey- and brownfelds,
depending on the level of contamination. Different types of site have
different preparation levels prior to construction; it is essential to know
what type of site you are working with. Consider if you should even
Figure 1.3 Global map
build on it at all. Once built on, the land will be forever changed, and indicating the different climatic
it is usually more sustainable to build on previously developed land, regions, from warmer equatorial
which, after clean-up, will beneft from existing infrastructure nearby. zones to cooler polar zones.
21
• Brownfelds are areas of obsolete land that is often urban and Figure 1.4 Diagram indicating
have previously been used for industry or commercial use; they are the characteristics of different
types of sites: green-, grey- and
often environmentally contaminated with pollution or hazardous
brownfelds.
waste. While brownfelds require considerable cleaning and
decontamination, they are viable building sites as the land has
previously been developed and is usually near infrastructure.
Additionally, new restorative strategies can have environmental
and social benefts. If the brownfeld has been left alone for years,
it can often hold high ecological value with biodiverse species left
to thrive. Therefore, it is important to value and ensure minimal
disruption to the existing ecological system.
• Greyfelds are often sites of economic obsolescence, such as failed
retail or commercial areas. As the name indicates, they are usually
covered in large areas of empty asphalt and are between brown-
and greenfelds in terms of contamination. Greyfelds may allow
for reusing developments and existing buildings, or the harvesting
of materials for reuse.
• Greenfelds are undeveloped sites that have previously been used
for agriculture or forestry and, in some instances, are ‘untouched.’
They usually have little contamination and are located on the urban
fringe or rural areas. While these sites are ‘easy’ to develop, given that
decontamination is not required, they often lack key infrastructure
such as water, waste, transport and energy services, and should be
considered a project site only if vital for a sustainable project.
Regardless of your site, fnd out whether it has existing buildings
that can be transformed for adaptive reuse or if its materials can be
› see Chapter 4, harvested for reuse. › It is always more sustainable to make use of
Theme 6 existing resources before building anew. Understanding signif icant
changes to the area in the past and expected future provides vital
insights for a long-term sustainable project.
22
› see Note 1.06 To select your site, consider the following questions: ›
1.06 PRACTICE
• Is the land suitable for the intended purpose and for
development? Does it have cultural, historical, archaeological or Site selection in practice
scientifc signifcance? The architect rarely has the
power to make decisions
• Can it be developed without being destroyed?
about the project’s location
• Can existing structures be reused?
within the urban fabric. In
• How will the use of the site impact the existing community? Will it many cases the site, whether
give back? urban, suburban, brownfeld
• Are there better uses for the land, such as agriculture? or greenfeld, will have
• Is public transport available nearby? been selected before the
architect becomes involved
• Does the site have good solar access and good potential
in the project. Nevertheless,
daylighting (i.e., it is not too closed in)?
thorough understanding and
• Is the site vulnerable to fooding and contamination risks?
investigation are still required
• What is the condition of the air, water and soil? What about noise? to ensure you can propose
• Is there pre-existing infrastructure for power, water supply, the best design solutions for
communications, waste handling and drainage? the given site. As an architect,
• Depending on the intended use, are there appropriate commercial you may make ethical
or community services nearby? decisions about whether to
accept a commission for a
• How might future developments on adjacent land affect the
site that you feel strongly is
project?
inappropriate for a climate
• What key assets or features make this location inspiring, delightful
emergency.
or unique? Will your intervention strengthen this or harm these
features?
Figure 1.5 This image by Natalie

Krieg illustrates the process of
understanding different site
characteristics and selecting a
site in Berlin to place a building.
23
1.3.2 Methods for contextual research 1.07 PRACTICE
There are various methods and techniques for conducting contextual
Contextual research in
research. These can be altered and chosen to suit your needs when
practice
investigating the variables of your site that will inspire your sustainable
In practice, budget
design. Therefore, you must try to research and collect as much
restrictions often stop
information as possible concerning your site. However, your research’s
contextual research before
quality and thoroughness are fundamental. Poorly executed or shallow
it is thoroughly conducted.
site analysis can provide misleading results, leading to unsustainable However, experts from other
design decisions. You cannot develop concepts that respond to site felds such as ecologists,
conditions if you are unaware of them. Research is theoretically open- geologists, hydrologists and
ended; knowing when you have researched enough is a challenge that biologists usually contribute
gets easier with experience. Usually, in time you will develop the ability to contextual research,
to do your research effciently within an appropriate time frame, which collecting, mapping and
typically takes up to 20–25% of your project time. While individual analysing site conditions
site characteristics may trigger specifc conceptual ideas, some ideas and attributes. Thorough
and concepts can be missed if data is lacking. For example, if an contextual research provides
interviewee who does not represent the majority said they enjoyed a better understanding of the
being in dark spaces and you then designed only for dark spaces, your site and its context and helps
design would be inadequate for the majority. If possible, try to speak to design ideas better respond
a diverse range of people and visit the site at different times of the day to these.
and year. The 10 climate emergency design themes will help to delimit
› see Chapter 0 the scope of your research, providing a hierarchy. ›
and Section 1.4
To focus, try to keep things architecturally relevant, and remember
that your exploration (Step 1) should continue throughout the iterative
› see Chapter 0, design process as new questions arise. ›
Section 0.4
Types of data and information
There are many methods and types of data that can help you achieve
a well-rounded contextual understanding. On-site data collection is
fundamental, as it is impossible to replicate the site’s nuances and see
the most up-to-date conditions. It includes:
• primary data (information you have collected directly from main
sources)
• secondary data (information that has already been collected by
another and made available to you)
• hard data (quantitative information, which is objective and can be
easily measured – often physical)
• soft data (qualitative information that is subjective and based on
experience, e.g., interviews with local residents)
• on-site data (personal experience and observation of the site)
• desktop data (research from afar in archives, libraries or online).
In addition to site visits, a desktop study is useful to get a preliminary
understanding, plan your site visit in advance and gather the
information that is only available in a ‘desktop’ form.
24
Undertaking a desktop study

Sometimes you cannot visit the site, and then a desktop study is
› see Note 1.08 the only means to gain an understanding of the site. › In this case,
the desktop study can help you identify key areas to focus site
observations on, and help you understand wider systems, scales and
connections as well as unseen factors such as hidden infrastructure
or future fooding. It usually involves the analysis of secondary
information, including maps, internet searches and literature.
Data-collecting tools and methods for research and analysis

The following examples are helpful tools or methods that will help
with your contextual research (see also Table 1.1):
• Mapping – experiential or physical
› see Section • Interviews with local residents ›
1.4.8, Notes 3.26
and 5.01
• Collecting statistics and/or demographics
• Historical archives and future plans
• Topography, geology, ecology, food data and mapping
• Photographs and photogrammetry
• Physical measuring and 3D scanning Figure 1.6 Site analysis
› see Chapter 1, • Producing harvest maps – materials sources and fows › mapping by Sofa Weidner
Section 1.4.6 using different methods
• Climatic measurements: air temperature, humidity, sound levels
and techniques, including
• Site model building historical archives, photographs,
• Sketching and observations sketching and data collection.
25
Site visits and analysis 1.08 NOTE
Site visits are benefcial for gathering atmospheric and experiential
information, which is impossible to collect in other ways. Remember What if you cannot
that your experience represents a single time period. If possible, visit the site?
visit your site as many times as possible at different times of the For some projects, site visits
day and during different seasons. Document your observations and in person are restricted or
impossible. Sometimes the
experiences in various media such as notes, maps, photos, sketches
design process must begin
and audio recordings. Record everything, and all areas of your site.
in advance of an in-person
Your focus will often change throughout the design process, and you
site visit; in a team project it
want to ensure you have relevant information for all considerations
may not be possible for all
and locations, both large and small.
team members to visit the
Remember, your frst visit and experience of the site are among the site. In these situations, site
most important, as key things will catch your attention. Consider: information will have to be
what do you see frst? What do you hear? What do you feel? It can collected through enhanced
be useful to walk around for the frst time, observing and experiencing desktop studies or possibly
the site, and then photograph and record everything. Stop and look by using resources shared by
at what is right in front of you (foreground), by your feet or hands, those who are able to visit.
then in the midground and the distance or background. Take time Have conversations with
to sit and observe, stay in one place, listen and watch for changes in people who have been to the
site, and set out the potential
the atmosphere. This will help you to understand the site better and
risks to your design because of
should give you ideas for deep contextual responses as a fundamental
assumptions you have made
part of sustainable design.
(see Theme 10, Table 1.10).
Figure 1.7 China Chapman and

Thomas Parker made site notes
and sketches showing different
ways of recording information.
26
1.4 10 THEMES: RESEARCH, 1.09 EXAMPLES

MAP AND ANALYSE
Sustainable architecture
As described before, the exploring phase (Step 1) is the process where approaches related to future
you undertake contextual research and begin to collect, map, organise, and global responsibility
(see Chapter 2, Table 2.2)
examine and analyse the information you have gathered. It requires
• UN SDGs
› see Glossary many design iterations › of overlaying information and exploring
• Future-proofng
› see Section 1.5 different relationships. › This section outlines the information you
• Design for disassembly
should collect for each of the 10 themes, and how each could impact
• Cradle-to-cradle design
your design. Easy-to-use checklists and Figure 1.8 help you to fnd your
• Responsible design
› see Figure 1.8 way through the 10 themes and common contextual topics. ›
1.4.1 Theme 1: Future and global responsibility

Future and global responsibility relates to some of the broader
concerns for your project and embodies the idea of ‘think global,
act local’, as well as how it performs in a long-term perspective.
Topics and categories related to this theme may require more general
research from a broader perspective. However, it ensures that you
collect the critical information, as this theme will help form your
project’s overall values and ethics.
The future perspective always characterises sustainable architecture
– it is never built only for the present moment. Buildings outlast their
architects and face different climatic, environmental, societal and
economic conditions over the decades. For this reason, buildings
should be designed with concern for their entire life cycle, which
goes beyond their current use and includes their dismantling and
› see Chapter 4, reuse (end-of-life scenario). › Moreover, your proposal affects local
Section 4.6 people and places, and those far away. This is why we have a global
responsibility to ensure our designs are restorative, inclusive and fair.
Future scenarios
Designing for the future entails facing multiple uncertainties and
requires investigating diverse potential future scenarios, understood
as predictions of possible climates, life cycles, and ways of using,
› see Chapter 2, performing, transforming, adapting and reusing. › These speculations
Section 2.3.1 must always be informed by thorough research, site mapping and
analysis. For example, to design buildings that adapt to a changing
climate, it is necessary to map the processes which occur in the
local landscape and climate (i.e., concerning weather, topography,
› see Theme 2 water, soil conditions, fauna and fora). › You should also analyse how
global climatic shifts will impact them in the future. To create fexible
buildings that accommodate the changing needs of their users, it is
necessary to understand demographic trends and local socio-cultural
› see Theme 8 contexts and more specifc users’ preferences. › To provide feasible
end-of-life scenarios, you will need to map existing building structures,
processing facilities and recycling opportunities, as well as future
› see Theme 6 potential technologies and waste streams. ›
and Table 1.6
27
Figure 1.8 Matrix showing the
connections between the 10
climate emergency design
themes and the different
contextual research and analysis
topics. Use this diagram to
navigate through the different
themes and understand how
they can be used to inspire
certain approaches to climate
emergency design.
28
Local and global responsibility

Your project proposal will impact the climate, environment, humans
and non-humans beyond the project boundary. At the same time,
it should try to respond to current everyday activities and practices
on a site that may be responsible for positive or negative, local and
global impacts. As part of your contextual research, map any activities,
policies, customs, uses, functions, events and practices on the site and
vicinity that may impact humans and non-humans, both nearby or
further away. For example, agricultural water run-off into nearby rivers,
lakes or the sea, contributing to local and/or transnational pollution,
or the use of coal as a fuel in local district heating, contributing to the
climate crisis.
Further, the inclusion of a diverse range of people (e.g., older
adults, children or immigrants) to enable them to participate in the
community fully creates signifcant positive impacts. This can take
the form of enabling local community activities that bring people
together, or a move towards clean, affordable energy sources that
prioritise those who need it most. In your contextual research,
map instances where certain members of the community may be
excluded. This may not always be explicit but can be subtle and Figure 1.9. Diagrams indicating
unintentional. For example, look out for public entrances that are too different considerations
narrow or too steep to negotiate by the elderly, less mobile or parents to research and map in
relation to future and global
with a pram; or the lack of affordable housing; or uneven distribution
responsibilities. The diagram
of public open spaces (their quality and safety) in different socio-
on the left shows the future
economic settings; or the lack of diversity in the co-creation of space perspective, while the image
› see Theme 8 (i.e., exclusion of voices). › These aspects can then help you restore on the right shows social justice
inclusivity and create a more inclusive place in your own project. and equality concerns.
predictions of ways of using &

possible climates performing possible unintended
positive & consequences
restorative
transforming,
initiatives & existing
adapting & reusing
impacts inequalities,
injustices &
other impacts
life cycles vulnerable groups

(humans & non-
humans)
FUTURE PERSPECTIVES LOCAL RESPONSIBILITY
29
Figure 1.10 Research and site
analysis by Sofa Weidner
indicating different fooding
mitigation strategies that will
impact the region in a future
scenario.
30
TABLE 1.1 THEME 1: FUTURE AND GLOBAL RESPONSIBILITY

– RESEARCH, MAP AND ANALYSE (FOR PRESENT AND POSSIBLE FUTURE CHANGES)
Possible data to collect and analyse:
□ Environment – topography, soil, water, fora and fauna

□ Passive resilience – weather conditions: temperature, rainfall, wind, humidity
□ Flora and fauna – biodiversity, greenery, endangered species
FUTURE SCENARIOS
□ People and community – demographics: population, age, socio-economic
status, family type, projected trends
(see also Tables 1.2, 1.6,
1.7 and 1.8) □ Users’ preferences – culture, customs, behaviour, usage patterns,
expectations and needs
□ Existing buildings – technical and aesthetic state, structural and material
properties, reclamation potential
□ Materials – processing and dismantling technologies and methods
□ Infrastructure – recycling facilities and technologies, waste streams
□ Presence of active architecture – see Theme 7, Table 1.7
□ Existing inequalities, injustices and other impacts – e.g., from activities,
policies, customs, uses, functions, events, practices
LOCAL AND GLOBAL
RESPONSIBILITY □ Possible unintended consequences or knock-on effects
□ Positive and restorative initiatives and impacts
□ Vulnerable groups – humans and non-humans
1.4.2 Theme 2: Inf rastructure 1.10 EXAMPLES

Infrastructure is a central theme to explore during your contextual
research. In many instances, this information will be the backbone
approaches related to
of your design intervention. These are the technical structures that
infrastructure
enable transportation, water, sewage, energy and the internet and
determine the self-suffciency of your project. For example, there may
• Off-grid architecture
not be any energy infrastructure in rural areas, and you might have
(Table 2.5)
› see Chapter 2, to generate your own energy within the design intervention. › Green, • Urban climate adaptation
Section 2.3.5 blue and social infrastructures are equally important – see Themes • Urban farming
3 and 8. Your site’s physical context will signifcantly infuence your • 15-minute city
building’s form and aesthetics as it sets the (physical) cultural context. • Smart cities
Furthermore, the existing structures may provide opportunities for
› see Chapter 4 transformation or adaptive reuse ›, which will impact your project’s
› see Glossary embodied energy and CO2 footprint ›. This will become increasingly
and Theme 5 important when certain functions become obsolete (e.g., factories,
traditional offces, learning spaces and car parks) due to green
transitions in production, working and mobility. Some typical issues to
› see Table 1.2 collect data on are described below. ›
Neighbourhood
The neighbourhood provides general information relating to the
current location and physical built context. Methods for collecting
information about this topic include historical documents such as
maps and photos, archives, mapping, sketching, photography and
› see Table 1.2 experiential observations. ›
31
Transport inf rastructure: circulation, mobility and access Figure 1.11 Diagrams indicating
different considerations to
Circulation, mobility and access concern how you get to and from
research and map in relation
your site, as well as the connection and potential for more sustainable to infrastructure, including
modes of public transport – shifting away from car dependency. In public space, access, zoning,
addition, the safety, atmosphere and general access impact how circulation and utilities.
your project can connect to existing spaces or infrastructure. In many
ways, these topics are the buffer area between your site and the more
expansive city or region. The existing and future planned mobility
infrastructure provides a basis that can either be added to, or will
need to be changed. This topic infuences the overall sustainability
and programmatic success of the project. Mapping, zoning maps,
statistics, observation and patterns of use are all data sources and
› see Table 1.2 methods of collecting data for this topic. ›
Inf rastructure and utilities

Different types of infrastructure supply all the resources a building
needs. You must understand and create an inventory of the
public services and other infrastructure, including water supply,
sewer and treatment facilities, drainage systems, electrical supply,
32
telecommunications, district heating and cooling, and waste transfer

and recycling facilities, but also formal social infrastructure (such
as childcare, playgrounds, and educational and medical facilities).
Documenting the existing networks your project could use is
important as it may elucidate more sustainable alternatives, especially
› see Chapter 2, if your project aims to be autonomous or off-grid. › Useful data sources
Section 2.3.4 and methods include mapping (GIS), observations, photos and
› see Table 1.2 historical information. ›
Site and zoning

While it may be less pressing within a student project, research
concerning the site and zoning is often related to the legal restrictions
of a site. The zoning of a district often restricts the type of programme
or function of your project. For example, if an area is zoned industrial,
you may need special permission to design a residential project there.
Furthermore, city or regional plans often dictate many restrictions a
building must comply with to get permission; therefore, it is essential to
know them from the start. Mapping and diagrams are excellent tools
› see Table 1.2 to document these conditions. › However, as a student, it is not always
easy or possible to access this information as it is usually published in
regulatory or policy documents by the local council or municipality.
Figure 1.12 Mapping of
Existing built fabric different functions, typologies,
infrastructure and connections
You will rarely have a site with no existing building fabric in the vicinity around a site in Stavanger
unless you design for a pristine greenfeld in a rural area. All this built by Odin Olesen to develop a
fabric (building, landscape and urban) holds historical and cultural concept.
33
meaning and nostalgic value, or, at the least, signifes something
about the existing social condition. Choosing which architectural
characteristics and identity to adopt, keep or demolish are essential
early decisions. This will help you understand if a transformation is
possible, employing adaptive reuse or material harvesting in your
› see Theme 6 project. › Input comes from the physical characteristics, styles, function,
› see Table 1.2 history and condition. › Historical documents, photos and maps, as well
as on-site observations, sketches and interviews can give insight.
TABLE 1.2 THEME 2: INFRASTRUCTURE – RESEARCH, MAP AND ANALYSE
□ Existing built environment – see below

□ Public spaces
□ Exterior spaces and their use
□ Site lines
NEIGHBOURHOOD
□ Site boundary
□ Site security
□ Legal restrictions
□ Street lighting (artifcial)
□ Access to the site (public/private) – car parking, bus routes, train stations, cycle
TRANSPORT routes, pedestrian walkways (including traffc volumes)
INFRASTRUCTURE:
CIRCULATION,
□ Accessibility – current provisions for disability access
MOBILITY AND □ Circulation – site fow of how people move around or within the site.
ACCESS □ Travel time and distances to and from the site to key attractions (e.g., train
station, supermarket)
□ Location of existing infrastructure: electricity, gas, heating, water, sewer,

› see also telephone (this includes both underground and above ground) ›
Theme 5
INFRASTRUCTURE □ Waste collection, recycling facilities
AND UTILITIES
□ Social infrastructure: childcare, playgrounds, educational facilities, medical
facilities, social services, cultural institutions, religious buildings, recreational
› see Theme 8 and meeting spaces; note if public or private access ›
□ Site boundary and dimensions – location and dimensions of easements

□ Zoning – commercial, industrial, residential
SITE AND ZONING □ Building restrictions and characteristics – density, height restrictions, setback
requirements – e.g., fre safety, open space
□ Buildable area of the site –- minimum site area requirements
□ Location, outline, shape, typology, physical conditions
□ Current use and functions and potential for building reuse
□ Floor elevations, height, density
□ Previous use of the site
□ Building context – style, period, state of repair of the surrounding buildings
EXISTING BUILT □ Historical/heritage/conservation area
FABRIC □ Key features and character
□ Surfaces and materials around the site
□ Fences, walls, decks, urban furniture, modifcations of the environment and
landscape, materiality and conditions
□ Exposure – contamination concerns
› see Glossary □ Materials for reuse and buildings as material banks ›
34
1.4.3 Theme 3: Environment 1.11 EXAMPLES

Topics related to the environment are vital to ensuring a low-impact
and restorative approach to nature and biodiversity. Along with the
climate emergency, we are also faced with a global biodiversity
environment
crisis. We already see the decline of biodiversity and irreversible
extinction of animals as a direct consequence of human-made
• Ecological design
impacts. Aside from the ethical implications this raises, it unbalances
• Biophilic design (Table 2.8)
the entire ecosystem, endangering our own life-support system. The • Biomimicry
theme of environment encompasses different aspects which make • Eco-tech architecture
up larger natural systems that are not bound by the site’s limits • Sponge city
but extend well beyond. These aspects are present no matter how
urbanised a context is; for example, even the densest context receives
sunshine and precipitation, and contains soil, vegetation and fauna.
Figure 1.13 Diagrams of
To use your site’s environment and enhance its condition, frst map
different topics to research
and research the existing conditions as well as opportunities and
and map related to the theme
threats. Architectural approaches such as ecological architecture or of the environment, including
› see Chapter 2, regenerative architecture › are rooted in thorough research of the topography and views, fora,
Tables 2.4 and 2.8 environmental aspects. fauna, geology and water.
35
Topography 1.12 PRACTICE
The form of land is called its topography. Most analysis begins with
looking at existing topographic surveys to understand the site’s Ground investigations in
contour lines, which express the elevation. The topography affects practice
how water will move around the site and what drainage is needed; In a real project, the structural
it affects orientation for the sun and protection from the wind, as engineers will specify the
types of ground investigations
well as how your building touches the ground (e.g., on stilts, dug into
required to design the
the landscape, underground). Positioning your building on a sun-
substructure of the building.
facing slope rather than a fat site means it will receive more solar
As a student, you usually
› see Theme 4, radiation, which is important in the colder months. › A topographical
have to assume fairly normal
Chapter 3 analysis is also supported by your own on-site observations – for
ground conditions for your
example, mapping the low points where water pools or how the sun
project unless you have
hits a hillside. Site models (analogue or digital) are also helpful for an access to other information.
overarching understanding, and 3D digital terrain models are often
› see Chapter 5 freely available for many sites.2 ›
Geology and soil

Most projects interact with the ground layer, including the site’s
geology, soil and groundwater as well as surface form. Understand
what lies below the ground, as it impacts many of the fundamental
design decisions; for example, the depth of the bedrock and the soil
properties will determine which kind of foundations are possible, the
drainage (permeability) of the ground and surface water fltration
(food risk), as well as what types of vegetation can grow on site.
Surface soil is often divided into three basic types based on particle 1.13 NOTE
size: sand, silt and clay. Sand allows free water movement, prompting
drainage; silt is stable when dry but unstable when wet; while clay Water, geopolitics and
traps water, swells and softens when wet. Historical research into climate justice
the previous functions of the site may reveal previous structures or Many countries suffer
contaminants. This will determine what level of remediation is needed from severe drought, have
to safeguard people’s health and wellbeing as well as a thriving, unreliable access to drinking
biodiverse ecosystem. Geological data can often be found from water and rely on water
municipal maps, but may not be precise. Much can be learned from sources that are downstream
from other countries. As such,
simply walking around the site, sensing how it has been shaped as
access to a safe and reliable
well as the type of surface soil.
supply of water depends on
Blue inf rastructure: water and hydrology geopolitics (see Glossary).
Climate change is altering
Water is essential for all life on Earth and is present both below
precipitation patterns and
and above the ground. Above the ground, oceans, lakes, rivers and
melting ice caps, reducing
wetlands make up the majority of water sources and are recharged by
the available water supply
rainfall. Rainfall is unique for each location, with some places having
in certain areas while also
monsoon rainfall, or rainfall spread out over the year, or very little rain
threatening low-lying regions
at all. The climate emergency is disrupting usual rainfall patterns,
with sea inundation, adversely
with an increase in heavy downpours and food events. In contrast, it affecting lives and livelihoods.
is also predicted that we will see an increase in periods of drought at This is a major issue for global
other times. Northern European latitudes are likely to become wetter, ethics and is part of our global
with less snow cover, impacting glaciers and ice melt; meanwhile it is responsibility: any project we
predicted that southern Europe will see a reduction in precipitation. In design that contributes to
all areas, more extreme weather events are predicted. Rising sea levels the climate emergency also
due to ice caps melting threatens permanent coastal inundation and contributes to these climate
land loss in low-lying areas worldwide. injustices.
36
Figure 1.14 Mapping of existing

environmental concerns on site,
including present and future
water and fooding conditions
and different fora and fauna by
Karoline Frederikke Hyveled-
Nielsen and Peer Tue Näthke.
37
The current and future location and condition of water on your site
are important as these impact where you can place your building – it
should be in a safe and food-proof zone. Understand how your site
will be affected by rising sea levels, snowmelt, river overfows and
› see Glossary precipitation events (i.e., fuvial and pluvial fooding ›), now and in
the future. Municipalities usually have maps indicating existing water
bodies and their projected levels and food risk.
You also need to think about the water that will be used in your
building: where does it come from, where will it be discharged to, and
how will it be recycled or treated? Municipal maps also indicate the
presence of blue infrastructure (e.g., sewage, run-off, storage).
Green inf rastructure: fauna and flora

Architecture is usually designed for humans, with little or no concern
for non-human species. This needs to change. Long before human
settlement, your site was the home for many animals, plants and
insects. When designing for the climate and the biodiversity crisis,
we imagine how we can cohabit with non-human species. Built
developments have a considerable negative impact on fauna
(animals) and fora (plants), especially concerning land-use change
and habitat fragmentation and degradation, as well as degrading
soil and pollution. While these impacts may seem insignifcant at an
individual plot scale, they are crucial for the overall system’s health
and contribute to mitigating climate change. One of the largest
threats to wildlife, especially in urban areas, is the fragmentation of
habitats or broken wildlife corridors (e.g., by changing food sources,
or light pollution disrupting nocturnal activity). The fora on your site
directly relates to the microclimate, in some instances reducing wind,
› see Glossary providing shade and impacting the urban heat island effect. ›
It is important to map the signifcant green infrastructure – i.e., fora
and fauna, including woodlands, felds, hedgerows and trees – when
researching your site. Understanding the types of trees (evergreen
or deciduous, i.e., if they lose their leaves), which other (animal)
species they support, and their size are crucial to be able to protect,
integrate and enhance existing fora in your proposed intervention.
Look closer and understand why a plant is growing; is there a water
supply or specifc sunlight condition that helps it thrive? Is it ‘wild’,
a seed deposited by a bird or a planned garden? Is it native or an
introduced species? Don’t forget to look at water edges and what is
below the surface, as these habitats are often overlooked but flled
with biodiversity.
Collected information for this topic includes in-person experiences
from the site (e.g., collecting samples, taking pictures, sketching or
mapping), as well as desktop research based on municipal maps and
biodiversity plans. Additionally, you can look at available local research
by botanists, biologists, ecologists and environmental conservationists.
This can include learning about the characteristics and growing
conditions of the different species found on site.
38
TABLE 1.3 THEME 3: THE ENVIRONMENT – RESEARCH, MAP AND ANALYSE
□ Topography of the site – slope, valleys, ridges, slopes

TOPOGRAPHY □ Site levels and contour lines
□ Views
› see Section □ Type of site – green-, brown- or greyfeld ›
1.3.1, Figure 1.4
□ Geological condition and bedrock – type, depth and location
GEOLOGY
AND SOIL
□ Soil – type, density and location, permeability
□ Presence of contamination – soil, water, air, toxicity
□ Bearing capacity and stability of the ground, including seismic conditions
□ Location of existing water bodies – lakes, streams, creeks, wetland or marshland
(swamps), natural wells
□ Groundwater table and seasonal water table – aquifer recharge areas and springs
□ Precipitation patterns (rain, snowfall), and patterns of drought, now and in
the future
BLUE
› see Glossary INFRASTRUCTURE: □ Existing potable water supply › and treatment – location, quantity, quality
WATER AND
HYDROLOGY
□ Surface drainage pattern and direction (on and off the site)
□ Natural and human-made drainage channels, location of existing stormwater
controls such as trenches – their fow, capacity, direction.
□ Fluctuation of water – areas of concentrated run-off, pooling, possible food risks
(in different seasons, now and predicted in the future) – see Chapter 3, Section
3.2.1 and 3.2.2 and Table 3.4
□ Biodiversity (fauna and fora) – type and location, protected and invasive species
and zones
□ Preservation and habitat areas for fsh, amphibians, reptiles, mammals and birds
GREEN
INFRASTRUCTURE:
□ Green corridors – types, location and movement (including migration), food
sources (see Chapter 4, Note 4.02)
FLORA AND FAUNA
□ Vegetation – trees, shrubs, open spaces, greenery, landscaping, mushrooms,
berries, aquatic plants (seaweed)
□ For trees and larger shrubs – map type, size, diameter, the spread of branches,
root area, height, evergreen/deciduous, visual value
39
1.4.4 Theme 4: Passive resilience 1.14 NOTE
Passive resilience is fundamental for your design intervention, as it
The value of urban trees
ensures your building responds to a particular climate and context.
Trees provide visual interest
This is the foundation for many of the other climate emergency design
throughout the seasons,
themes such as energy and CO2 (Theme 5), health and wellbeing
promoting human health and
(Theme 7), delight (Theme 9) and performance (Theme 10). Climatic
wellbeing. They also provide
factors, solar orientation and wind are all important aspects that
ecological and environmental
impact your future design, so these should be researched, mapped benefts, including the
and analysed as a fundamental part of your contextual research. attenuation of surface water
run-off, summer shading of
Climatic factors (microclimate)
buildings and outside spaces,
Each site has both general (regional) and unique climatic protection from cold winds,
characteristics (i.e., microclimate), which should be documented masking of traffc noise
and analysed. Climatic aspects are the foundation of your project as and urban cooling through
they affect the viability of many sustainable design strategies such evapotranspiration. Trees
as choice of layout, zoning of functions, ventilation strategy, level of also support biodiversity and
› see Theme 4, insulation, airtightness and even material choices. › Both the natural reduce the urban heat island
Chapter 4 and the human-made elements affect the microclimate of your effect (see Glossary).
site. For example, a tree or existing building may act as a windbreak,
protecting the site and impacting the microclimate signifcantly.
1.15 EXAMPLES
approaches related to passive
resilience
• Passivhaus (Table 2.6)
• Passive solar architecture
• Self-sustaining architecture
• Bio-shelters
• Tropical architecture

different topics concerning
passive resilience to
research and map, including
microclimate, wind direction,
solar orientation and solar
shading.
40
Different aspects affect the temperature, including wind, shadows, Figure 1.16 Mapping and
nearness to water and vegetation, and topography or slope. For research of how solar and wind
example, in the northern hemisphere, southern slopes will be warmer factors impact the passive
resilience of a site by Karla Citlali
than northern sloping sites (the opposite in the southern hemisphere)
Steninge Hernandez. Research
or fat sites due to solar radiation exposure. Therefore, temperature shows how wind tunnels form
information is relevant for the general area but also for the site’s within a specifc context and
unique microclimate. For example, adjacent bodies of water affect how that relates to national
a site’s humidity (moisture in the air) and temperature, with coastal wind patterns.
or river sites being more humid than inland areas. Even small bodies
of water can provide a cooling effect. Other conditions that affect
humidity are vegetation and wind direction (i.e., downwind from the
water is more humid than upwind).
Regional data give statistics on temperature and humidity, while the
microclimate can also be experienced during your site visit, and data
from local weather stations might also be available.
41
Solar orientation
Solar orientation is a fundamental part of your contextual research
that can impact your project signifcantly, and affects other design
considerations such as climate, vegetation, daylight and social
activities. The solar orientation and shadows on your site should affect
how you position your building, its mass and height and the zoning of
functions, as well as the size and location of windows and openings.
These considerations impact the energy use (and associated CO2)
to heat or cool the building and are especially important for passive
› see Chapter 2, design strategies. ›
Themes 3 and 4
The sun is usually discussed in terms of its angle or sun path – local
altitude (height, measured in degrees from the horizon) and azimuth
› see Glossary (direction, measured as the distance in degrees from north) ›, all of
which vary throughout a day and year. This information is crucial
to calculate the shadows cast by buildings or other site features.
Additionally, sunlight is refected or absorbed depending on the
surface type; i.e., light surfaces absorb less light than dark surfaces
› see Glossary but instead refect light – this is known as albedo. › The albedo of
› see Chapter surfaces contributes to the urban heat island effect ›, creating a
3, Section 3.2.3 warmer microclimate in urban environments. Another contributing
and Glossary
factor is the storage of heat in materials and surfaces, determined by
› see Glossary the specifc heat capacity and thermal mass › of the materials that
receive the sun’s radiation. Information about the sun’s path is easily
available for general areas and can be documented and explored
in more depth through 3D models and free online apps3, and in
analogue sketches and models.
Wind
Knowledge of the wind patterns, direction and speed on your site is
important, as this can impact people’s thermal comfort and perceived
› see Chapters 3 temperature and passive cooling through ventilation. ›
and 4
The wind generally has predictable patterns but differs between
seasons, and is also heavily affected by your site and design. However,
wind patterns are becoming increasingly unpredictable and
stronger due to climate change. Wind affects building energy use
and the usability of the outdoor environment; for example, in urban
› see Figure 1.16 environments, buildings can channel winds (wind-tunnel effect ›),
and Glossary creating uncomfortable gust conditions, while wind speeds at the
top of a hill are typically higher than in the valley. Wind patterns also
change as a result of extreme weather events such as hurricanes,
› see Glossary tornadoes or cyclones › or near large bodies of water (e.g., onshore
breezes in the afternoon and offshore breezes at night).
To understand the local wind patterns, you can collect objective data
(e.g., wind-roses that indicate monthly and yearly speeds and wind
direction) as well as subjective observations (on-site experience and
measurements). For a more advanced understanding, especially for
testing the impact of your own design, wind tunnel installations and
› see Chapter 5 computer software can be used to test air movement. ›
42
TABLE 1.4 THEME 4: PASSIVE RESILIENCE – RESEARCH, MAP AND ANALYSE
□ General climatic data – e.g., tropical, dry, moderate, continental or polar

□ Atmospheric conditions – weather
CLIMATIC FACTORS □ Temperatures – maximum/minimum, day/night temperature variations
(microclimate) □ Humidity – high, low and averages
□ Rainfall – precipitation, annual rain
□ Future predicted changes to the above aspects
□ Sunlight – annual solar energy per m2 per year
□ Solar radiation – sun angle/path, solar intensity and orientation
SOLAR
ORIENTATION
□ Shading – from adjacent structures, natural features and vegetation
□ Cloud cover – including predicted future changes
□ Albedo and thermal capacity (material properties)
□ Wind – maximum and average velocity
□ Prevailing wind directions (wind-rose) – seasonal changes and thermal
properties
WIND
□ Wind fows – including local wind tunnels
□ Sheltered and exposed areas – site conditions and vegetation
□ Future predicted changes to the above aspects
1.4.5 Theme 5: Energy and CO2 1.16 EXAMPLES

Once a building’s energy use has been minimised through passive
resilience strategies (Theme 4), it becomes easier to meet the
approaches related to energy
remaining energy needs with clean energy sources on site, thereby
and CO2
reducing CO2 emissions further. The opportunities for and barriers
to the provision of clean energy sources will depend greatly on the
• Passivhaus
unique context and the conditions the site has to offer to exploit
• Nearly zero-energy building
potential energy resources. For example, micro-wind power may • Energy-plus house
be feasible if the site is suffciently windy (over 5 m/s wind speed on • Active house
› see Chapter 4, average, usually only available in rural areas ›; solar energy may be • Passive solar architecture
Section 4.5 suitable even in northern regions (in the northern hemisphere, south (Table 2.5)
in the southern hemisphere) if there is little shade on the site from
neighbouring vegetation and structures.
As part of our transition towards a carbon-neutral society, the
selection of low-embodied-energy and low-carbon materials – in
their extraction, manufacturing and transportation to the site – is
fundamental. Therefore, as part of your contextual research, locate
and map the existing and future planned energy and material sources
(Theme 6) near the site and in the neighbourhood. You can do this
through desktop research (online maps, city policies), and using wind
and solar maps. Visiting the site will help you understand its unique
› see Themes 3 wind and solar conditions, which are likely to differ from general
and 4 regional data. ›
43

different energy and CO2 topics
to research and map, including
existing and potential energy
sources and low-embodied-
carbon materials.
Existing sources
Prior to harnessing the site’s resources for clean energy production, you
should understand which energy infrastructure is servicing the site or
its neighbourhood. Locate and map the existing and future planned
energy infrastructure (also see Theme 2) at macro- and micro-scale
(i.e., building scale). This includes energy services that either use clean
› see Glossary water, wind, sun, the ground (e.g., ground-source heat pumps ›) or that
burn waste- or CO2-intensive fuels such as coal, peat, gas, oil or wood.
(Contrary to common belief, the burning of wood is not a carbon-neutral,
clean energy source. In fact it can be as CO2-intensive as burning coal
– see Chapter 3.) You should also fnd out about what is planned in the
future, and the local energy policies, ambitions and targets in the area.
Knowledge of current energy services will help you understand at later
design stages what is feasible for your intervention at macro- and micro-
scale; for example, integrating certain technologies into your project, or
connecting to existing energy services, or providing a different solution.
Opportunities for on-site energy

The presence or absence of existing clean energy sources and
services near your site will give you an indication of what is feasible
for your own intervention; therefore, it is important to collect energy-
related data. This includes desktop studies of local wind speeds, solar
radiation, water fow and ground conditions (e.g., for ground-source
› see Glossary heat pumps or geothermal energy ›) and possible barriers to their
exploitation. Site visits will help map some of these aspects, especially
wind and solar access that is unique to the local microclimate.
› see Themes 3 Knowledge of the sun, water, wind and ground conditions › is
and 4 important for passive resilient design, as well as for harnessing these
free sources for potential on-site clean energy production.
Local and low-embodied-energy materials

Materials for a sustainable design should be of low embodied energy
› see Glossary and carbon ›; this often includes reclaimed materials. This topic
› see Theme 6, overlaps with Theme 6 ›, and includes looking at your collected data
Table 1.6 from the perspective of energy and carbon.
44
Figure 1.18 Robyn Davis and

Paddy McElroy illustrated
their project energy and CO2
strategies.
45
TABLE 1.5 THEME 5: ENERGY AND CO2 – RESEARCH, MAP AND ANALYSE
□ Existing energy infrastructure at a neighbourhood or macro-scale – power

plants, district heating/cooling and the fuel used (e.g., coal, gas, peat, wood,
EXISTING SOURCES
waste burning, sun, wind, hydro, ground-source heat pumps, geothermal)
OF ENERGY □ Existing micro-scale renewable energy technologies on-site and in the
neighbourhood
□ Clean energy policies, targets and ambitions – city, regional, national,
international
□ Future energy infrastructure plans at macro-scale

OPPORTUNITIES FOR
□ Potential available energy sources and fuels on-site – e.g., local wind speed,
water presence and water fow, solar radiation, ground conditions (rock, clay,
ON-SITE ENERGY
sand) for ground-source heat pumps, or geothermal energy
□ Barriers to local clean energy sources – ecology, orientation, shadows
LOCAL AND LOW-
EMBODIED-ENERGY □ see Theme 6, Table 1.6
› see Theme 6, MATERIALS ›
Table 1.6
1.4.6 Theme 6: Materials 1.17 EXAMPLES

Building materials are the physical, human-made matter from
which the built environment is constructed. They can be renewable
› see Chapter 4, or non-renewable, healthy or low-impact. › Sustainable building
Section 4.6 materials
materials are always contextual; that is, they should be chosen
in relation to the place, climate and function that they are used
• Healthy materials
for. When selecting materials, consider the environmental, socio-
• (Adaptive) reuse
cultural and economic context as well as performance over time • Cradle-to-cradle (Table 2.2)
in the local climatic conditions. Sustainable material choices often • Circular materials
favour the use of locally available materials, construction methods and • Design for disassembly
craftsmanship. Researching the available material resources, traditions (Table 2.2)
and techniques on your site and vicinity is, therefore, an important
part of your site analysis. Low-embodied-energy and low-carbon
› see Theme 5, materials are also a crucial part of a climate emergency design. ›
Table 1.5
Figure 1.19 Diagrams showing

the different topics in relation
to materials to map and
research, such as different
materials available for reuse,
local materials, and existing
construction techniques.
46
Buildings as material sources

Your search for suitable building materials should start early, while you
are conducting the site mapping and analysing the local context. Many
resources are scarce, and their production has a signifcant impact on
the environment. Always consider the reuse of existing structures and
materials, and explore if there are buildings or materials suitable for
reuse on your site or in the vicinity. Deteriorated, abandoned buildings
or other existing structures can be reused or serve as sources of building
materials (i.e., buildings as material banks). To map local resources, you Figure 1.20 Harvest map by
Annika Lyon. This map shows
can use online tools that show available local materials and their sources.4
different materials, products
› see Glossary Such urban mining › tools also help you make informed material choices
and recycling facilities around
and visualise fows of resources and waste within cities. Data to collect Copenhagen to enable
include the material type and quantities, availability, characteristics, understanding of where materials
technical and aesthetic state, and potential methods of (re)use. could be harvested from.
47
Local material sources and construction methods 1.18 PRACTICE

As a starting point, evaluate which materials and local construction
methods prevail in the city or region that you are working in. They Selection of sustainable
are often chosen because of local availability and climatic suitability. timber
Understand where the existing solutions work well, and where they In practice, when specifying
could be improved. Understand too the material and substance sources for timber elements, you
should specify materials certifed
fows and construction processes, including how materials are
by the Forest Stewardship
connected and fnished. Additionally, you can investigate spatial
Council (FSC), Programme for
distribution, structural systems, materiality and details, local artisans,
the Endorsement of Forest
workforces and their skills, and workshops and processing facilities.
Certifcation (PEFC) or the United
› see Chapter 4, Find the nearest source of natural and renewable materials › to avoid
Kingdom Woodland Assurance
Section 4.6 unsustainable over-harvesting. Look for how materials are processed,
Standard (UKWAS), as well as
i.e., track supply chains and ensure clean extraction and production those with Chain of Custody
› see Table 4.13 (e.g., sustainable timber harvesting ›, reversible quarries ›). (CoC) certifcation that tracks
and Glossary
Research your site and the wider region by using photography and and confrms a sustainable and
mapping of traditional buildings (e.g., vernacular architecture), details, responsible supply chain from
artisans and workshops, as well as connections to current local source to production.
suppliers, workforce and craftspeople.
TABLE 1.6 THEME 6: MATERIALS – RESEARCH, MAP AND ANALYSE
□ Local materials – surpluses and abandoned buildings (e.g., harvest map)

BUILDINGS AS
MATERIAL SOURCES □ Demolition and renovation companies
□ Landflls, wastelands and waste collection points and services
□ Locally available sources – forests, production plants, factories and material
processing infrastructure (including sustainability credentials)
□ Common and available materials
□ Existing traditional and vernacular architecture
LOCAL MATERIAL
SOURCES AND
□ Local craftsmanship and workforce – e.g., artisans, workshops, skills, products,
contractors
CONSTRUCTION
METHODS □ Local sources of renewable and non-renewable materials – e.g., quarries,
plantations, forestry
□ Local suppliers of building materials – suppliers and supply chains
□ Local processing facilities – e.g., building material producers, workshops,
contractors
□ Existing use of low-embodied-energy and low-carbon materials in the vicinity

□ Potential low-embodied-energy and low-carbon material sources – including
LOCAL AND LOW-
reclaimed materials for reuse
EMBODIED-ENERGY □ Buildings planned for demolition, potential reused materials
MATERIALS
□ Industries with potential low-carbon waste (e.g., agricultural waste), which can
be transformed into new materials
□ Local material production sites
48
1.4.7 Theme 7: Health and wellbeing 1.19 EXAMPLES

Our built environment can positively or negatively impact our
individual or communal health and wellbeing. There are many factors
approaches related to health
that impact our physical and psychological wellbeing, such as availability
and wellbeing
of nature (Theme 3), transportation infrastructure (Theme 2), thermal
comfort (Theme 4), social and community infrastructure (Theme 8) and
• Biophilic design
› see Tables 1.2, as delightful spaces (Theme 9). › Other factors are the air quality, both
• Active design
1.3, 1.4, 1.8 and 1.9 internally and outside, and exposure to ambient (i.e., nearby) noise, which • Regenerative design
should be researched in relation to your site. Remember to consider • WELL Building Standard
future perspectives; for example, whether an increase of cars from a new (Table 2.11)
development might affect the noise or subsequent air pollution. • Living Building Challenge
(Table 2.11)
Air quality
Air quality is part of indoor environmental quality (IEQ), including
thermal, visual and acoustic comfort. Indoor air quality (IAQ) is crucial
for people’s health and wellbeing. Exposure to air pollution near
schools affects learning, and can lead to many diseases, especially
respiratory diseases, that cause the deaths of millions of people each
year, particularly in densely populated cities.
IAQ is affected by activities and materials that take place inside, but
it also depends on the air quality outside. The source of air pollution
will infuence a design’s ventilation strategies; for example, polluted
outside air might need to be fltered and controlled prior to entering
internal spaces, while mechanical extraction is often used to manage
IAQ (e.g., in kitchens and bathrooms). As part of your contextual
research, investigate the outdoor air pollution levels and sources (e.g.,
from road traffc, power plants that burn fossil fuels, industrial or
agricultural activities, smoke, aircraft or radon), when they occur (daily,
seasonal or annually) and what remediation measures exist.
Usually, you can obtain external air pollution data from desktop
studies (municipal or national pollution maps). When working in an
existing building, you should also investigate the presence of any
indoor air pollution; this is likely to require stakeholder interviews
unless you can access previous studies.

different topics concerning
health and wellbeing to
research and map, including
the noise and pollution levels
of the area, gathered from
municipality data and maps or
site measurements.
49
Noise
Excessive noise is harmful to health and wellbeing, as it interferes with
everyday activities, disturbs sleep (if at night), and causes physical and
mental health issues. The World Health Organization estimates that
nearly 30% of Europeans are exposed to harmful traffc noise (and air
pollution), and 20% are exposed during the night.5
Some sounds might be desirable and add to the qualities of the site,
for example birdsong, or the sound of water or rustling leaves. Other Figure 1.22 Mapping and
research of different topics
sounds are a challenge, and should be identifed as areas that need
related to health and wellbeing
careful design to mitigate against. In some cases, the noise sources
by Tale Nixon – specifcally,
experienced on a site are not suitable for the project’s proposed how the relationship to nature
outdoor and indoor functions, and an alternative site will be needed affects mental health in a
(e.g., a school near heavy traffc or industrial noise). Danish context.
CONNECTING INCREASING URBANISATION

WITH DECREASING CONTENTMENT
FLOW OF HABITATION MUNICIPALITY
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Triggering factors for anxiety and depression Preventative factors for anxiety and depression
50
Remember that your design will probably have both outdoor and
indoor uses, with very different requirements. A noise source that is
acceptable in an outdoor space may not be acceptable for a proposed
indoor space on the site. For example, the rumble of a train passing a
park might be quite interesting and welcomed when outside, but this
will not be the case for someone trying to get to sleep at night. Similar
› see Chapter 4, to air pollution, the noise will infuence a building’s ventilation strategy. ›
Section 4.4.4
and 4.7.5 Noise sources on a site can vary signifcantly – you can see a range of
noise levels in Table 1.7. Some sources you can obtain from noise maps
(e.g., road traffc), while others can only be experienced from site visits
(e.g., people talking, nature sounds). You can get a reasonable idea of
site noise levels by using a sound meter or a smartphone app while on
site, or by fnding published acoustic surveys.
Adaptable and active architecture

Adaptable architecture simply refers to adaptable spaces and places
(Theme 1) in which the user can make adjustments over time based
on their needs. This can include internal changes to a user’s home,
which might be indicated by new window additions, closed-up
windows, or how balconies are used (e.g., enclosed or extended). While
external facade changes may be an indicator of interior adaptations,
it cannot be assumed that they were undertaken by the user to meet
their needs (e.g., it could be the landlord). Changes also occur in public
spaces as they host different activities (e.g. informal fea markets,
street games, street closures or car parking transformations).
Additionally, buildings and public spaces can often be transformed
to encourage physical activity and wellbeing, i.e., active architecture
encourages people to take the stairs instead of the lift, to cycle instead of
› see Chapter 2, drive, etc. › This may be through the addition of explicit equipment, or by
Section 2.3.7 creating meandering and interesting paths to encourage walking.
Mapping adaptable and active architecture aspects can generally
only be done through observations during a site visit. As you walk
around, observe: are there such adaptable and active aspects on
your site and in its vicinity? Can you see evidence that people have
taken ownership of spaces, or that the surroundings encourage
more sustainable behaviours? This might include safe and wide cycle
lanes and pavements to encourage cycling and walking, good public
transport links and comfortable bus/train/tram stops, and physical
access to open spaces. Map these so you can learn from them and use
the principles in your own project.
51
TABLE 1.7. THEME 7: HEALTH AND WELLBEING – RESEARCH, MAP AND ANALYSE
Possible data to collect, map and analyse:
Map the presence or absence of air pollution:

□ Outdoor dust, odour, smoke, smog, pollution/toxicity – severity, duration, when it
AIR QUALITY occurs, remediation measures, sources
□ Indoor air pollution when working with an existing structure – sources (e.g., from
outside, asbestos, radon, cleaning products, off-gassing of products and materials)
Map the presence or absence of noise sources (typical noise levels at close range are
listed in brackets in dB):
□ Recreation sounds, sports, concerts (120 dB)
□ Aircraft noise (120–140 dB)
□ Industrial sounds (100 dB)
NOISE
□ Road and rail traffc noise, close by and sometimes further away (70–90 dB)
□ Sounds emitted by building services (60 dB)
□ People talking, playing, shouting (60 dB)
□ Weather sounds – wind, rain, etc. (40 dB)
□ Water sounds, trees, wildlife, animals (30–40 dB)
ADAPTABLE
AND ACTIVE
□ Citizens’ ownership of space
ARCHITECTURE □ Situations and conditions that encourage more active lifestyles
Map the presence or absence of:
□ Green infrastructure – see Theme 3, Table 1.3
□ Transport infrastructure – see Theme 2, Table 1.2
OTHER
□ Social infrastructure – see Themes 2 and 8, Tables 1.2. and 1.8
□ Solar access (thermal, visual comfort) – see Theme 4, Table 1.4
□ Delightful places and moments – see Theme 9, Table 1.9
1.4.8 Theme 8: People and community 1.20 EXAMPLES

In addition to the physical conditions, the cultural and social context
› see Glossary and social infrastructure › are fundamentally important to ensure
approaches related to people
your design intervention will function well far into the future. It
and community
is about strengthening a community’s sense of place as well as
supporting the community’s and individuals’ health and wellbeing.
• Participatory design (co-
Within this theme are social and cultural aspects, which include both
design)
the tangible and intangible aspects of the past and present and in • Democratic architecture
future scenarios. Researching the context for people and community • Inclusive design
can include various methods, from mapping physical spaces and • Soft Landings
amenities, to looking at statistics, counting or observing how spaces • Sustainable urban design
are used, and interviewing or having conversations with users and
› see Figure 1.24 other stakeholders within the space and creating personas. › However,
on page 55 remember that your desktop research will only tell a small part of the
story and from your perspective, so, if possible, spend as much time as
› see Section 1.3.2 possible on site › to gain local knowledge and a range of inputs.
52
Demographics Figure 1.23 Diagrams

of different people and
Primarily we design buildings for people; therefore, gather as much
community topics to research
information as possible about who lives, works or visits the area. One and map, such as built culture,
way to do this is by researching and understanding the demographics, demographics, different social
through extensive census information online (statistics and GIS maps). infrastructure, and activities
Nevertheless, on-site research and observations are important to and patterns of use.
supplement this abstracted information. This may involve speaking to
local people, counting how many people move through a space, and
fnding out how long they spend there, their age, gender and level of
mobility, as well as any other observations they have about the locality.
Remember to speak to a diversity of people to understand different
perspectives and give you a better sense of demographics and
additional information about inclusivity (i.e., those who feel welcome
and who have access to a space). Remember to note the time of day
you complete your observation and what the weather is like, as this
will have infuenced the information you gathered.
Understanding how a demographic has changed in an area can offer
an insight into future projections of who may live in and use the area
in future. It also helps you make informed decisions if you are starting
a participatory process.
53
Built culture and associated meaning

Collecting cultural information is important for contextual design, as
it ensures your design intervention creates, maintains or strengthens
› see Section a ‘sense of place’. › Culture is understood differently in different
1.2.1. contexts, and can range from tangible and physical to intangible,
such as folklore, customs and people’s attitudes. Therefore, collecting
research information on culture can be diffcult, especially if the
culture is not your own, because associated meanings and intangible
aspects may not be visible to you as an outsider. Built culture can be
easier to collect information about, and often materialises in the local
architecture or built form, for example in construction techniques,
building typologies, characteristic styles, functions (and how space is
used), sustainability practices, resources, renovation or maintenance
strategies. This information may be collected through historical
accounts and drawings, photographs, sketches and maps, as well as
observations and conversations with the users.
Social inf rastructure: activities and interactions

Existing activities and interactions occur within and around your
site, for example formal and organised sports and hobby activities, or
everyday activities such as sitting on a bench or walking a dog. More
formal functions such as schools, libraries, community centres and
medical centres also support social infrastructure. Understanding
these activities, their affordability and the supporting social
infrastructure (e.g., a meeting place, a bench, a sunny courtyard, a
safe crossing, a wide pavement) will give you key information about
opportunities and challenges, especially in relation to the function,
programme and public life of your design and how the community
connection is supported. While on site, record a snapshot of what
› see Glossary people are doing (patterns of use ›), their interactions at a given
time, how certain spaces and places support local community
gatherings, and where they do not. Additionally, document how
people move through your site and by what means. This may also
indicate how long people spend at the site, the hours of the day it
is typically used, or if it is a transition space with busier periods. In
addition to more quantitative methods of counting and observing,
talking to users can help you understand their opinions of the spaces
for their use. For example, why they choose a certain path, or why
they sit in a certain place. This might also give you information about
safety and security concerns.
Figure 1.24 (opposite) Mirjami

Myllymäki developed diverse
personas based on contextual
research of real people in Paris,
and created scenarios (‘routes’)
of how they might move through
the city to the project site. See also
Figure 5.53.
54
55
Democratic processes
Participatory and democratic processes are where local community
members are involved in the co-creation of aspects of the built
environment, creating a knowledge exchange between the design
experts and the community as local experts. Such participatory
processes support community empowerment and help to create
interventions that are more likely to meet the community’s needs
and expectations, given that they were involved in its creation (and
sometimes execution). As part of your site research, map past or
planned co-creation processes and initiatives that have occurred. You
should also map the local community and residents’ associations
that might be interested in taking part in co-creation activities. This
could be as part of your site data collection or as a purely theoretical
exercise – even if you are not able to execute it during your student
› see Chapter 3, design project. ›
Notes 3.26
and 3.27 Engaging the community in a ‘live project’
Live projects are student projects that take place in a real context
and community, and are usually undertaken in student groups. Your
proposal might not always be a design intervention, and it may or may
not be executed in reality, whether built by you or others. Given its real
context, you might focus more on the inputs from local communities.
When working with local stakeholders, try to understand the socio-
cultural context that you are working with. Observe and analyse the
needs, preferences, customs and skills of the community who are the
future users of your proposal. You can use fast, participatory tools to
gather basic information from a large number of stakeholders, such
as public meetings, newsletters, questionnaires or surveys. Refect
on the possible questions and format of these surveys – you can use
lists, multiple-choice questions or more open, descriptive ones. You
can conduct informal discussions or participatory observations to
verify the outcome of these surveys. To get more detailed and focused
information about the needs of the users, you can conduct interviews
› see Notes 3.26, with relevant stakeholders. ›
3.27 and 5.01
To engage the local community, showing precedents and examples
to local stakeholders6 can be benefcial. Ensure that these local
stakeholders represent diverse socio-economic backgrounds,
ethnicities, ages, genders, professions, education and income levels,
family set-ups and lifestyles. This will allow you to defne various needs
well and negotiate between them.
56
TABLE 1.8 THEME 8: PEOPLE AND COMMUNITY – RESEARCH, MAP AND ANALYSE
Possible data to collect, map and analyse:
□ Remember to make sure when you interview or have a conversation with local
people that you abide by research ethics, i.e. that participants know what the
GENERAL
purpose is and how you will store and use the data (e.g. quotes, recordings,
photographs) that they share with you.
□ Map resident and user populations – e.g., age, gender, ethnicity, economic
status and role, political participation
DEMOGRAPHICS
□ Compositions of habitation
□ Patterns of change
□ Local meanings attached to the site
□ Building techniques and materials – building typologies, characteristics
or attributes, styles, functions, use of resources, sustainability practices,
› see Theme 6 renovation or maintenance strategies, construction techniques ›
BUILT CULTURE
AND ASSOCIATED □ Symbolic and religious associations
MEANING
□ Intangible culture, including folklore, stories and art
□ Individuals’ and communities’ hopes, fears, wishes, preferences, expectations,
attitudes, behaviours and customs, and how they use and inhabit a space
□ Perceptions and experience of safety and security, inclusivity
□ Patterns of use – which formal and informal functions are provided, what
spaces are used, when, how and why, and by whom
□ Temporal and seasonal activities and their affordability – wandering, selling,
reading, sitting, walking, dog walking, picnicking, gardening, teenagers
SOCIAL
INFRASTRUCTURE: or older people gathering, kids playing, meditating, recreation and sports
ACTIVITIES AND activities
INTERACTION □ Rhythm and movement of people – how many people move, how many
people stay and for how long, why
□ Social infrastructure that supports interactions among different people
□ Inclusivity – how accessible, affordable and diverse societal participation is
□ Previous or existing co-creation processes and initiatives that may have
occurred as part of previous development or community initiatives
DEMOCRATIC
PROCESSES
□ Areas of power, politics or decision-making – e.g., municipalities, councils,
housing associations
□ Local community and residents’ associations and initiatives that are active in
the community
□ Local community’s needs, preferences, customs and skills

ENGAGING THE
COMMUNITY IN A
□ Diversity and inclusivity – including stakeholders from diverse backgrounds
‘LIVE PROJECT ’ □ Methods for engagement – e.g., public meetings, newsletters, questionnaires
or surveys, informal discussions, observation, interviews
57
1.4.9 Theme 9: Delight 1.21 EXAMPLES

Delight refers to beautiful spaces, places, atmospheres, moments,
experiences or events that give different people joy, contentment
approaches related to delight
and meaning, positively affecting wellbeing. This can be tangible
or intangible – for example, a contrast between dark and light in
• Critical regionalism
spaces, material quality or simply a bench with a beautiful view, a
• Organic architecture
tree in bloom, or feeling the sun on one’s skin in winter and cool air
• Eco-aesthetic
and shade in a warm summer (also refers to thermal comfort, see • Biomimicry (Table 2.4)
Theme 4). During your site visit, map these inspiring moments that • Biophilic design (Table 2.8)
are delightful, valued and cared for by you and/or the local community
on your site and in its vicinity. You may question whether they are
valued and accessible by all, or not. How can you protect, celebrate or
enhance these joyful moments, and what can you learn from this for
your own design intervention?
Sensory delight
Many sensory conditions are experienced as a consequence of
the natural or physical built environment. A site’s context may be
positive, but it can often be negative, especially if you are using a
brown- or greyfeld. For example, derelict buildings, waste, damage,
contamination or transportation infrastructure can negatively
impact the atmosphere of your project. But if you look deeper, you
will usually also fnd moments of beauty and value: a weathered,
patinated material; a crack in the wall where nature has taken over;
a window that captures the sunset; a rhythm of shadow and light
entering a space. Sometimes these positive or negative moments
can be the starting point of a design concept; hence exploring and
understanding their origins is essential to celebrate moments or to
make a change.
Most sensory information is collected through frst-hand on-site
experience, through sketches, a sequence of photographs at different
› see Glossary times of the day, sound recordings or bodystorming ›.

different topics related to
delight to research and map,
such as the atmosphere, and
sensory elements (e.g., textures
of materials, views, connections
to nature).
58
Figure 1.26 Exploration of

daylight, and different shading
and acoustic elements in
working models by Melissa
Bacher. Physical research
explores how different light
conditions, sounds and views
can inspire the project.
TABLE 1.9 THEME 9: DELIGHT – RESEARCH, MAP AND ANALYSE
Document pleasant and inspiring moments, for example:

□ Patterns and textures – e.g., materials, shadow and light, nature
□ Smells: source and sensation and when they occur – e.g., food preparation, fowers, trees,
water
□ Sound: source and quality – e.g., leaves of a tree, birdsong, music escaping a building or
square
□ The site’s signifcant natural features that bring joy – e.g., water elements, rock
SENSORY formations, forests
□ Views and visual moments of interest – e.g., views to and from the site, what they are of,
visibility, views in and out from buildings and spaces
□ Pleasant atmosphere, events, or feelings – e.g., the wind or sun touching the skin,
watching people go by, a street performance
□ Accessibility – e.g., are these moments valued and accessible by all, or not?
□ Enhancing – can these joyful moments and experiences be used, enhanced or even
replicated in your own design intervention?
59
1.4.10 Theme 10: Performance 1.22 EXAMPLES

Designing for the climate emergency means little if these intentions
are not met or exceeded in reality. Basing your design proposal on
as much accurate contextual information as possible increases the
performance
likelihood that the aim for your design will be met for real. Therefore,
(see Table 2.11)
it is crucial that you suffciently cover each theme in your project’s
• High-tech green
contextual research. Despite your best efforts to undertake thorough
• Bionic architecture
contextual research, some information may not be possible to obtain
• LEED
for a range of reasons (e.g., time, language, lack of availability). Risks to • WELL Building Standard
the sustainability of your project come from these gaps in contextual • Soft Landings
› see Section 1.2.3 research data › and from limited stakeholder collaboration, limiting
your full understanding. It is important that you map these gaps, and
› see Chapter refect on their potential consequences in a ‘performance risk plan’. ›
4, Section 4.8.2
Some of your design proposals and ambitions can be validated to help
you check and compare options to refne your proposal further (e.g.,
daylight studies, energy use studies, solar and wind studies, spatial 1.23 PRACTICE
studies). There are validation tools that will help you with this through
› see Chapter 5, qualitative or quantitative and digital or analogue methods. › Evaluating if intended
Section 5.4 performance is met in reality
Risk areas After making design
The more contextual information you gather, the more informed decisions based on thorough
your design decision-making will be. This in turn increases the contextual research and use
likelihood of selecting suitably sustainable approaches (e.g., passive of validation tools, for several
resilience strategies), and the project will perform as intended. As years after the building has
been occupied, architects,
mentioned, there may be gaps in your contextual research, because
together with the client
› see Note 1.08 for example you cannot visit the site ›, or your engagement with the
and other design team
local community is limited due to language issues, or future predicted
members, should undertake
climate data is not available. If this is the case, you should create a
post-occupancy evaluation
› see Chapter 4, performance risk plan › as part of your design project that sets out
(POE) (see Glossary). This
Section 4.8.2 the potential risks to your design and assumptions you have had to
includes evaluating users’
make due to the missing information: i.e., what are the things that satisfaction, whether the
might jeopardise your design ambitions in reality? What might the spaces are used as intended
consequences be? How could you mitigate these risks? Map these and whether materials
refections carefully. perform as expected (e.g.,
material weathering,
thermal performance and
contribution to IEQ), and
monitoring whether building
systems work as designed
(e.g., effciencies, energy use
and CO2).

different topics related to
performance to research
and map, such as the social
and physical performance of
buildings and spaces that are
present on a site.
60
Key stakeholders Figure 1.28 Sunlight and

wind-fow analysis by student
Architecture is rarely a single-person pursuit, and it is co-created
Jieun Bae, showing that most
through a collaborative effort with other experts and local buildings have sunlight access
stakeholders (e.g., client, users, local community, other architects, and that adding trees reduces
developer, contractor, supplier, engineer, ecologist, landscape wind-tunnel effects in the
› see also architect, energy experts, material scientists, anthropologists, courtyard, but can increase
Theme 8 planners, policymakers). › This co-creation and collaboration helps them in the street. Both solar
access and wind fow should be
with better understanding the site and the proposed programme,
considered in context.
as well as the associated challenges and opportunities, needs and
expectations, which increases the likelihood that the project will
meet expectations and perform as intended. Even if, as a student,
you are unable to collaborate with any of the key stakeholders,
refect on which key stakeholders your project would beneft from
at the contextual exploration phase. You can also map this in the
› see Chapter 4, performance risk plan. ›
Section 4.8.2
TABLE 1.10 THEME 10: PERFORMANCE – RESEARCH, MAP AND ANALYSE
GENERAL
□ Ensure that Themes 1 to 10 are suffciently explored and analysed – use the
checklists in Tables 1.1 to 1.9 to map your progress and any gaps in your research
□ Performance risk plan – map the potential risks that might jeopardise meeting the
goals you set out; use the checklists of each theme
RISK AREAS □ Risk mitigation measures – in the same risk plan, refect on what measures could
help to mitigate the risks (e.g., if the opportunity arises, visit the site to double-check
the information; create a model to validate design decisions)
KEY □ List key stakeholders (minimum three) to consult and collaborate with at the contextual
STAKEHOLDERS research phase
61
1.5 FROM SITE ANALYSIS TO DEFINING

YOUR DESIGN PROJECT (STEP 1 TO STEP 2)
Making the jump from research and site analysis to defning your
concepts and design project is one of the most challenging stages
in the design process – especially while ensuring sustainability is
embedded and integrated within your project. Finding an initial
starting point can be unnerving; therefore, it is crucial to understand
what the fundamentals are from your site analysis. This information
needs to be gathered and translated into usable and useful material,
and this is often done visually, e.g., overlaying the key characteristics
and elements such as the site conditions, topography, existing and
neighbouring buildings, trees and vegetation, prevailing wind, solar
› see Figures 1.6, orientation and paths onto a site plan or model. ›
1.12 and 1.14
While you have probably collected copious amounts of information,
it is important to sort through it and impose a hierarchy. You can do
Figure 1.29 Wind study by
this by highlighting three to fve key themes you will use to defne and
student Anyana Zimmermann
develop your design.
using a physical model of
Make sure that, while selecting your most inspiring information buildings near the Malecón,
and opportunities, you do not cherry-pick or misinterpret data, and which is the main esplanade
in Havana, Cuba. Sand
try not to be biased (i.e., to not only look at data that confrms your
was dispersed with a fan
preconceived ideas). Compare different variables separately and within
to show how strong winds
their context; for example, was the number of children you observed might affect surrounding
low because no one uses a site, or was it raining? Are you comparing buildings, including potential
data from lunchtime in summer with early morning in winter? interventions.
62
In your analysis, combine your contextual research of the different 1.24 NOTE
themes to identify the key opportunities and challenges for your
design process. Do not regard constraints or challenges as limiting Use constraints as creative
› see Note 1.24 your creativity; instead, use them as creative design opportunities. › opportunities
Your research may highlight
During this analysis process, you may also discover that your site is not
the constraints and
accessible or suitable for your project or any development at all. This
limitations of your site and
means you may have to fnd a new site, and while this might seem
programme. You should
daunting, it is important to acknowledge the research and let it inform
always see these as creative
your design, as you will continuously fght against your site if you
opportunities and a focused
ignore the fndings. framework to design within.
1.5.1 Synthesising your research

After collecting your contextual research, it can seem overwhelming
to know what to do with the extensive information, and how to make
it understandable for anyone but yourself. Synthesise (i.e., combine,
unify) and distil (condense) your research, giving it a hierarchy and
making it manageable for yourself. This requires you to overlay,
integrate and compare different parts of your data to fnd associations,
intersections and reasons for your site conditions. Contextual research
is a diagnostic process in which you identify key ideas, opportunities,
threats or other potentials of your area.
SWOT analysis
A SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) analysis
can help you remain critical and unbiased, and it can also help
you synthesise and create a hierarchy and an accessible way to
STRENGTH WEAKNESS
location, connection - fragmentation - lacks a
15 minute city potential Empty lot - role in its surroundings,
the history has disconnected
heritage - delight: patina, mostly been
history, harmony wiped away bad planning - history of
inconsistent and opposing
Near lush greenery & decisions over land use,
leasure areas will happen again if not
careful?
“
“nobody
““cares about
Shoreline our site” - it
doesn’t ’ have Unresilient
identity
a meaning for
locals
Figure 1.30 SWOT (Strengths,
Weaknesses, Opportunities,
Public transportation Threats) analysis by Essi
infra improving in Increasing popula- Nisonen. This illustrates how
future tion in 1km zone a SWOT analysis can help
People pass by locate a site and discover
Small potential active Congestion – worse
- how to make different potentials within a
user group - agency & in future, unpleasant
ownership? them stop? living environment site and when aspects overlap.
Threats can be planned for,
OPPORTUNITY THREAT and all aspects can inspire an
architectural project.
63
communicate your contextual research. It also helps you understand,

compare and refect on the relative advantages and disadvantages of
› see Chapter 4, the context, underpinning your design decision-making. ›
Section 4.2 and
Figure 1.30 1.5.2 Communicating your research
The research you complete is vital for your design process. This
information synthesis (fndings) must be communicated to others
such as your peers, tutors or assessors, by building a story. It can be
challenging to make complex information accessible for outsiders.
Therefore, it is recommended that you keep it simple and visualise
information when possible. Provide an overview of your site and its
location within a wider context of the city, region or country. While you
can show either a selection of or all your research, focus most deeply
on the elements that are key for you to defne your design. A common
tool for this is mapping and diagramming. These techniques are also
used to document and analyse the different categories of information.
A diagram, collage or map can be objective – showing the facts – but it
› see Chapter 5 can also be subjective, atmospheric, experiential or a narrative. ›
Some common tools for analysing and synthesising your information
are set out in Table 1.11. It is also crucial that you choose tools that best
communicate your research rather than complicate it.
TABLE 1.11 TOOLS FOR ANALYSING, SYNTHESISING AND COMMUNICATING YOUR

RESEARCH – see also Chapter 5
› see Section 1.5.1 □ SWOT analysis ›

□ Drawings and site sketches, site plans, site models
□ Diagrams and infographics
□ (Annotated) photographs, sequence of spaces, inspiring moments
□ Maps (history, harvest map, contour maps, environmental maps)
□ Audio or video recordings, with selected quotes and stories of those you interviewed
□ Environmental software models, e.g., wind fow analysis, solar analysis, solar radiation
1.6 SUMMARY
This chapter set out the importance of exploring the context through
research (Step 1), what it means and how to undertake it, structured
along with the 10 climate emergency design themes. At the early
stages of your project, different kinds of data need to be collected on
each of the 10 themes, and this is summarised in a checklist at the end
of each theme.
The idea is that this contextual information will feed into your later
design decision-making to help you defne your project, including its
concept, values, ambitions and goals; how to do this is set out in the
› see Chapter 2 next chapter. ›
Before you move to the next stage, check Table 0.2 on page 15 to
ensure you have tackled the ‘Step 1 – explore’ questions.
64
CHAPTER 2
DEFINING A DESIGN
CONCEPT, AND
CREATING VALUES
AND GOALS
(STEP 2)
2.1 INTRODUCTION 66
2.2 CREATING DESIGN GOALS AND 67
CONCEPTS FOR THE CLIMATE EMERGENCY
2.2.1 What is a climate emergency design 67
concept?
2.2.2 Generating your climate emergency 68
design concept
2.3 DEFINING YOUR PROJECT 69
2.4 SUMMARY 104
DOI: 10.4324/9781003297246-3
2.1 INTRODUCTION 2.01 NOTE
All architecture projects start with a concept or the seed of an idea, EU 2030 climate
and from this grow buildings that either have a positive impact, do and energy goals
‘less bad’ or are outright detrimental to the climate, environment While you are developing
› see Figure 2.1 and society. › Indisputably, having a positive impact is the only way concepts and goals for your
forward, ‘because architecture (or urban design) that does not project, it’s good to remember
contribute to climate change mitigation is not just harmful, it that there are wider targets
is irrelevant’.1 Consequently, concepts should be grounded in the and goals set by bodies such
necessary knowledge gathered during your contextual research phase as the European Union.
› see Chapter 1 (Step 1) ›, which helps to create truly sustainable projects that go For example, the EU has
devised the ‘2030 climate and
beyond the status quo.
energy framework’, which
This early stage of the design process is crucial, especially for includes targets and policy
sustainable architecture, as design decisions are defned by their objectives for the period from
initial concepts, values, goals and narratives, as well as the brief. 2021 to 2030. Key targets
Shallow concepts and the lack of integration of sustainable strategies for 2030 include at least a
repeatedly result in weak architectural projects, and often in projects 40% cut in greenhouse gas
that are not as sustainable as they could – and should – be. emissions (from 1990 levels)
and at least a 32% share for
The process of developing a design concept is a stimulating and
renewable energy.
creative period in which you form the values of your project and create
an opportunity to make a change. A good design concept embodies
the big picture, providing clarity and a framework that can promote
a strong sense of place and drive a project forward, helping to direct
decision-making. Your design concept may be one overarching idea or 2.02 PRACTICE
a series of conceptual scenarios which are the core and catalyst for the
project’s inception and development. A sustainable design concept
in practice
This chapter will explain the importance of this initial stage in the
In practice, your design
design process, outlining in the frst part the fundamentals of a concept
concept is strongly
and brief, including how to generate and develop a concept from dependent on the client’s
› see Chapter 1, your contextual analysis. › In the second part, existing examples of available resources and
Section 1.5 sustainable architecture approaches are mapped against the 10 climate budget, as well as planning,
emergency design themes, which can be used as an inspiration for your zoning and regulatory
own project defnition and concept development (Step 2). requirements. However, these
are not mutually exclusive
from a well-integrated
sustainable design concept.
Nowadays, clear and robust
sustainability values can
create a strong architectural
practice identity and help you
win work (see Note 0.07).
Figure 2.1 Diagram illustrating

that a design concept has
the potential to lead to three
different environmental
outcomes: detrimental impact,
‘less bad’ impact or a positive
impact. A positive impact is the
only way forward.
66
DEFINING A DESIGN CONCEPT, AND CREATING VALUES AND GOALS
2.2 CREATING DESIGN GOALS AND 2.03 NOTE

CONCEPTS FOR THE CLIMATE EMERGENCY
Key questions to ask when
The aim of your contextual research (Step 1, Chapter 1) was to gain a developing a climate
deep understanding of your site context by analysing, synthesising emergency design concept
and identifying key opportunities, to inspire moments, ideas and As a starting point, ask
challenges that will defne your project (Step 2). Within these early yourself the following. How
stages, you can set out the framework, concepts, values and goals can your project positively
that will help guide your project to be integrated and innovative in its contribute to the local
› see Note 2.01 response to the climate emergency. › community and the wider
climate emergency? How
2.2.1 What is a climate emergency design concept? can your project regenerate
natural site conditions? How
A concept is an idea that forms the foundation of your design project, can you make the most of the
addressing the project brief, goals, values (e.g., personal values, passive features (sun, wind)
national or city ambitions), context, users and any other requirements. of your site? A good concept
Additionally, project values refer to your core project principles; the always responds to its context
ethical standards and position that will guide your project’s direction (see Chapter 1).
and design decision-making. The values, including some of the 10
climate emergency design themes, make the project’s approach
unique to you and help you establish a design concept. Currently,
supposed sustainable projects often have a general design concept
› see Chapter 0,
Section 0.3 and with an additional sustainability approach added later in the process.
Glossary This, however, is not an integrated design approach ›, and it often 2.04 PRACTICE
results in ‘add-on’ sustainable architecture. Often these added-on
What is a brief?
› see Figure 2.2 sustainability ‘features’ are later removed in cost-cutting exercises. ›
In practice, the brief outlines
Therefore, your concept must embed the climate emergency
the client’s desired ‘end
design themes at the core of each step of your design process. product’ and articulates the
Your initial concept should be fexible so it can develop and be client’s expectations, needs,
infuenced by the vast array of supplemental information in the wishes and limitations,
iterative design process, allowing you to produce and test different providing a framework for
› see Chapter 0, variations and design outcomes. › While your concept is likely to evolve the design team. Sometimes,
Section 0.4 and develop, some fundamental values and goals will remain consistent the brief will evolve through
throughout the process, and these should be as important at the start discussion with all project
team members and as more
site information becomes
available. In a student project,
the brief may be defned
by your tutors, or it might
be something you develop
yourself.
Figure 2.2 Diagram showing

the implications and costs of
decisions within the integrated
design process versus non-
integrated processes: while the
integrated process has a higher
upfront cost, it reduces the cost
in later stages of the design
process.
67
as they are at the end. A good concept provides a clear direction, 2.05 PRACTICE
f ramework and methodology for the design process, offering
solutions and parameters when decisions need to be made. Your Collaborative practice
concept can also be used to help you focus and avoid veering off-track In practice, you would rarely
towards new directions and options; it helps to justify and ground be developing a concept or
your decision-making. As a student, you are usually assessed on the brief alone – usually, a range
strength, substance and meaning of your design concept, as well as its of different team members
clarity, consistency and evolution through the design process. would be involved. The RIBA
explains that during the
2.2.2 Generating your climate design concept phase (RIBA
emergency design concept Stage 2), the client team and
the design team are the key
Developing your design concept can be overwhelming, as it is often
players involved in achieving
the frst decision you make and it informs the remainder of your an architectural concept that
design process. While it might seem as if you are starting with a ‘blank is robust and aligned with
page’, there are four key areas that can generate, inform and justify the project brief. Under some
your concept, values and goals: the site context, the design brief, the procurement routes, the
narrative and the climate emergency. How to generate the concept is construction team may also
set out in Table 2.1 and Note 2.03. be engaged in this stage.2
The site context, the design brief, the narrative and the climate
emergency are essential to include in the generation of your concept.
The more interconnected these four areas are, the stronger and more
integrated your concept and values will be. Do be aware that concepts
are not always well grounded and can be superfcial form generators.
In fact, developing a concept with meaning and depth that addresses 2.06 NOTE
the climate emergency can be complex and requires time for research,
Communicating your
analysis, synthesis, refnement and development. However, the effort
concept
put into this phase of the design process will pay off, as it provides It is important to visually
a strong base, framework and inspiration for the later stages, and is demonstrate to your tutors
› see Chapter 0 necessary to create integrated, holistic sustainable architecture. › and peers (and in real-life
projects to the users and the
client) how your ideas develop
along the way. This is why
the tools for initiating and
communicating your concept
during and at the end of the
design process are similar,
as they are about sharing
your iterative design process.
For your fnal assessment,
communicating your concept
clearly and concisely is critical
for the overall comprehension
of your project (see Chapter 5).
Figure 2.3 Illustration by

Stephen Fisher showing his
climate emergency conceptual
process that included energy,
infrastructure, employment,
housing and tourism.
68
TABLE 2.1 GENERATING YOUR CLIMATE EMERGENCY DESIGN CONCEPT
Site research
Successful sustainable architecture is always rooted in its context. Your contextual site research and
analysis (Step 1) gives you the starting point for your conceptual process. The exploration step, centred
› see Chapter 1 around the 10 themes, provides vital areas to investigate. › Site analysis brings opportunities, constraints
and characteristics to the fore, playing a fundamental role in your concept generation and project
development.
The design brief

Whether the design or project brief is provided as part of your assignment, is a real project, or has to be
› see Glossary formed as part of your project development (strategic briefng ›), it provides the crucial details of your
site location and building requirements, and the priority of space, functions, programme and perhaps end
users. Sometimes you will be provided with parts of the brief, leaving you to specify aspects within this.
Your site exploration and analysis will help identify the fundamental principles for developing your brief.
Use your brief to prioritise the goals and values to strive for (i.e., the key elements to focus on) and use it as
› see Note 2.04 a framework for the essentials needed for a successful project. ›
The narrative
The narrative helps to identify the story behind your project, which in turn helps you form your concept,
understand the people who will use it, and see how it will sit and develop within its context and what
some of the softer or atmospheric conditions might be. As a student working on a hypothetical project,
the narrative is likely to be created by you. Your narrative may also help you to develop a future scenario or
a strategy for how your project can address and adapt to the changing societal, environmental or climatic
conditions in the future. If you have no access to end users, you can create personas or characters based on
› see Chapter 5, your contextual research and the design brief. ›
Section 5.2
and Figure 1.24 The climate emergency
on page 55 The climate emergency response is a broad area to explore, with wider, even global, issues to address. It
combines many different opportunities and challenges, and it is from these interrelations that ideas come.
The climate issues we are faced with and how architecture can respond to them can provide inspiration for
how your building can make a difference in its mitigation and restorative efforts. Some examples of how you
› see Section 2.3 can do this are mapped further below, based on the 10 themes. ›
2.3 DEFINING YOUR PROJECT

Since the 1950s, sustainable architecture has developed rapidly
through different design approaches. Each approach has responded
to the various societal, environmental and political conditions of its
time. Accordingly, they all focus on different aspects and issues within
sustainability. However, while it has been acceptable to ‘do less harm’
and focus on a limited number of concerns in the past, we are now
faced with the climate emergency, and narrow approaches are no
longer relevant. We must strive for holistic approaches that focus on
› see Chapter 0 all aspects of sustainability simultaneously. › There are many ways to
achieve this, and no one architectural approach is better than another
if all key themes are addressed.
Some of the 10 climate emergency design themes are easy starting
points from which to defne your concept, values and goals.
They include the three fundamental themes: future and global
responsibility (Theme 1, Table 2.2), environment (Theme 3, Table 2.4)
and people and community (Theme 8, Table 2.9).
69
Figure 2.4 Diagram

highlighting the three climate
emergency design themes that
are fundamental and should be
integrated into every design as
an inspiring starting point for
imagining a conceptual design.
The following section provides an overview of different sustainable

architecture approaches organised within the 10 themes. Often, they
are divided within polarised categories of ‘high-tech’ and ‘eco-tech’
or ’active’ versus ‘passive’ architectural strategies. These design
approaches will help you develop a concept and strategy, and with
further research, they will guide you to develop your own design
› see Chapter 5, approaches. Moreover, you can use these design approaches to test,
Section 5.4 evaluate and validate your own design against. ›
› see Figure 2.5 However, as can be seen in the matrix ›, each approach addresses
different concerns, and usually their focus is on only a few of them.
While individually, none of these approaches will solve the climate
emergency, they act as inspiration for your own project’s vision, values
and goals. Remember to combine approaches and consider as many
themes as possible for a holistic and successful project. Bear in mind
› see Chapter 0, that Themes 1, 3 and 8 need to be considered in each project. ›
Table 0.1 and 0.2
70
2.07 NOTE
Focusing on future and

global responsibility to defne
your project
Future scenarios and
temporal aspects can drive
strong concepts. Consider
the following questions. How
will different aspects of your
project change over a year,
a month, a week or a day?
Who will inhabit it (human
and non-human) and what
are their future concerns?
How will your project
impact environments and
communities thousands of
miles away? Be inspired by
approaches and examples in
Table 2.2 and Note 2.09.
2.08 NOTE
Circular construction requires

innovation
In recent years, the concept
of the circular economy has
attracted interest in the
felds of building design and
construction, but there is a
huge amount of development
required in terms of design
approaches, construction
solutions, business models
and models of ownership
if we are to approach true
circularity. Student projects
can be a great platform for
research into these areas.

how different approaches
to sustainable architecture
address the 10 climate
emergency design themes.
Many approaches have a
focus on several themes –
however, for holistic sustainable
architecture a combination of
different approaches is needed.
71
Figure 2.6 Alice Howland
showed that the researched
systems and environmental
issues such as natural systems,
transportation, waste and
energy (Step 1) can become
drivers in the project defnition
stage (Step 2) to come together
in a strong and complex
concept.
2.3.1 Theme 1: Future and global responsibility 2.09 EXAMPLES

Considering different aspects of time and our global responsibility is
Inspiring examples for future
crucial for each climate emergency design concept. This is because
and global responsibility
your project should occupy the site for a long period; your proposal
• Anupama Kundoo – Full Fill
should be appropriate and adapt to contextual conditions over time.
Homes, Auroville, India
Designing for the climate emergency means aiming for circular • Baca Architects –
construction that reuses existing waste and eliminates the Amphibious House,
problem of its future (re)use – this entails keeping buildings and Buckinghamshire, UK
materials in circulation for as long as possible. Rising consumption • Ecosistema Urbano – Air
of fnite resources and the amount of waste generated by the Trees, Shanghai, China/
construction sector shows the importance of life-cycle approaches Madrid, Spain
in the architectural design process. On average, a contemporary • Elemental, Quinta Monroy
building lasts for 60 years,3 which often does not outweigh the Social Housing, Iquique, Chile
environmental impacts of producing its elements, the construction • Helen & Hard – The Financial
Park, Stavanger, Norway
process and necessary site alterations. Generally, this decision also
• Lendager Group – UN17
impacts environments and communities in regions far away f rom
Village, Copenhagen,
the project site.
Denmark
• Mass Design Group –
Maternity Waiting Village,
Kasungu, Malawi
• Shigeru Ban – Paper Log
Houses; Kobe, Japan
• TYIN Architects – Cassia Co-
op Training Centre, Kerinchi,
Indonesia
• Werner Sobek – R128 House,
Stuttgart, Germany
72
Longevity in architecture can be approached in various ways – ideally Figure 2.7 Hugo Shackleton’s
a combination: Landmark project, which
evolves over time as the
• Buildings may be designed to last for a long time. landscape changes with coastal
• They may be designed to resist changeable climatic conditions. erosion. Here you can see how
the building unfolds as more of
• They may be designed to endure the extended usage phase.
the structure is exposed.
For example, projects may reuse existing materials and prolong the
lifespan of existing structures, they can use fexible structural systems
and adaptable spatial layouts, and they can be designed for future
dismantling and reuse of their elements. 2.10 NOTE
Abstract and futuristic design

approaches
Within your education, you
will have the opportunity
to embrace hypothetical,
theoretical or philosophical
ideas in your design process.
You might want to take a
more abstract approach to
your concept, to develop your
own learning journey. Based
on your project research, you
might choose to explore future
scenarios and outcomes of the
climate emergency.
Figure 2.8 Life-cycle design

strategies – reuse, robustness,
adaptability, disassembly,
design for reuse – ar8 part of a
future perspective to prolong
the lifespan of a building.
73
In summary, the shortage and impact of resources forces you

› see Chapter 3, always to consider reusing the existing structures and materials. ›
Section 3.2.1 Moreover, life-cycle thinking requires you to consider diverse future
usage scenarios and to design adaptable buildings. Depending on
› see Chapter 1 the contextual analysis of your site › and the goals you set for your
project, you should choose long-lasting and robust solutions. However,
remember that even the most durable building will become obsolete
at some point, even hundreds of years from now. Therefore, always
› see Chapter 3, design for disassembly. ›
Section 3.2.1
In addition, you need to consider your building in a wider global
context, planning for unintended consequences and knock-on effects
of your project. Thus, your project should be inclusive and restorative,
and should positively impact local or global environments and Figure 2.9 Diagram of key
communities, creating a responsible design. principles of future design
approaches, illustrating in a simple
In Table 2.2, you can fnd sustainable architecture approaches related way the different strategies
to the theme of future and global responsibility that should always be that can be employed for a
included in each of your projects. This is a good starting point from future and global responsibility
which to defne your concept, values and goals. conceptual approach.
74
TABLE 2.2 THEME 1 – FUTURE AND GLOBAL RESPONSIBILITY APPROACHES
Design for disassembly (DfD) or design for deconstruction

DfD is a circular, closed-loop design concept which proposes new structural systems that consider the
project’s entire life cycle. Buildings become material banks consisting of reusable components. That means
there’s a way to reuse or recycle every component of a structure using existing or future recycling streams.
DfD ensures the salvageability of components and aims for prefabrication, pre-assembly and modular
construction; reversible connection details and building systems; minimised parts and materials; ease of
disassembly; fexibility and adaptability and reusable materials. DfD is defned by its systematic dismantling,
which enables time- and cost-effcient disassembly of its elements in the future. You should consider
this demolition scenario at the beginning of the design process4 when developing a general model for a
› see Note 2.08 sustainable building.5 ›
and Chapter 3,
Section 3.2.1 Cradle-to-cradle (C2C)6
C2C is a biomimetic approach to designing cities, buildings, products and systems that infuences nature’s
systems and processes. It utilises the concept ‘waste equals food’, reframing the model from ‘cradle to
grave’ to ‘cradle to cradle’, in which life and future generations are considered. Materials are considered as
‘nutrients’ that circulate in healthy, safe, closed, metabolic, technological and biological cycles within this
approach. Additionally, C2C supports renewable resources, biodiversity and social equality.
Responsible design
‘Responsible design’ is a specifc approach advocated by the Architects’ Council of Europe (ACE). It
acknowledges the entanglement of societal and environmental issues and centres around four key principles:
(1) integrated design, here meaning comprehensive contextual approaches; (2) energy-conscious design; (3)
inclusive design and (4) adaptable, quality design,7 which all relate to the future and global responsibility theme,
as well as to Themes 2, 3, 4, 5, 7 and 8.
› see Glossary Reuse/retroft

and Chapter 4, This approach focuses on prolonging the lifespan of the existing building stock by adapting it or reusing its
Section 4.6 elements. › It considers whether you can reuse existing structures and materials or retroft › the buildings that
› see Glossary were not designed to be dismantled. While it acknowledges that it is possible to demolish and rebuild, it does
not consider this the most sustainable approach due to the associated built energy, materials, socio-cultural
values and waste generation.
Durability/robustness
This design approach focuses on the durability of the building fabric’s elements to result in a long-lasting
building. This approach depends on its context and time frame, but it has the quality of ‘staying around’ or
‘approaching permanence’.8 The idea is that a robust building will withstand, or even beneft from, adverse
conditions caused by the climate, landscape and use, achieved through the robustness of the form, structure,
function and aesthetics.
› see also Theme Flexibility/adaptability/future-proofng ›

4, Table 2.5 and This approach also focuses on the creation of long-lasting buildings by considering their fexibility to
Theme 1, Chapter accommodate the changing context (e.g., climatic or demographic changes) and possible changes in their
1 and Chapter 3 performance or use. A fexible building is defned as one that can be effciently used while evolving over time,
and enables future-proofng to avoid signifcant (and often costly) changes later on. In this approach, multiple
future scenarios are used to create fexible and adaptable architecture (e.g., scenarios of possible functions,
modes of use, layout alternatives, volumetric extensions, plug-in elements, add-ons).
› see also UN SDGs ›

Chapter 0, The 17 UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) can also be used as a design approach, where UN SDGs 1, 3,
Note 0.03 5, 6, 10, 11, 12, 13, 16 relate to the future and global responsibility theme, which also covers ‘Reduced Inequalities’
(SDG 10), i.e., our global responsibility to ensure that design interventions do not adversely impact people and
communities (or ecosystems) thousands of kilometres away.
Critical regionalism
see Theme 9, Table 2.10
Inclusive design (user-centred design)

75
2.3.2 Theme 2: Inf rastructure 2.11 EXAMPLES

Infrastructure encompasses organisational and physical structures
Inspiring examples for
and facilities such as mobility and public transport links, density,
infrastructure
communication, water and waste services, and energy, as well as the
• 128 Arquitectura y Diseño
› see also environment and social infrastructures. › It enables communities and
Urbano – Lineal Gran Canal
Themes 3, 5 cities to function, meeting essential service needs. This is why the safe,
and 8 Park, Mexico City, Mexico
inclusive and sustainable provision and performance of infrastructure
• Atelier d’Architecture
is the basis of sustainable design. Infrastructure is usually at a Autogérée – R-Urban, Paris,
relatively large scale and so also encompasses many of the UN SDGs. France
In some countries, urban areas are growing exponentially, creating • Brooklyn Grange rooftop
a need for more sustainable infrastructure and planning. Therefore, farming, New York City, USA
there is an opportunity to develop effcient, sustainable and restorative • Klas Tham – Bo01, Malmö,
infrastructure for all – including non-human species. Moreover, as Sweden
this infrastructure is often hard to maintain and replace affordably, it • Ramboll Studio Dreiseitl –
Bishan-Ang Mo Kio Park,
is crucial that developing cities and communities plan for long-term
Singapore
› see Theme 1 robustness and adaptability ›, especially in the uncertain times of the
• Michigan Urban Farming
climate emergency. It is important that we design for future rather
Initiative, Detroit, USA
than historical climates.
• Tredje Natur –
Enghaveparken,
Copenhagen, Denmark
• Turenscape, Mangrove Park
sponge city, China
• West 8 – Madrid RIO linear
park, Madrid, Spain
• Yori Antar – Kalijodo Park,
Jakarta, Indonesia
Figure 2.10 Olivia Hellman

explored a new infrastructure
concept, transforming an
existing brownfeld site into a
new industrial project through
the introduction of vegetation
and new functions.
76
› see Glossary Additionally, infrastructure determines the urban metabolism ›, so it Figure 2.11 Diagram of
is important that different types are considered together from end to key principles of possible
end to ensure economic, social and environmental sustainability, i.e., infrastructure approaches,
illustrating some of the key
› see Glossary systems thinking. ›
strategies and issues to consider
Sustainable infrastructure can, for example, encourage at building and neighbourhood
decarbonisation of transport systems, aid a transition towards scale to integrate more
sustainable infrastructure into a
renewable resources, reduce environmental and carbon footprints,
design concept.
and help rectify inequalities, to name only a few benefts.
Examples of sustainable architecture approaches that focus on
sustainable infrastructure provision are summarised in Table 2.3. 2.12 NOTE
Focusing on infrastructure to
defne your project
Developing sustainable
infrastructure and improving
existing infrastructure enables
you to signifcantly impact
the urban environment. Your
earlier contextual research and
analysis will help you identify
opportunities for positive
impact (see Tables 1.2, 2.3 and
2.4 and examples in Note 2.11).
77
TABLE 2.3 THEME 2 – INFRASTRUCTURE APPROACHES
Sustainable urban design

This approach focuses on the complex relationship between the natural, social and urban built
environment, aiming to foster natural systems and processes in coexistence with the wellbeing of
society. It uses systems thinking to reorganise the environmental, economic and socio-economic goals,
enhancing the long-term health of natural systems and urban communities. This is often achieved
› see Theme 8, through comprehensive frameworks and new urban design ethics whereby all actors work together in
Table 2.9 partnership and participatory processes. ›
› see also Urban climate adaptation ›

Theme 1, This approach recognises that built and urban environments must adjust and be robust to the impacts
Table 2.2 of climate change, offering opportunities for a better quality of life and maintaining healthy ecosystems
and liveable urban areas. Key climate change events addressed in this approach are storms, fooding,
sea-level rise, wildfre, power interruptions, warmer temperatures, drought and water shortage. To design
› see Glossary for these, this approach goes beyond important mitigation › efforts and includes anticipatory (proactive)
› see Glossary adaptation, planned adaptation, reactive adaptation and autonomous (spontaneous) adaptation. ›
Sponge city
A ‘sponge city’ is an urban landscape that catches, stores and cleans most of the stormwater; it is based on
traditional approaches to managing monsoon rainfall. It offers nature-based solutions to climate change
in urban environments, including repairing prior damage by replacing ‘grey infrastructure’ (e.g., food
defence walls and road run-off pipes). In China, 80% of the urban land should store or reuse 70% of the
stormwater in its sponge cities.9
15-minute city
This urban approach promotes a local way of living, by designing cities in which residential areas and
essential urban services (e.g., schools, shops, health facilities) are accessible within 15 minutes by cycling or
› see Chapter 3, walking. Several 5-minute neighbourhoods together make up the larger 15-minute city structure. ›
Section 3.2.2
Urban farming (urban agriculture) and continuous productive urban landscapes (CPULs)
This approach focuses on growing or producing food in cities or densely populated towns or regions
to increase access to locally grown food. Urban agriculture differs from community gardening in that
agriculture grows a product to be sold, rather than for personal consumption or sharing. This approach
might involve strategies such as vertical farming, rooftop farming, hydroponics, aquaponics, container
› see Glossary farms and backyard farms, but it is often combined with other strategies such as permaculture. › CPUL
aims to join up existing open spaces (used or disused) into an interconnected landscape for food-growing
in the city.
Smart cities
› see Glossary Smart cities are a technocentric › approach, which uses ‘urban sensing’ technology to collect and analyse
large amounts of data from various industries and services, such as waste collection or transportation.
The complex networks of urban sensors, devices and software are utilised to provide effcient services
to solve urban problems – for example, transportation, accessibility, social services and reducing waste.
However, this approach requires considerable maintenance and servicing to ensure that the technology is
functioning appropriately and that it is user-friendly.
City as National Park10

The National Park Foundation aims to make cities National Park Cities. The approach is based around
living more in harmony with ourselves, our communities and our planet. It aims to better connect people,
nature and wildlife in cities where all citizens enjoy clean air and high-quality green spaces and clean
rivers.
Active architecture
78
2.3.3 Theme 3: Environment 2.13 NOTE

The two crises, climate breakdown and biodiversity loss, are the
Focusing on the environment
most pressing issues we face. The environment theme focuses
to defne your project
on both aspects and so it should be a crucial part of each climate
Make sure the location of
› see Chapter 0, emergency design concept. › Remember, the environment theme
your project informs the
Tables 0.1 and 0.2 is one of the three themes that should always be included in each of
development of your concept
your projects.
by taking into account critical
Table 2.4 summarises sustainable architecture approaches that focus site features such as current
on the environment. They focus on integrating the built environment and predicted microclimate,
within a natural system, exploring the relationship between nature, topography, geology, and
architectural form, materiality and environmental performance, as well blue and green infrastructure
(see Chapter 1, Table 1.3 and
Note 2.15).
2.14 EXAMPLES

environment
• Atelier Descombes &
Rampini – Renaturation
of the River Aire, Geneva,
Switzerland
• Atelier Masomi – Niamey
2000 Housing, Niamey, Niger
• Bere Architects – The Muse,
London, UK
• Bill Reed – The Willow
School, New Jersey, USA
• Brenda and Robert Vale –
Hockerton Housing Project,
Hockerton, UK
• Openideas Architects – Hive,
Surat, India
• Sim van der Ryn – Solar
Living Center, California, USA
• Studio Gang – Aqua Tower,
Chicago, USA
• Ushida Findlay Architects
– Soft and Hairy House,
Tsukuba, Japan
• WOHA – Kampung
Admiralty, Singapore
Figure 2.12 Image by Tale Nixon

of an environmental concept
where the building makes
space for non-human species to
thrive, with birds nesting in the
walls of old structures, plants
growing within the structure,
and room for bees to live.
79
as how this relationship will evolve in response to climate change and

emerging technological advancements. These approaches utilise the
positive impacts of the natural environment, addressing the loss of
natural resources, and use the surrounding environmental parameters
and systems in the development of a design, seeking to create spaces Figure 2.13 Diagram of
that enhance a chosen project’s natural, social, cultural and physical conceptual principles for
› see Glossary environment. Moreover, they aim to restore and regenerate › environmental design,
natural ecosystems, encourage renewable solutions and conserve illustrating some of the key
principles related to nature
current resources by improving energy effciency, recycling materials
(e.g., views and a connection
and increasing density while reducing greenfeld developments. to nature, different ways to
This encourages a systems thinking approach and requires good increase vegetation, and
knowledge of the ecological systems – and in reality it often requires harvesting and reusing water
collaboration with ecologists. and renewable heat).
80
2.15 NOTE
TABLE 2.4 THEME 3: ENVIRONMENTAL APPROACHES
Making site and massing
Ecological design (eco-design) models
Eco-design focuses on the environmental impacts of buildings during
Using site information, you
their entire life cycle, as well as adapting to and integrating itself within
can make early site and
a living system. Buildings within this approach strive to implement
massing models (analogue
‘clean’ technologies, minimise environmental impacts, reduce energy
consumption, and improve users’ health and building management. or digital) to help shape your
project’s conceptual form.
Bioclimatic architecture Early models can be quick
see also Tropical architecture, Table 2.5 and inexpensive to allow for
This approach is about the design of buildings based on local climate testing of ideas (see Chapter
and environmental conditions. It has a connection to nature, utilising
5, Table 5.4).
passive strategies (e.g., natural ventilation, sun protection) to provide
optimal thermal and visual comfort, and making use of solar energy and
other environmental sources while avoiding complete dependence on
mechanical systems. 2.16 NOTE
Biomimicry (biomimetic, biomorphic design)
Blending in or contrasting
Biomimicry seeks solutions for architecture from nature through
with the site?
examining its models, systems and processes for inspiration to solve
human-made problems. It strives for ecological principles and restorative While your project should
impacts rather than stylistic forms or codes. It often includes innovative make the most of the site,
and untested solutions. this does not mean your
building has to blend into the
Eco-tech architecture context. You may contrast
Eco-tech design is a combination of ecology and technology, combining
with, expand on or even add
nature with human-made strategies in architecture. Eco-tech
to the existing situation.
buildings act as a part of a broader ecosystem, maximising the use
of the local natural elements (sun, wind, water, groundwater, plants) Use a massing site model
with technology. Technology is used in parallel with nature to exploit (physical or digital) to explore
environmental resources. potential relationships and
scales and see how different
Sponge City massing affects the different
contextual parameters.
81

The climate emergency emphasises the need to design for specifc
Focusing on passive resilience
› see Chapter 1 climates and contexts › and to utilise as many passive design
› see Glossary strategies › as possible. The passive resilience theme is a good
Use the context information
starting point to def ine your concept, values and goals. Passive
of the site (see Table 1.4) to
resilient approaches in architecture strive for energy effciency,
understand the site conditions
comfort and resilience (e.g., natural ventilation in summer, harnessing
as a starting point to form
the winter sun for heat and summer solar shading). As mentioned,
a position and concept,
passive strategies should be designed for specifc climatic regions, utilising and if necessary
› see Chapter 1, addressing their specifc context and culture. › For example in modifying the site to create
Section 1.2.2 equatorial regions, where the climate is typically humid and hot, cross- the optimal passive resilience
ventilation is often used to cool interior spaces; in desert areas where it conditions for your building
is dry and hot, small openings, solar shading, courtyards and fountains and the spaces around it. See
examples in Note 2.18.
2.18 EXAMPLES

passive resilience
• Asante Architecture
& Design/Lönnqvist &
Vanamo Architects – Econef
Children’s Center, Kingori,
Tanzania
• Bengt Warne – Naturhus,
Sikhall, Sweden
• Hiroshi Sambuichi – Inujima
Seirensho Art Museum,
Inujima, Japan
• Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry
– Faculty of Arts Building,
University of Ibadan, Nigeria
• MASS Design Group –
Rwanda Institute for
Conservation Agriculture
(RICE), Gashora, Rwanda
• Sarah Wigglesworth – Stock
Orchard Street, London, UK
• Thomas Herzog – House in
Regensburg, Germany
• Urko Sanchez Architects – SOS
Children’s Villages International,
Tadjoura, Djibouti
• Yasmeen Lari – Zero Carbon
Cultural Centre, Makli, Pakistan
Figure 2.14 William Capps’

conceptual approach, including
passive resilience strategies
such as natural ventilation, solar
heat gain, natural daylight,
thermal mass and deciduous
trees to act as solar shading.
82
are used to cool the air through evaporative cooling; and in northern
cold climates, buildings are designed with high standards of insulation
and airtightness.
Various techniques and principles need to be employed, which are
often passive and low-tech or developed from low-tech solutions
› see Table 2.4 often employed in approaches such as bioclimatic architecture › and
Figure 2.15 Diagram of some
› see Glossary vernacular architecture. › Buildings within these approaches range in of the key conceptual design
and Table 2.7 scale and follow diverse principles and aesthetics, as all concepts are principles for passive resilience
based on local contexts, climates, materials and methods. This means approaches (e.g., using winter
that all buildings are unique, and you can’t copy and paste concepts sun for solar gain and solar
between different contexts. spaces to collect heat and
retain it within thermal mass,
Table 2.5 summarises some sustainable architecture approaches that or deciduous trees for summer
use passive resilience as their main driver. solar shading).
83
TABLE 2.5 THEME 4: PASSIVE RESILIENT APPROACHES
Passive solar architecture

Primarily uses the sun’s energy for passive strategies and building performance together with the
characteristics of a local climate to maintain thermally comfortable conditions. This approach is the
foundation for many passive resilient and energy-related approaches.
Tropical architecture
see also Bioclimatic architecture, Table 2.4
Embraces the climate infuence of the tropical region in the design of its building. It argues for a local
and environmentally sensitive approach and the climatic adaptation of modern design and construction
trends, taking into consideration the lifestyle that the tropical climate affords. For example, iron rusts,
materials deteriorate and fungi grow faster in the tropics than in temperate countries. Just remember that
there are multiple tropical climates, and therefore there should be different approaches within tropical
architecture.
Self-sustaining or off-grid architecture

Self-sustaining architecture provides all the resources for a building with as little infrastructural support as
possible while offering resilience and future-proofng against inevitable extreme weather. Self-suffcient
buildings are characterised by being independent of public infrastructure utilities to supply their own
energy and potable water, as well as managing food, waste and wastewater. Off-grid buildings can
be smaller communities or individual buildings but are often residential typologies, located in rural or
isolated locations with some exceptions within suburban environments. This is a positive approach for
communities that are already remotely placed and have no access to public facilities. However, when
buildings are developed on greenfeld locations and require subsequent private transportation, this often
outweighs their low impact elsewhere.
Autonomous buildings
A type of self-sustaining architecture, autonomous buildings strive to reduce environmental effects by
using contextual resources such as sunlight and precipitation, creating energy-effcient and therefore
cost-effective buildings. They are designed to operate off-grid from infrastructural support services,
generating or providing their own water, waste and sewage treatment, stormwater, electricity, and
heating and cooling, as well as food production. Advantages of this approach are reduced environmental
impacts, increased resource security, and lower ownership costs and, unlike other off-grid approaches, it
endeavours to look like conventional housing visually.
Earthships (biotecture, earth-sheltering)

A self-suffcient building approach that uses passive solar design (see above) to reduce space heating
energy and costs. Large south-facing (north in the southern hemisphere) windows capture the free heat
from solar gains, while the north (south in the southern hemisphere) side is covered by earth (or dug in)
to use the Earth’s thermal mass to balance temperature variations between day and night, supplemented
by an insulated fabric (often recycled materials). Earthships are usually located in rural areas, and tend to
integrate well into the landscape.
Bioshelters (biospheres, life-shelters)

Bioshelters are an early attempt at sustainable architecture and combine housing, ecological design and
solar greenhouses, which are designed to contain and nurture an ecosystem within, i.e., blending solar,
wind, biological and electronic technologies with housing, food production and waste utilisation in an
ecological and cultural context. Not to be confused with Earthships – see above.
Passivhaus or Passive house

Vernacular architecture
see Table 2.7
84
2.3.5 Theme 5: Energy and CO2 2.19 NOTE

A signifcant contributor to the climate crisis is greenhouse gas
Why burning wood is not
emissions, of which carbon dioxide (CO2, or carbon for short) is the
considered sustainable
most signifcant. CO2 pollution (and other pollutants) is emitted when
When timber grows, it absorbs
fossil fuels are burned, for example, in petrol or diesel vehicles and
CO2 from the atmosphere.
the production of electricity and heat, where coal, natural gas, oil and
However, when it burns or rots,
peat are still burned. The burning of wood (i.e., biomass) also releases
this sequestered CO2 is released
the CO2 that is absorbed during its lifetime, and so CO2 pollution is back into the atmosphere. It
› see Note 2.19 similar to burning coal. › Instead of burning it, timber is best kept alive takes years for newly grown
as a tree sequestering CO2 and contributing to biodiversity. If timber trees to offset the CO2 emissions,
is used as a building material, it must be designed to be long-lasting yet we need to reduce carbon
› see Chapter 4, and for reuse to keep the CO2 locked in for centuries. › emissions now. Localised
Section 4.5.3
Energy used in buildings contributes to around 40% of CO2 emissions burning of wood may also
globally, because we still use fossil fuels to heat, light, cool and release harmful particles into
the air we breathe. Sometimes,
ventilate (i.e., to operate) buildings. As such, low-energy and low-
waste wood cuttings or chips
carbon approaches to architecture are increasing, usually required by
might be appropriate as fuel
stricter regulations and standards. Since the oil crisis in the 1970s, early
when obtained from local
experiments such as zero-energy and zero-carbon buildings focused
woodland management, but
on on-site energy production rather than energy effciency. However,
only if the process does not emit
meeting a building’s energy needs is easier when those needs have
harmful particles.
frst been minimised. This is why more recent approaches aim to
optimise the required operational energy demands to improve
a building’s energy effciency. These approaches often employ
2.20 NOTE
passive strategies as much as possible before using active systems
Focusing on energy and CO2
issues to defne your project
Using energy and CO2 issues
as drivers for your concept is
a direct approach to positive
climate action in your project.
As a starting point, research
different energy and CO2
approaches and standards and
use these to inform your main
project aspirations. You can fnd
inspiration in the approaches
and examples in Table 2.6,
and the examples in Note
2.21. However, don’t lose sight
of the wider holistic approach
to climate emergency design
that we explain throughout
this book.
Figure 2.16 Samuel Letchford’s

energy and CO2 concept,
indicating the different
conceptual energy generation
ideas that could be applied
within the project, including
passive solar gain, wave power
and wind power.
85
or suitable renewable energy options, i.e., a ‘fabric frst’ approach.

This includes advanced insulation and airtightness standards as
well as energy-effcient appliances and active systems and services.
Typically, they also prioritise thermal comfort, indoor environmental
› see Glossary quality (IEQ) › and embodied energy from materials, so these
approaches are closely linked to other themes: passive resilience
(Theme 4), materials (Theme 6) and health and wellbeing (Theme 7).
A key strategy of these approaches is to harness and retain (through
highly insulated envelopes) ‘free heat’ from the sun, people’s bodies,
and activities and equipment in the building. However, good solar
Figure 2.17 Diagram of
design with adequate shading (e.g., awnings, deciduous trees) is
conceptual design principles for
required to reduce summertime overheating, especially for northern energy and carbon approaches,
countries (in the northern hemisphere) with a low angle of sun. In the illustrating different strategies
past, these approaches often materialised in a deterministic approach, (e.g., high levels of insulation
i.e., the aesthetics were determined by a kit-of-parts approach or with and a good level of glazing
tacked-on renewable energy technology or other systems. for colder regions, rainwater
harvesting and energy
Table 2.6 summarises some sustainable architecture approaches that production through solar cells,
use energy and CO2 issues as their main approach. ground-source heat pump).
86
2.21 EXAMPLES
TABLE 2.6 THEME 5: ENERGY AND CO2 APPROACHES
Inspiring examples for energy
Passivhaus/Passive house and CO2
Passivhaus is one of the pioneering concepts for low-energy houses, • Architype Architects – Burry
developed by the Passivhaus Institute in 1996. Popular in temperate Port Community Primary
or polar regions, it is a mainly voluntary standard for energy effciency School, Wales, UK
in buildings, with designs making use of passive strategies such as
• Baumschlager Eberle
maximising winter solar gains while reducing summer overheating, high
– 2226 Emmenweid,
standards for insulation (U-values, W/m2K) and airtightness (ach-1 or m3/
m2.hr), as well as for appliances and mechanical ventilation with heat Emmenbrücke, Switzerland
recovery (MVHR) systems. It sets maximum standards for space heating • Hamson Barron Smith
and cooling for the energy needs that still need to be met, expressed as – Carrowbreck Meadow,
kWh/m2 per year. It has a rigorous certifcation scheme based on actual Norwich, UK
building performance. • IAAC – Endesa Pavilion,
Barcelona, Spain
Nearly zero-energy building (NZEB), zero net energy building (ZNEB), • T.R. Hamzah & Yeang –
net-zero carbon, Passivhaus Plus Solaris, Singapore
There are slightly different terms and sometimes confusing defnitions • Mick Pearce – Council House
in different regions. The EU uses the term ‘nearly zero-energy building
2 Building, Melbourne,
(nZEB)’. Similarly, zero net energy buildings (ZNEBs) are buildings
Australia
where the total amount of energy used annually is equal to the amount
• Mikhail Riches – Goldsmith
of renewable energy created on site or by other renewable energy
sources. Its strategy is to focus on passive and active systems, similar Street Social Housing,
to Passivhaus, to reduce energy demands before energy generation. Norwich, UK
Usually, maximum fabric standards are recommended either through • Rolf Disch – Heliotrope
yearly energy use (kWh/m2a) or fabric standards (airtightness, U-values). Solar Settlement, Freiburg,
If all carbon emissions are offset through renewable energy (either on or Germany
off site), it is a (net) zero-carbon building (i.e., zero kgCO2/m2a). • Snøhetta – ZEB Pilot House,
Larvik, Norway
Energy-plus house (net-positive design, plus-energy house, effciency- • Jasmax – Te Kura Whare,
plus house), Passivhaus Premium Tāneatua, New Zealand
An energy-plus building builds on Passivhaus and ‘zero energy’
approaches, producing more energy from renewable energy sources
annually than it imports from external sources. Similarly, the above
approaches are achieved through on-site micro-generation technology
and passive strategies, such as passive solar building design, insulation,
and careful site selection and placement.
Active House
The Active House standard is similar to an energy-plus house in that it
generates more energy than it consumes. An Active House has three
guiding principles – comfort, energy and environment – with a vision
that buildings create healthier and more comfortable lives for their
occupants without negative impact on the climate.
87
2.3.6 Theme 6: Materials 2.22 NOTE 2.22 NOTE

The building industry is responsible for 10–15% of global waste
11
Focusing on materials to
production, but in Europe this increases to 36%,12 which is a signifcant
defne your project
contributor to carbon and greenhouse gas emissions. At the same
Choosing material sourcing
time, our fnite resources are drastically diminishing. These are two
approaches early on can help
opportunities for architects and designers to make a real difference
set your project goals and
in the face of the climate emergency. As material consumption values, which can in turn have
continues to rise in our contemporary cities, our current linear implications for architectural
› see Glossary systems › are unable to meet societal needs without detriment to form, construction and
the environment. Consequently, we must develop more circular appearance. You may be
› see Note 2.23 construction systems › and choose sustainable materials that are able to improve existing
construction patterns by
rethinking techniques, or
introducing new technologies
or innovative architectural
solutions. Consider whether
your project can contribute
to the upskilling of the local
workforce or the creation
of new local business and
employment. You can fnd
inspiration in the approaches
and examples in Table 2.7
and the examples that follow
it in Note 2.24.
Figure 2.18 Conceptual material

testing, using waste materials
from around the city to be
transformed into architectural
elements by Sofa Weidner.
Above, the raw waste materials;
below, how they were cast into
new models.
88
take influence from local choose climate & use reversible joints to
for massive structures vernacular techniques & function appropriate facilitate design for
consider timber material choices materials disassembly
use healthy, non-toxic materials
ensure materials are

sourced locally & use cladding systems with
ethically reversible connections, reduce
connection types & number
use recyclable,
biodegradeable & pay attention to insulation
C2C materials & finishes
design structures &

connections as design
for disassembly
use reversible
construction systems
for design for assembly
and material reuse
ensure timber is
sustainably sourced
consider existing
reduce material use buildings as
& types when possible material banks
consider light,
consider recycled bricks,
long-lasting modylar, use recycled,
stone, rammed earth as
prefab constructions reused materials
alternatives to concrete
› see Chapter 4, kept in circulation for as long as possible. › Consider whether Figure 2.19 Diagram of
Section 4.6 existing buildings can be repurposed, or if their materials can be conceptual design principles for
material approaches, illustrating
harvested and reused, as well as what other local opportunities
different sites of material reuse
for sourcing reused material exist. Opt for reclaimed, renewable,
collection that impact the
› see Glossary biodegradable and reusable materials › that save resources and concept of the project (e.g., how
eliminate the problem of future waste. to design for the long term,
using natural materials, closed
Additionally, selected sustainable materials need to support the entire
material loops, and design for
lifespan of the building elements, and their function and duration of
reversibility).
› see Chapter 1 use. Materials, preferably locally sourced ›, should have appropriate
technical, chemical, aesthetic, and health and safety properties for
› see Note 2.22 the climatic conditions, and their purpose and use. › It is important
to understand the broader framework for your project to be able to
choose suitable materials that enhance existing systems and processes
within your site (e.g., energy, water, biodiversity and the environment).
Your project’s material approach should be based on your site context
and may be infuenced by historical or local use of materials and
construction methods, or by local waste and material fows and so on.
It is always good to frst repurpose buildings and to reuse or recycle
before creating new buildings, demolishing them, or using new or
virgin materials. All these aspects can be strong drivers for your project
› see Chapter 1, defnition and design concept. ›
Table 1.6
Examples of sustainable architecture approaches that focus on
materials are summarised in Table 2.7.
89
2.23 NOTE
TABLE 2.7 THEME 6: MATERIAL APPROACHES
Circular design thinking
3R (reduce/reuse/recycle) Thinking in closed loops is
This design strategy treats buildings as resources and reduces the
essential when choosing
design and construction process to indispensable interventions only
materials – i.e., consider
to save on the use of materials and embodied energy, prolonging the
lifespan of existing buildings and their elements, which can be reused or the whole life cycle of the
reusable. building and its elements.
Refect on how your
(Adaptive) reuse (transformation) selected materials will be
Reuse is an approach to building in which a material, product or used, maintained, repaired,
building is used more than once for its intended or new purpose. dismantled and reused
Similarly, adaptive reuse of a building is the reuse of an existing building in the future – especially
for a different purpose than it was initially built for (achieved through
in a changing climate.
adaptation). Alternatively, material reuse is the use of reused and
To enable future reuse,
› see Chapter 4, recycled materials for a new purpose. Different types of material reuse
include spolia, recycling and upcycling. ›
Section 4.6 optimal materials are light,
long-lasting, modular,
› see Note 2.23 Circular materials › prefabricated, changeable,
and Table 2.2 Circular approaches facilitate future dismantling and the reuse of easy to disassemble and
building materials. For future reuse, optimal materials are light, long- standardised, with a planned
lasting, modular, prefabricated, changeable, easily mounted and period of usage as well as a
disassembled, standardised and recyclable, with a planned period of defned reuse scenario.
usage, as well as a defned reuse scenario. This includes, for example,
› see Glossary cradle-to-cradle materials › and is related to design for disassembly
approaches, as summarised in Table 2.2.
Healthy materials 2.24 EXAMPLES

› see Theme 7 Healthy materials focus on the health and wellbeing of users ›,
ensuring that the specifcation of materials supports health Inspiring examples for
and wellbeing and does not create toxic environments during materials
manufacturing, in the natural environment or when users are exposed
• Anna Heringer – METI
to the building. This approach often focuses on insulation materials,
Handmade School,
fnishes and the treatment of materials, which can off-gas harmful
chemicals during the production process or when in use, and therefore Rudrapur, Bangladesh
› see Glossary could contribute to sick building syndrome. › • Anupama Kundoo –
Volontariat Home for
Vernacular architecture Homeless Children,
(contemporary vernacular, modern vernacular) Pondicherry, India
Vernacular architecture is a contextual and locally determined approach • Architype Architects – The
in which knowledge and inspiration can be gained from looking at Enterprise Centre, Norwich, UK
and studying the different traditional buildings and techniques from • Een Til Een/GXN – Biological
each region. In contrast, modern vernacular approaches are a twist on House, Middelfart, Denmark
vernacular approaches. Rather than romanticising the old, this approach • Lendager Group – Upcycle
endeavours to take principles of the vernacular such as the relationship House, Nyborg, Denmark
to the context, local materials, and passive techniques and combines
• Rural Studio – Corrugated
them with more modern processes utilising modern technology,
Cardboard Pod, Alabama, USA
construction or building techniques.
• Superuse Studios – Villa
Welpeloo, Enschede, the
Other approaches
Netherlands
See Table 2.2 for approaches related to material use and the future:
• Vandkunsten Architects
reuse/retroft, durability/robustness, fexibility/adaptability/future-
proofng, design for disassembly (D4D) and cradle-to-cradle (C2C). – Seaweed House, Læsø,
Denmark
• Wang Shu – Ningbo Historic
Museum, China
• ZAO/standardarchitecture –
Micro-Yuan’er, Beijing, China
90
2.3.7 Theme 7: Health and wellbeing 2.25 NOTE

How our buildings impact our health has been a concern since as
Focusing on health and
early as the mid 19th century, when Florence Nightingale provided
wellbeing to defne your
evidence that ‘pure air and water, effcient drainage, cleanliness and
project
light’ were essential for a healthy home; ‘without these, no house can
be healthy’.13 More recent concerns include sick building syndrome,
some of the approaches in
which refers to illness as a result of unhealthy building environments
Table 2.8 and the examples
› see Glossary (e.g., caused by poor indoor environmental quality (IEQ) › and is
in Note 2.26 in more detail
especially prevalent in offces, schools and residential buildings. Rather and use them as drivers
than the absence of ill-health, the WHO now defnes health as ‘a for your project. Use the
state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing’.14 Health and information you have
wellbeing in architecture are impacted by the built environment’s collected on the site’s unique
quality and include the relationship between social, psychological context (Table 1.7), including
and medical factors. microclimate (Themes 3 and
4) and existing infrastructure
(Theme 2), which are both
closely related to health
and wellbeing. Are there
opportunities for connections
to the outside? How might
you optimise access to
daylight, views and fresh air?
Does mobility infrastructure
need strengthening in
support of more active
lifestyles?
Figure 2.20 Emilie Wu

illustrates how the conceptual
understanding of health and
wellbeing could be applied in a
dementia home – using natural
materials, tactility and other
senses to create a home which
improves the physical, social
and psychosocial wellbeing of
the residents.
91
consider consider atrium to consider

create access extensive use borrowed increase daylight &
to greenery intensive
green roof natural light stacked ventilation green roof
ensure natural
light from low
winter sun
use natural,
non-toxic
consider vertical materials
greenery vines
for shading ensure good
indoor air
natural cross & quality
stacked
ventilation
consider horizontal consider
external shading for stairs with
high summer sun view for
physical
use decidious
activity
trees for solar
shading in
summer ensure access
to nature
create visual,
auditory & physical
access to water consider
rainwater
collection &
water reuse
storage
consider thermal ensure common use plants to filter

use a range of different consider natural allow views &
mass & solar heat to space for social air & provide calm
dense greenery to reed water access to
provide thermal activities atmosphere
reduce noise pollution, filtration for plants & nature
wind flow & filter air storm & grey comfort
pollution water
(for summer comfort
always combine
with night-cooling)
As we spend nearly 90% of our time indoors, of which 70% is in our Figure 2.21 Diagram of
homes,15 it is crucial that these spaces positively affect our health key principles of health
and wellbeing. Some characteristics that positively affect health and and wellbeing approaches,
illustrating different biophilic
wellbeing are fresh air and sunlight, thermal and humidity conditions
principles (e.g., a physical and
(IEQ factors), visual and physical connections to nature, and adaptable
visual connection with nature,
› see Tables 2.2 and delightful spaces. › Active architecture can encourage users use of natural and non-toxic
and 2.9 to behave more sustainably and healthily (e.g., to walk and cycle materials, and access to natural
instead of taking the car). Buildings and urban environments can also daylight and ventilation).
support or hinder the community coming together through social
› see Theme 8 infrastructure ›, which positively affects citizens’ wellbeing. On the
other hand, unhealthy buildings affect more than physical health
and are also responsible for psychological wellbeing and productivity.
Poor air quality, inadequate building ventilation and overcrowding
especially impact health. The latter two were also found to play a major
role in the spread of COVID-19, leading to increased infection and
an increased risk of death where people were living in overcrowded
conditions.
Table 2.8 summarises examples of sustainable architecture
approaches that mainly focus on health and wellbeing.
92
TABLE 2.8 THEME 7: HEALTH 2.26 EXAMPLES

AND WELLBEING APPROACHES
Inspiring examples for health
Regenerative design and wellbeing
These are approaches with the future in mind, using nature as • Dorte Mandrup – Ama’r
inspiration and as a generator for architecture. It uses systems thinking
Children’s Culture House,
to understand, utilise and respond to living and natural systems present
Copenhagen, Denmark
within the project’s context. Regenerative buildings aim to reverse
• Estudio Gustavo Utrabo –
environmental damage and have a net-positive impact.
Aleph Zero Children Village,
Biophilic design Tocantins Region, Brazil
Biophilic design aims to improve health and wellbeing through • Heatherwick Studio –
occupant connectivity to the natural environment using direct nature, Maggie’s Centre, Leeds, UK
indirect nature, and space and place conditions that connect to outdoor • Henning Larsen –
environments visually and physically. This approach applies at both the Frederiksbjerg School,
building and the city scale, with health, environmental and economic Aarhus, Denmark
benefts for building occupants and urban environments, potentially also
• mech.build – Micro House,
› see Themes 2 enhancing biodiversity through green infrastructure provision. ›
Potoczek, Poland
and 3
• Obie Bowman – Brunsell
Nudge architecture
Residence, California, USA
Nudge architecture is a new approach to behaviour, design and wellness,
• RMJM, Khoo Teck Puat
utilising architecture’s ability to affect human wellbeing. It uses new
Hospital, Singapore
ideas of rational choice theory and behaviour economics to explore how
architects can ‘nudge’ (i.e., encourage) people towards healthy action • SelgasCano – Second Home
through the built environment. Designs can make healthier choices Holland Park, London, UK,
easier or reduce negative actions by increasing their diffculty. In this or Second Home LA, Los
approach, people are active agents rather than passive experiencers. Angeles, USA
• Sharon Davis Design – Bayalpata
Active architecture Hospital, Achham, Nepal
Active architecture is grounded in the idea that the design of the built • Tezuka Architects – Fuji
environment can have a crucial and positive infuence on improving Kindergarten, Tokyo, Japan
public health. Just as architecture and urban design were crucial to
defeating epidemics such as cholera and tuberculosis in the past,
environmental design will be an essential tool in combatting the most
pressing public health problem of our time – obesity and its related
chronic diseases. The ‘fve Ds’ are key to analysing the relationship
between urban design and travel patterns for active design: density,
diversity, design, destination accessibility, and distance to transit.
Healthy materials
Active House
Living Building Challenge

WELL Building Standard

93
2.3.8 Theme 8: People and community 2.27 NOTE

Architecture should always be designed with and for people –
Focusing on people and
engaging all users in the process. For truly sustainable communities,
community to defne your
social and cultural issues must be at the foref ront of all decisions,
project
prioritising the needs of the future building users, embracing
People and community are
their backgrounds and reducing inequalities. The concepts of
good starting points to defne
autonomy, collaboration and participation have gained relevance in
your concept, values and
architecture and urbanism through collaborative actions involving goals, and should be included
the community, architects, urban planners and designers. Socially in each project. Analysing your
oriented architecture approaches are rooted in the social, political and site and context is crucial to
Civil Rights movements of the 1960s and 1970s, building on the rights recognising who your ‘client’
to appropriate urban space and actively participate in its production. and end users are, and what
community your project will
serve, to enable you to create
a ‘democratic design plan’
(see Chapter 3, Note 3.26). You
can fnd inspirational points,
approaches and examples in
Table 2.9 and Note 2.30.
2.28 NOTE
People, community and

building type
Often your goals and values
can be developed with your
user and client if you have
one; if not, you may gain
insight from a group of
people representing your
fctitious user group or client
(see Tables 1.8 and 2.9). You
can develop the appropriate
functions and programmes
to meet different users’
needs and the building
type. Precedent research
(see Glossary) can help
you understand the inner
workings of the building type,
allowing you to learn and
improve from what has been
explored before.
Figure 2.22 Anni Jäntti, Martti

Peuransalo and Sofa Korte aim
to tackle loneliness by creating
easy opportunities for everyday
encounters, with corridors
transforming into different spaces
of communality at different times
and on different foors.
94
It values social and cultural life, social amenities, systems for citizen
engagement, inclusive space for all people without discrimination and
the affordance for places to evolve.
These democratic approaches belong in every climate emergency
design project. Yet they are often only used in projects that aim
to create social value that is managed by the public sector (e.g.,
community participation projects, cooperative ownership models,
self-building). They change the user’s role within the design process
from being a passive informant to an active, recognised participant,
contributing their local expertise and lived experience to infuence the
future plans that affect them, and gaining a sense of ownership.
Keep in mind that the community’s involvement should not end when
Figure 2.23 Diagram of key
construction is over; the sense of responsibility for co-created, shared principles of people and
spaces and activities should enable truly sustainable, daily use of community approaches,
them. Different communities and cultures will fnd different types of illustrating different strategies
social infrastructure essential (e.g., a public sauna in Finland, a public for creating inclusive design
piazza in Italy or a beach in a coastal area). projects that support all
communities and engage
Table 2.9 summarises examples of sustainable architecture different communities within
approaches with their main focus on people and community. the design.
95
2.29 NOTE
TABLE 2.9 THEME 8 – PEOPLE AND COMMUNITY APPROACHES
Community engagement in
Participatory design (cooperative design, co-design, co-creation, live projects
co-production) You may want to consider a
Participatory design is an umbrella term to describe different more collaborative project
approaches to actively engaging all stakeholders (e.g., employees,
which includes real end
partners, customers, citizens, end users) in the design process. It focuses
users in the design process.
on the processes and procedures of design to ensure that the outcomes
meet the needs and functional requirements of the users. It can include The actions described here
co-design – i.e., where citizens are involved in the co-creation of design help you to consider this
or strategic proposals, even helping to build the proposal. process and strengthen a
sense of community. This
Democratic architecture may result in spaces that
Democratic architecture deals with issues of ethics and politics, are ‘owned’ and taken care
promoting democracy and empowerment to include marginalised of by the community who
groups and communities. participated in their design
It relates to participatory processes that utilise democratic processes to and/or construction. See also
engage in design that includes all areas of the community and society.
Chapter 3, Section 3.2.5
This approach aims for an organically unfolding process, especially to
create ownership, empowerment and fexibility. In the words of Jane
Jacobs: ‘Cities have the capability of providing something for everybody,
only because and only when they are created by everybody.’ 16
2.30 EXAMPLES
Inclusive design (user-centred design)
Inclusive design aims for space or buildings to be used and accessed Inspiring examples for people
by as many people as possible regardless of age, gender and disability,
and community
for example. The design area extends beyond the building to include
• Assemble Studio, Granby
surrounding open spaces, wherever people go about their everyday
activities. The process should involve potential users at all stages of Four Streets, Liverpool, UK
the design process, from the design brief and detailed design through • Basurama – RUS: Urban
to construction and completion. Inclusive design principles include Weavers, Cordóba,
responsiveness, fexibility, convenience, and being accommodating for Argentina
› see Theme 1 all, welcoming and realistic. › Radical inclusivity is when spaces can be • Gina Reichert and Mitch
used by different human and non-human users at different times and Cope – Power House
for different uses. Banglatown, Detroit, USA
• Helen & Hard –
Soft Landings
see Theme 10, Table 2.11 Vindmøllebakken Housing,
Stavanger, Norway
• ONV Architects – Friendly
Housing Plus, Copenhagen,
Denmark
• Raumlabor – Haus der
Statistik, Berlin, Germany
• Rural Urban Framework +
University of Hong Kong –
Lantian Village, Guangdong
Province, China
• Tatiana Bilbao Estudio –
Casa Marbel and Casa Pedro
y Paz, Ocuilan de Arteaga,
Mexico
• Toshiko Mori Architects
– New Artist Residency,
Sinthian, Senegal
• ZAV architects – The Habitat
for Orphan Girls, Khansar, Iran
96
2.3.9 Theme 9: Delight 2.31 NOTE

The idea that ‘we sustain what we love’ embodies the architectural
Focusing on aspects of
approaches within this theme and is closely linked to health and
delight to defne your project
› see Theme 7 wellbeing. › Quality of space, suitability of use, and visual and sensory
delight (e.g., thermal and acoustic comfort, views and daylight) are
the approaches in Table 2.10
key to creating delightful spaces. Our quality of life is profoundly and the examples in Note
impacted by buildings, as we spend the majority of our lives indoors, 2.32. Use these as drivers for
in what is now our ‘(un)natural habitat’,17 and this infuences our social your main project aspirations.
relationships, informs our culture and impacts the environment. The examples are mainly
Our visual, thermal, acoustic, olfactory (smell) and tactile environments at a building scale, but you
are rich in social and cultural associations that infuence a space’s should also consider delight
delight. However, in recent decades there has been a disconnect at a wider scale. For example,
what can your project give
between the experience and sources of delight.18 This is especially due
back to the city and its
citizens? What kind of a
neighbour will your project
be? What moments of delight
can you create for others?
Figure 2.24 Collage of different

atmospheres documented
from the site and existing
building, overlaid to create a
concept focusing on daylight,
transparency and views by Anna
Vang Toksvig.
97
to the introduction of space heating and cooling systems, creating

artifcial indoor climates and also allowing the user little control over
their environment. Activities such as sitting in a sunny window or
around a fre in winter or feeling the breeze of an open window in
summer can create sensorial delight and social interaction, which is less
present with technical solutions such as air-conditioning.
Visual delight includes the aesthetic view and experience of a building
or space and its craftsmanship, cultural appropriateness and the
experience and presence of views, including connections to outside,
and the contrast between light and shade, which are essential to principles of delight, including
› see Theme 7 our health and wellbeing. › Approaches within this theme often take thermal, visual and auditory
visual and sensorial reference from nature and embed this visually, comfort, and the creation of
atmospherically and sensorially. wonderful experiences and
access to beautiful spaces and
Table 2.10 summarises examples of sustainable architecture places (e.g., atmosphere, material
approaches with their main focus on aspects of delight. weathering and patina).
98
2.32 EXAMPLES
TABLE 2.10 THEME 9 – DELIGHTFUL APPROACHES
Regionalism and critical regionalism delight
The concept of place-based design responded to the lack of identity • Alvar Aalto – Säynätsalo
(or appropriateness) of the International Style in relation to different Town Hall, Finland
climates and contexts. Critical regionalism strives for architecture rooted • Dorte Mandrup – Ilulissat
in the modern tradition but tied to a geographical and cultural context,
Icefjord Centre, Greenland
mediating between global and local architectural languages. While
• Frank Lloyd Wright –
similar, regionalism is different from critical regionalism in that the latter
Fallingwater, Pennsylvania, USA
developed to counter the lack of identity and disregard for context of
modernism and postmodernism. • Glenn Murcutt – Magney House,
New South Wales, Australia
Organic architecture • Hassan Fathy – The Mosque,
Organic architecture promotes harmony between human habitation Kurna, Egypt
and the natural world. It aims to be well integrated and sympathetic to • Lacaton & Vassal – FRAC,
the natural context and the functions of the users; therefore, buildings, Dunkerque, France
furnishings and surroundings become an interrelated composition. • Marina Tabassum – Bait
Ur Rouf Mosque, Dhaka,
Eco-aesthetic Bangladesh
Eco-aesthetic19 is an approach to sustainable architecture that
• Petra Gipp, Rörbäck Forest
focuses on sensorial and aesthetic concerns through the use of iconic
Retreat, Varberg, Sweden
expressions and metaphorical representations of societal values and the
• Renzo Piano – Jean-Marie
natural and non-human world.
Tjibaou Cultural Centre, New
Organi-tech Caledonia
The organi-tech approach focuses on high-tech architecture with • Samira Rathod – School of
biomorphic, organic or ecological elements. However, they are often Dancing Arches, Bhadran,
secondary to utilitarian and practical or technical concerns. Organi-tech India
buildings often have connections to nature in form or aesthetics only,
rather than through their systems and principles.
Biomimicry
see Table 2.4
Biophilic design
see Table 2.8
99
2.3.10 Theme 10: Performance 2.33 NOTE

The fact that we have been living on a fnite planet has been evident
Focusing on performance
for the last 60 years. Many architects have explored ways to address
the problem during this time, including by technocentric or high-
Research the different
› see Glossary tech solutions. › In the 20th century, Buckminster Fuller developed
approaches in Table 2.11 and
technological solutions (e.g., Spaceship Earth) to reduce resource
Note 2.34 and your
consumption, exploring the notion ‘do more with less’. This fostered performance risk plan (see
an interest in technological solutions for a more sustainable future. Section 4.8.2) that can help
The rapid development of technology-based solutions meant that set targets to defne your
sustainable buildings moved from small-scale and rural to large- project. Use your research
scale urban projects. With this came buildings that were high-tech, about the site’s unique
lightweight, low mass and highly glazed, with bold aesthetics. They context, passive resilience
became less about responding to contextual conditions and more opportunities (Tables 1.3 and
about a tectonic expression of form. Often unsustainable design 1.4), existing energy sources
decisions are offset by added technology such as excessive glazing, (Table 1.5) and user aspects
which increases cooling needs and subsequently increases energy (Table 1.8).
demands. Hence, they became increasingly complex to build,
manage, maintain and use. The complexity of mechanical systems has
contributed, in particular, to the underperformance of buildings (i.e., 2.34 EXAMPLES
where design goals and targets are not met), especially regarding IEQ,
for example, summer overheating and poor indoor air quality.20 This, in Inspiring examples for
performance
turn, affects users’ health and wellbeing and – where additional energy
• Buckminster Fuller – The
is used to keep spaces cool – jeopardises carbon emissions reduction.
Biosphere Environment
Designing for the climate emergency cannot be achieved on paper Museum, Montreal, Canada
only. It must work in reality for the users, in terms of the energy and • Frei Otto – Diplomatic Club,
other sustainability targets set out. With the growing urgency of the Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
climate emergency, these underperforming buildings need to be • GXN – Green Solution House,
rethought. Performance monitoring and evaluation (BPE) and post- Ronne, Denmark
› see Glossary occupancy evaluation (POEs) › are helping to create more holistic and • Henning Larsen, Harper
accountable buildings. Concert Hall, Reykjavík, Iceland
• Kashef Chowdhury/URBANA
Moreover, different certifcation and assessment tools are used to set
– Friendship Centre,
the sustainability goals, against which actual as-built performance
Gaibandha, Bangladesh
can be monitored and compared. These tools often use quantifable
• Mick Pearce – Eastgate
parameters to assess the sustainability of a project, and often include Shopping Mall, Zimbabwe
aspects related to wellbeing, happiness and aesthetic quality. • Nicolas Grimshaw – Eden
Table 2.11 summarises examples of sustainable architecture Project: the Biomes, UK
approaches with the main focus on performance, including • Richard Rogers – Bordeaux
environmental certifcation standards. Law Courts, Bordeaux, France
• Saif Ul Haque Sthapati –
Arcadia Education Project,
Dhaka, Bangladesh
• WOHA, Oasis Hotel
Downtown, Singapore
Figure 2.26 (opposite)

Alexander Throm investigates
the transition of light through
manipulation of facade layers
and the effects on the resulting
outdoor and indoor spaces to
form a performance concept.
100
101
consider open floor plan with

manyally or BMS operated use solar collectors /
openable windows & ceiling photovoltaic array facing
use high albedo fans for cross & stacked south in the northern
consider celestory
material to ventilation in summer & to hemisphere & north in
windows for
reflect solar heat circulate heat in winter the southern hemisphere
stacked ventlation rain water harvest
for irrigation &
toilets
ensure efficient
insulation
use manyally or
BMS operated
openable
windows for
natural ventilation
consider overhang
& light shelves for
solar shading &
reflecting indirect
light to the interior
ensure solar
heat gain from
low winter sun
use rainwater /
grey water for
irrigation
rain water
BMS
tank
consider BMS (building management geothermal heat pump ensure windows

system) to monitor e.g. energy and for supplimentary with good u-values
water use & indoor air quality and to cooling in summer &
open / close windows heating in winter

principles of approaches related
to performance, illustrating
the different performance
strategies that can be used
when imagining a concept (e.g.,
windows and solar shading
operated with a building
management system, or BMS).
102
TABLE 2.11 THEME 10: PERFORMANCE APPROACHES

(see also Chapter 5, Section 5.4)
› see Glossary High-tech green, techno-centric ›

High-tech green blends engineering and architecture to express further the ‘bones’ or structure of a building.
These buildings are techno-centric, believing that technology can solve environmental problems; however, this
is often not achieved.
Bionic architecture
Bionic architecture studies the physiological, behavioural and structural interpretations of biological
organisms as a source of inspiration for designing and constructing visually expressive buildings. These
buildings are designed to be technologically responsive, modifying themselves in response to the
changing internal and external forces such as weather and temperature.
BREEAM (Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method)

BREEAM is one of the longest-established methods of certifying, assessing and rating the sustainability
of buildings. BREEAM is popular in the UK and uses ‘scientifcally based sustainability metrics’ to evaluate
categories which include energy and water use, health and wellbeing, pollution, transport, materials,
waste, ecology and management processes. More than half a million buildings have achieved BREEAM
certifcation, which uses a scale of ‘Pass’, ‘Good’, ‘Very Good’, ‘Excellent’ and ‘Outstanding’. Some argue that
it is not ambitious enough and mainly encourages mainstream practices rather than innovation.
LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design)

LEED is a green building certifcation programme developed by the US Green Building Council (USGBC)
but is used worldwide. It operates on a points system distributed across six credit categories: ‘sustainable
sites’, ‘water effciency’, ‘energy and atmosphere’, ‘materials and resources’, ‘indoor environmental quality’
and ‘innovation in design’. LEED uses a scale system to certify buildings, ranging from certifed, silver and
gold, to the highest – platinum.
Living Building Challenge (LBC)

LBC is an international sustainable building certifcation programme created by the Living Future
Institute. It is one of the most rigorous and holistic certifcations. It can be applied at all scales, including
buildings (new and renovated), infrastructure, landscapes, neighbourhoods and communities. LBC is
based on a regenerative and self-suffcient design model, with certifcation categories and performance
areas comprising materials, place, water, energy, health and happiness, equity and beauty. Additionally,
LBC buildings must be net-zero energy, waste and water, and must not use any red-list (toxic) materials.
WELL Building Standard

The WELL Building Standard focuses on enhancing health by setting performance standards for design
projects developed by the International WELL Building Institute (IWBI). It includes 10 aspects: air, water,
nourishment, light, movement, thermal comfort, sound, materials, mind and community.
› see Note 0.04 RIBA 2030 Climate Change Challenge and RIBA Sustainable Outcomes Guide ›
The RIBA 2030 Climate Challenge outlines targets that need to be met by 2030 for newbuilds and refurbished
buildings and 2050 at the latest for most existing buildings. Based on the UN SDGs, the RIBA identifed eight
sustainable outcomes that all buildings contribute to. It argues that these sustainable outcomes are ‘clear,
measurable, realistic, and transparent between expectations and outcomes. They avoid long checklists and
unnecessary complexity and address the triple bottom line defnition of sustainability – balancing social,
environmental, and economic value.’21 These eight themes are Net Zero Operational Carbon Emissions,
Net Zero Embodied Carbon Emissions, Sustainable Water Cycle, Sustainable connectivity and transport,
Sustainable land-use and ecology, Good Health and Wellbeing, Sustainable Communities and Social Value, and
Sustainable Life Cycle Cost.
Soft Landings
Soft Landings is a framework that aims to improve building performance in terms of energy use and
associated carbon emissions, user satisfaction and client expectation, and does this by supporting design
and construction with clear actions for the different stakeholders from the early stages of design to
building completion and use (e.g., user involvement in the early stages, creation of a user manual and
satisfaction surveys after project completion).
Passivhaus standard
103
2.4 SUMMARY 2.35 NOTE
There are many different approaches to sustainable architecture, A project title and vision
which have developed and evolved over the past half-century. In this statement
chapter, we have set out how to use these approaches and the 10 Once your project
climate emergency design themes to help you defne your project, defnition has taken shape,
concept values and goals. Most sustainable architecture approaches communicate your concept
focus on some aspects of sustainable design while neglecting others. and climate emergency
This is not good enough. While these approaches offer a variety of design approach in a
avenues to explore and be inspired by, the only way forward is to simplifed or inspirational
› Chapter 1 and positively impact the environment (i.e., restorative approaches). › ‘strapline’ or project title
Note 1.02 that expresses the main
To achieve this, we need to ensure that all (10) aspects of a climate
aspiration for the project.
› see Chapter 0, emergency design approach, › are (eventually) integrated within a
Tables 0.1 and 0.2 Often practices communicate
project for a holistic design.
their concept through a
There is no time for shallow or fragmented sustainable architecture to project title with a short vision
attempt to do ‘less bad’. Holistic design goes beyond mere problem- statement, and as a student,
solving to see a project as an interconnected whole that is part of you can also do this to clarify
the world. Holistic sustainable architecture transcends scales and to yourself and others what is
understands the consequences of local decisions on a global scale. at the heart of your project.
During your education, you may not be able to design for this directly
– it is complicated for even the most experienced architects – but
it is always important to design holistically and to ‘think global and
act local’. Remember: all architecture starts with a concept, and
the more holistically sustainable your concept is, the bigger
the impact your project will have on mitigating the climate
emergency.
Before you move to the next stage, check Table 2.1 to ensure you
have tackled the ‘Step 2 – defne’ questions, and Note 2.35.
104
Figure 2.28 Diagram

synthesising the key principles
of climate emergency design,
combining all the principles
from the other diagrams. It
indicates the complexity of a
holistic sustainable architecture
project, but also how many
principles overlap between the
different approaches.
105
CHAPTER 3
IMAGINING
CLIMATE EMERGENCY
DESIGN STRATEGIES
(STEP 3)
3.1 INTRODUCTION 107

3.2 DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR A CLIMATE 108
EMERGENCY
3.3 SUMMARY 145
DOI: 10.4324/9781003297246-4
IMAGINING CLIMATE EMERGENCY DESIGN STRATEGIES
3.1 INTRODUCTION
By now, it should be clear how your design can profoundly impact
the planet through the decisions you make. Clearly, your architecture
project needs to avoid damaging processes and lead towards a
› see Glossary, positive and restorative design impact. ›
Chapter 1 and
Note 1.02 The best chance to infuence the sustainability of your design is by
ensuring that your climate emergency approach is included early on
› see Chapter 0, and at the heart of your project, i.e., an integrated design concept. ›
Section 0.3 To help you do this, Chapter 1 focuses on your contextual exploration
(Step 1), and Chapter 2 (Step 2) focuses on how you can use this
research and analysis to help defne your project concept, values and
goals. This chapter is dedicated to Step 3 of the design process, i.e.,
imagining design strategies and different options and ideas that help
you meet your project values, goals and ambitions as set out in the
› see Chapter 0, earlier steps. ›
Tables 0.1 and 0.2
This chapter is structured around six of the 10 climate emergency
design themes that are helpful when imagining design strategies
early on. The themes of future and global responsibility (Theme 1),
infrastructure (Theme 2), site-scale aspects of passive resilience
(Theme 4) and health and wellbeing (Theme 7), as well as people
and community (Theme 8) and delight (Theme 9), are particularly
important to integrate early in your design as a robust foundation for
› see Figure 3.1 a restorative design. › This chapter focuses on how to integrate these

emergency design themes,
highlighting in red those that
are covered in this chapter.
107
Figure 3.2 Diagram of the

fve steps, emphasising Step
3 (imagine), which is the main
focus of this chapter.
themes into your design strategies and decisions, with rules of thumb
provided. The remaining themes are covered in Chapter 4 for further
in-depth design development and testing, along with building-scale
aspects of passive resilience (Theme 4) and health and wellbeing
(Theme 7) not covered in this chapter.
3.2 DESIGN STRATEGIES

FOR A CLIMATE EMERGENCY
The climate emergency themes help to inspire and focus your project
values and act as a starting point for defning and imagining your
climate emergency design strategies. As a starting point for Step 3,
focus on which key themes best support your concept and project
values. Work towards eventually integrating all of the themes into
your design projects as you progress through your studies. However,
for each project, a minimum should always be to include aspects of
› see Chapter 4 Theme 1 (future and global responsibility), Theme 3 (environment ›)
› see Note 0.06 and Theme 8 (people and community). ›
and Chapter 0,
Tables 0.1 and 0.2 3.2.1 Theme 1: Future and global responsibility
The world is one extensive system that contains all the resources
we need to survive. However, how those resources are produced,
distributed and consumed is not equal or ethical. In a climate
emergency, there are no resources to waste, and design requires
that you investigate durability and fexibility strategies as well as
the end-of-life scenarios for your building and its elements. You
should consider how your project can help to regenerate the
108
site and its vicinity now, and how it will adapt and perform in the
future. Sustainable architecture is always contextual, and is
characterised by a long-term perspective. Moreover, the design
decisions you make affect local environments and communities now,
as well as future generations close by and far away. All of these aspects
are covered in greater detail below.
Architects as global citizens – climate and spatial justice

You are a global citizen with personal values that you live by. This
global responsibility only increases when you become an architect. It
requires continuous research, conscious decision-making, curiosity,
and creativity to innovate and to challenge the often damaging and
unfair status quo. For example, you must ensure no adverse local or
global impacts are created by your decisions. Designing for the climate
emergency is not only about focusing on the direct causes of it (i.e.,
› see Theme 5 reducing energy use and CO2 emissions ›), but also responding to its
symptoms and (in)direct causes and often unequal consequences,
such as an economic system that does not account for the true
environmental or societal cost of choices made. Equally, climate change
is an ethical and political issue; it recognises that the human impacts of
climate change are not shouldered equally between different regions
and communities, causing climate injustices. While operating within
this economic system, as an architect you have a moral obligation
to make better decisions, even if you are not rewarded for doing so.
Making that commitment throughout your project and consciously
checking that your design decisions do not adversely impact others
(human and non-human, locally and globally) is a fundamental design
requirement for the climate emergency.
Responding to climate justice issues means you should ensure that
disadvantaged and vulnerable citizens and communities do not bear
the cost of climate action (e.g., through increased energy prices, or
lack of comfortable spaces, or overheated dwellings, or the phasing
out of petrol cars without affordable clean alternatives) in your design.
This is closely related to environmental injustices (where certain
communities are disproportionately exposed to pollution, fooding and
other hazards). Furthermore, space shapes social relations, and social
interactions shape space positively or negatively. You need to make sure
this does not lead to spatial and social injustices, such as lack of schools,
green space or health and community centres in certain parts of the
city. Other examples include the increasing privatisation of public land,
such as beaches and water edges that are closed off; parks, squares or
spaces for certain members of the community only; and lack of access
to public transport and walkability.
Often multiple inequalities (and discrimination) combine and reinforce
one another, also referred to as triple or multiple jeopardy. For example,
a disadvantaged family fnds cheaper housing on a busy, noisy and
polluted road, making it hard for them to sleep at night, especially
during the increasingly prolonged heatwaves caused by a changing
climate. The family suffer from poor health due to disrupted sleep,
associated stress, and asthma attacks caused by air pollution. As a
result of these injustices, parents and children might be ill and off work
109
or school more often, further disadvantaging them both fnancially 3.01 NOTE
and educationally. This creates a vicious circle of inequalities that
exacerbate one another. As a fellow citizen, being aware of inequalities Designing for the long term
and associated injustices is the starting point from which to make a When designing, consider
difference through your design interventions. how your building will
perform when facing
As such, in your design strategies, make a commitment to fair, inclusive
adverse or changing weather
and universal access to high-quality spaces for all citizens, and not just
conditions, changing patterns
the well-off or the young and able-bodied. Celebrate diversity through
of use and the changing
› see Theme 8 a plurality of responses ›, but also consciously compensate for potential performance of materials over
disadvantages and injustices through restorative fairness. For example, time. Consider the aspects
carefully consider dwellings or classrooms facing the railway or busy of time that might focus on
road: can they be located elsewhere? If not, can they be designed to historical context, existing
make them superior to other spaces to neutralise the adverse effects? building fabric, maintenance,
› see Chapter 4, (For example, with acoustically attenuated ventilation › that flters or retroft and reuse to adapt
Section 4.4.4 incoming air.) Might vegetation buffer some noise and pollution, and to new functions. Refect
create visual amenity? Can you create safe walking and cycling routes on the entire life cycle of
to reduce car drop-offs and in turn avoid increasing air and noise the building – think of its
pollution? Can you reduce local air pollution by establishing a solar- changing use, performance,
powered electric car-sharing scheme, affordable to use for all residents? maintenance, adaptation,
What other restorative design decisions can you make to reduce dismantling, reuse, future
› see strategic inequalities and injustices? › waste streams (see Glossary)
design and their recycling strategies.
recommendations Long life-cycle design strategies Investigate and design for
in Table 3.1
Buildings often have an expected lifespan of 60 to 100 years; for some projected climatic and sea-
buildings this is shorter (e.g., 40 years for supermarkets). If buildings level changes over the next
are demolished sooner, materials and resources are wasted, and 100 years (see Theme 2).
embodied carbon is increased. We need to reduce energy use and
CO2 emissions now and far beyond 2030 – i.e., well before the end of
an entire building’s lifespan. This means we need to design buildings
› see Themes that are low in embodied carbon ›, and long-lasting, to keep buildings
5 and 6 in and their components in circulation for as long as possible. Stress-
Chapter 4
test your project in the future predicted climate and sea levels,
investigating projected changes over the next 100 years, as this
should be the minimum lifespan. Ensure that your design can be
reused, robust, adaptable and deconstructed (DfD). There are four
strategies you can focus on, individually or combined: reuse/retroft
TABLE 3.1 THEME 1: DESIGN STRATEGIES –

KEY RECOMMENDATIONS: ARCHITECTS AS GLOBAL CITIZENS
□ Commit to making design decisions that do not adversely impact others (human and
non-human, locally and globally).
□ Understand who your users are and ensure that your proposal does not adversely
CLIMATE impact them (e.g., the spatial, climate, or other injustices some citizens currently
AND SPATIAL face).
JUSTICE
□ Design high-quality, inclusive and universally accessible spaces for all citizens, and
not just the well-off or the young and able-bodied.
□ Make design decisions that are restorative to reduce inequalities, injustices and
› see Theme 8, promote inclusivity. ›
Table 3.7
110
(Strategy 1), durability/robustness (Strategy 2), adaptability/fexibility 3.02 PRACTICE

(Strategy 3) and design for disassembly (Strategy 4), each of which is
detailed below with key recommendations and actions in Table 3.2. Retroft drivers in practice
In practice, the drivers for
Strategy 1: Reuse/retrof it
transformation are related
The reuse and upgrading of an existing building (i.e., retroftting) to improved thermal,
is usually the most sustainable approach compared to building airtightness, structural
demolition. In the exploration phase (Step 1, Chapter 1), you should and wellbeing conditions,
have identifed if any structures can be retained for reuse. In the upgrading electric and digital
project defnition phase (Step 2, Chapter 2, Table 2.2), you may also systems, and increasing a
have been inspired by this as an architectural approach. building’s capacity.1 Often
the building is evaluated
according to a retroft
checklist2 that includes
carbon emission reductions
and fnancial payback.
Retroft projects typically
include upgrading roofs,
improving airtightness,
replacing windows and doors,
adding wall insulation, adding
solar shading, introducing
background ventilation, and
replacing heating systems
and heating controls.
Figure 3.3 Adaptive and

material reuse by Phuong Uyen
Nguyen. The mapping shows
locally available discarded
materials to be reused within
a new building. The model
investigates how the new
structure meets the old.
111
For Step 3, choose an optimal reuse/retroft strategy for your

3.03 EXAMPLES
project, starting with a careful analysis of the existing building and
site. Consider reversing your standard design process and start by Inspiring reuse/retroft
identifying the most important part of the building. Investigate the examples
existing building and its condition, paying particular attention to the • Atelier Kempe Thill –
following: Europarei, Uithoorn, the
• Evaluate the socio-cultural value of a redesigned building to Netherlands
• Atelier Masomi – Dandaji
identify elements worth preserving (e.g., research its history and
Daily Market, Niger
patterns of usage, check existing development plans, and ask
• Brandlhuber+Emde –
current users and relevant stakeholders for their opinion).
Antivilla, Potsdam, Germany
• Experience the atmosphere and aesthetics of the existing building
• Garoa – Wish School,
and embrace specifc aesthetics in your project (e.g., analyse and Tatuapé, Brazil
document irregularities, wear and ageing; record sounds; measure • Lacaton & Vassal – Tour Bois-
temperatures; evaluate daylight access and humidity). le-Prêtre, Paris, France
• Assess the technical state of its elements (e.g., observe which
parts are in good condition and which are worn out), and their
robustness and resistance (in practice, you would perform material
› see Chapter 1, tests, but desktop research is more realistic as a student project). ›
Section 1.3.2
• Research potential contamination and toxicity of existing materials.
You should only reuse healthy and non-toxic materials (e.g., analyse
types of materials, research their properties, check coatings and
fnishings). 3.04 EXAMPLES
• Refect and research maintenance of the existing building and
consider future repairs. Inspiring durable/robust
examples
Once you have explored this, you can start to create a more detailed • COBE – The Silo,
design strategy – see recommendations in Table 3.2. Copenhagen, Denmark
• Morphosis – Float House,
Strategy 2: Durability/robustness
New Orleans, USA
› see Section Consider the whole life-cycle strategies › of your proposed
• Milinda Pathiraja – Post-War
4.6.4 intervention. This is because different building elements have
Collective: Community library
diverse lifespans, and you should therefore consider the hierarchy
and social recuperation,
of obsolescence of its components. This means that building Ambepussa, Sri Lanka
components can be seen as the building’s layers, a series of elements • Peter Zumthor – The
Therme Vals, Graubunden
Canton, Switzerland
• Snøhetta – Faculty of Fine
Art, Music and Design of the
University of Bergen, Norway
Figure 3.4 Building layers

that correspond to a series of
elements organised according
to their lifespans – illustration
based on concepts by Stewart
Brand and Adaptable Futures.
112
› see Figure 3.4 organised according to their lifespans.3 › An element is obsolete Figure 3.5 Designing for
when it becomes outmoded, outworn and no longer useful due to robustness in proximity to sand
inadaptability, ageing, weathering, wear, misuse, fatigue, poor design dunes by Marlene Hindsted,
creating a building that
or construction, and inadequate maintenance.
withstands and eventually
Other aspects that impact a building’s lifespan are social (users) and surrenders to the forces of
surroundings (nature, facilities, infrastructure and public space).4 Your nature.
understanding of the relation between the different changing layers
indicates how you should organise your building elements to ensure
easy access to those that require maintenance, alteration, repair or
replacement more often.
The only element that might be eternal is the site (though that can
change over time), while the structure, depending on its typology and
materials, can last from 30 to 300 years. The space plan, depending
on function, can last from 3 to 30 years; the building envelope (skin)
typically endures around 20 years and services last from 7 to 15 years,
› see Figure 3.4 while furniture and equipment (stuff) can be exchanged daily.5 ›
Importantly, do not neglect the aesthetic quality of selected
architectural solutions. Beautiful buildings last longer because they
› see Theme 9 will be looked after. › However, the choice of materials for robustness
needs to be balanced with their social perception, and their impact
on the users’ health and wellbeing (e.g. natural materials contribute
to good indoor climate) as well as their environmental impact (e.g.,
› see Section
4.5.3, 4.6 and concrete lasts a long time, but it is high in embodied energy and we
Note 4.39 need to stop its use to tackle the climate emergency). ›
113
3.05 NOTE
Design strategies for

changing user needs
Buildings need to enable
adaptations to meet users’
needs. This can be achieved
through the design of the
layout and the use of a fexible
construction system that will
support multiple functions.
Where appropriate, opt for
an open plan and section (i.e.,
based on structural columns
instead of structural dividing
walls). This will enable short-
term adaptability through
the provision of movable or
foldable partitions, or longer-
term adaptability by changing
non-structural partition walls
(see Figure 3.8).
3.06 NOTE
Design strategies for a

changing climate
When you are designing a
building in food risk areas
or by the seashore, consider
appropriate design strategies
(see Themes 2 and 3, Figure
3.17). For increased summer
temperatures and solar
radiation, consider the optimal
orientation of a building,
shading elements, natural
ventilation and refective, UV-
resistant materials (see Theme
4). Stress-test your project in
the future predicted climate,
investigating projected
changes over the next 100
years, as this is the minimum
lifespan you are designing for
(see Figure 3.9).
Figure 3.6 Testing fexibility

strategies in the House of
Addition by Hugo Shackleton,
who proposed fexible
adaptation strategies for Haus
der Statistik in Berlin.
114
Figure 3.7 Types of fexibility:

adaptability, transformability
and convertibility.
Strategy 3: Flexibility/adaptability
3.07 EXAMPLES
A long-lasting building does not mean an unchanging building. In
fact, for buildings to last a long time, they must be adaptable to future Inspiring adaptable/fexible
scenarios – whether caused by demographic, climatic or functional examples
changes, and whether these changes are sudden and temporary events • Aki Hamada – Substrate
(e.g., fooding) or long term. ‘It’s a folly to think that (…) you can create Factory Ayase, Kanagawa,
eternal buildings. At any rate, it will never actually result in any eternal Japan
building. A building is something that undergoes constant change.’6 • Lendager Group – Upcycle
Studios, Copenhagen,
There are three main types of fexibility, and they can all be
Denmark
combined to create a resilient structure: adaptability, transformability
• Morphosis – Float House,
› see Figure 3.7 and convertibility. › Adaptability is the capacity of a building to
New Orleans, USA
accommodate multiple functions without modifcation of the • NLE – Makoko Floating
building itself. Transformability allows the building to change School, Lagos, Nigeria
without new construction; it includes movability and responsiveness. • RAW Architecture – Alfa
Convertibility enables changes to the building function through Omega School, Tangerang,
limited construction work. Indonesia
In your design, you should commit to fexibility strategies. You can test
different scenarios by creating usage diagrams, sketching to scale,
working with layers in computer software or by overlapping tracing
Figure 3.8 Design for
paper, and prototyping physical or digital models. Aim for at least
adaptability principles,
one alternative layout scenario for a typical plan. Consider that spatial
including considering open
adaptability needs good daylighting and window positioning so plan and section, expandable
spaces are not created without access to natural light and ventilation structures and fexible
› see Figures 3.7 when adaptations are made.7 › infrastructure.
and 3.8, and
Notes 3.05 to 3.08
115
Strategy 4: Design for disassembly (DfD) Figure 3.9 Climate adaptation

Understanding the different building layers (see Strategy 2) is also through the design of a fexible
structure that changes its use
crucial to design for future disassembly of the building and the reuse
with fooding at certain times of
of its elements. When designing for disassembly, you should group
the year, by Alice Howland. See
› see Chapter 4, the building elements into substructure, superstructure ›, non- Note 3.06.
Section 4.6 structural elements,8 building envelope, services and fnishings to
ensure easy maintenance and parallel dismantling in the future. This
includes a detailed breakdown of sub-components (e.g., separation
› see Figure 3.10 of window components) and materials (e.g., recycling). › Remember
that all buildings need a structural system to hold them in place on
site; support the foors, roof and walls; and facilitate adaptation or
deconstruction later. Your project, and its subsequent adaptations,
3.08 NOTE
should always be designed for disassembly so that it can be
relocated or so that parts of it can be reused – ensuring that What are ‘material
› see Table 3.2 material resources are recirculated for as long as possible. › passports’?
While designing for disassembly, assess possible hazards (e.g., toxicity, Material passports are an
› see Glossary fammability) and future waste streams › of the building elements identifcation system for
when developing your project’s disassembly and reuse scenarios. See building materials. They
recommendations in Table 3.2 and Figures 3.10 and 3.12. include data describing the
characteristics of materials
used in products that give
them later value for recovery,
recycling and reuse. The
data is gathered in an online
platform with a framework for
material identifcation based
on BIM standards (see Note
5.12, Chapter 5).
116

the design for disassembly
three-step plan of actions
concerning the building
system, its components and its
subcomponents.
3.09 PRACTICE
The cost of adaptability

In practice, fexibility
strategies will be evaluated
to understand their fnancial
implications. However, the
more important question
is the long-term cost of
not including adaptability
measures. This can lead to the
premature obsolescence of
an entire building. This is why
adaptability and sustainability
always have to be considered
as part of whole-life cycle
costs (see Glossary).
Figure 3.11 The lightweight

structure developed by
Emma Skelander according
to the principles of design for
disassembly. The axonometric
drawing organises building
elements into layers, while
detailed drawings show
reversible construction systems
that reuse milk cartons as
insulation and cladding
materials.
117
Figure 3.12 Design for

disassembly principles,
reinterpreting the guidelines
defned by Philip Crowther, in
‘Deconstruction and materials
reuse: technology, economic,
and policy’, CIB Publication
266, 2001, and Kaspar Guldager
Jensen, Building a Circular
Future, GXN Innovation, 2016.
3.10 EXAMPLES
Inspiring design for

disassembly (DfD) examples
• Helen & Hard – The Financial
Park, Stavanger, Norway
• Kengo Kuma + UC Berkeley
– The Nest We Grow,
Takinoue, Japan
• RAU Architects – Alliander
Building, Duiven, the
Netherlands
• Shigeru Ban – Paper Dome,
Puli, Taiwan
– Lisbjerg Hill Housing,
Aarhus, Denmark
TABLE 3.2 THEME 1: DESIGN STRATEGIES – KEY RECOMMENDATIONS: LONG-LIFE DESIGN
LONG LIFE-
□ Design and stress-test your project in the future predicted climate, investigating
projected climatic and sea-level changes over the next 100 years.
CYCLE DESIGN
STRATEGIES □ Ensure that your design can be reused, is robust and adaptable, and can be
deconstructed (DfD) – see strategies below.
□ Register and analyse the core building elements, draw the existing structure, model
the relevant parts and develop your project from there.
□ Draw the existing and new structure differently (e.g., using different colours, styles,
tools, materials in models) to better understand and communicate to others the
existing versus the new.
STRATEGY 1: □ Look closely into connections of the existing and new; refect how those elements
REUSE/RETROFIT meet, as this might result in an interesting detail that not only solves technical
issues but unfolds your concept.
□ Refect on your project’s environmental conditions, context, atmosphere and
programme. Choose a suitable reuse strategy and structural systems, materials and
detailing.
□ Zoom out from the detail to address the wider context during your design process.
118
□ Choose steeper roof slopes and deeper overhangs to protect the facade, when
facing heavy rain conditions.
□ Select appropriate food-resilient strategies and consider whether to build in a food
› see Theme 2, risk area at all. ›
Table 3.4, Figure
3.17
□ Choose an aerodynamic form resistant to wind pressure, when facing strong winds.
□ Plan suitable locations of openings and use architectural and natural shading
› see Theme 4 elements to protect from extensive sun exposure. ›
STRATEGY 2: □ Use design scenarios and explore how they can change over time when deciding on
DURABILITY/ function.
ROBUSTNESS □ Consider how to protect your building from intensive use, and design robust joints
that will withstand repeated modifcations and exchanges of elements.
□ Choose materials and components that will perform satisfactorily during their
intended life. Check the materials’ properties and resistance to climatic conditions.
Research how they will perform when exposed to diverse environmental factors and
intensive usage.
□ Consider possible maintenance of the building elements (there is no such thing
as a maintenance-free material) – how and when they will be inspected, repaired
or replaced.
› see Note 3.06 □ Design for climate change adaptation. ›

□ Use appropriate architectural solutions for sudden destructive events (e.g., tied
foundations or base isolation to resist earthquakes, or dome roofs to protect from
hurricanes) and simple construction methods that will enable quick rebuilding of
destroyed elements.
□ Create ‘open-end’ buildings, with a higher load-bearing capacity of the structure
to allow the addition of modular elements that can be expanded in the future to ft
more functions or a growing number of inhabitants.
□ Design for adaptation to changing user needs. Consider easy separation solutions
STRATEGY 3: to divide or combine open plans if needed.
FLEXIBILITY/
ADAPTABILITY
□ Design reasonable room sizes that enable accessibility and alterations; provide a
high ceiling level that can potentially accommodate more functions. Avoid built-in
furniture.
□ Optimise distribution of openings on more than one side to enable diverse and
adaptable arrangements. Avoid dark, deep-plan rooms (not deeper than twice the
› see Chapter 4, ceiling height, if a window is on only one side). ›
Theme 4
□ Use diverse energy sources and systems (or provide space for them) and design
fexible infrastructure (electricity, plumbing, ventilation) and bigger service voids
› see Chapter with easy access, incorporating future technological solutions. ›
4, Theme 5
□ Develop reversible (i.e., fexible) structural and construction systems and always
design for disassembly – see Strategy 4, below.
□ Design with high generality – i.e., use a modular structural grid, lightweight
materials, and standard dimensions, tools and construction methods.
□ Use suitable building layering – i.e., organise building elements to ensure their easy
accessibility for maintenance, replacement and dismantling.
STRATEGY 4:
DESIGN FOR
□ Create a durable design with resistant components and connections that withstand
› see Chapter 2, DISASSEMBLY
repeated use and that are reversible (i.e., fexible connections).
Table 2.2 (DFD)9 › □ Use a limited material selection – avoid toxic and hazardous materials, use
› see Glossary recyclable/biodegradable/renewable and cradle-to-cradle materials › and
› see Chapter minimise the number of materials, components and connections. ›
4, Theme 6
□ Provide accessible information – i.e., identifcation of components, materials and
connections; consider material passports – see Note 3.08.
119
3.2.2 Theme 2: Inf rastructure

A well-planned neighbourhood and city can enhance citizens’
everyday lives and encourage them to lead lower-impact and
more sustainable lifestyles. Buildings ‘plug into’ the available
inf rastructure, such as transport, waste and energy systems, but
› see Chapter 4, also green and blue inf rastructure ›, and the future planning of the
Theme 3 site. Getting this inf rastructure right will ensure that the building-
scale design can meet ambitious climate emergency design targets
more easily.
Sustainable densities
There is debate about what minimum and maximum ‘sustainable
densities’ should be. As you can imagine, this depends on the context
– for example where the site is located, the existing surrounding
fabric, landscape (urban, suburban, rural), mix of living and working,
other services, access to public transport and alternative modes of
› see Table 3.3. transportation. ›
Typically, densities below 50 dwellings per hectare (dw/ha) are
considered low, while minimum housing densities of 80 dw/ha are
recommended if supported by good public transport links, and
walking and cycling routes. The housing typology in this density
will typically be three- to six-storey apartment blocks. Car-free
developments can be as much as 250 dw/ha, and while maximum
sustainable densities of 450 dw/ha can be achieved, this should only
be for a limited part of your proposal; for example, around transport
nodes or overlooking open spaces.10 In any case, a mix of densities
creates variety and space for blue and green infrastructure. Think
› see Figures carefully about the kind of building typology that is suitable. ›
3.13, 3.16 and 3.17
Compact cities with high densities are generally considered more
sustainable because they reduce urban sprawl (i.e., the spreading
of development into virgin surrounding greenfelds, with loss of
biodiversity). Compact cities support public transport modes, and
reduce ownership and use of individual cars for commuting to work.11
Reduced fossil-fuelled car use in turn improves air quality; poor
air quality is a major cause of illness and death in all cities around
› see Theme 7 the world. › Compact sites also reduce the investment in public
infrastructure needed to provide and maintain services such as
roads, district heating systems, waste collection, water and sewage,
but also social infrastructure such as libraries and educational,
› see Theme 8 health and community hubs. › Living closer together can also create
opportunities for community and social interaction, which can
positively affect an individual’s wellbeing and strengthen community
cohesion. Moreover, compact buildings and shared facilities can
reduce energy use for heating or cooling.
However, high densities can also have negative impacts, such as
the increased risk of fash foods. This is because it can be harder
to manage surface water run-off in heavily built-up impermeable
areas, and if there are fewer open green spaces.12 In compact urban
areas, biodiversity is generally compromised because the habitats
are less suitable and more fragmented. Higher densities protect
120
surrounding regions from development, and at a regional scale 3.11 NOTE

there probably is a positive effect,13 but if buildings are closely
spaced they miss opportunities for passive resilience (e.g. lack of What is a mixed-use or
› see Theme 4 solar gain, natural ventilation and daylight). › Compact cities have hybrid building?15
their own microclimate, leading to the urban heat island (UHI) A mixed-use building has
› see Glossary effect ›, or urban areas with increased temperatures compared to different functions such as
the surrounding countryside, especially at night. This is caused by living, working, recreation or
the heat generated from human activities and solar gains, which is shopping. A hybrid building
retained in the city due to the high thermal mass of the urban fabric, goes beyond this and uses
space more effectively
through a mix of serial uses
in the same space at different
times, often for different
users (e.g., different uses at
day or night, on weekdays
or weekends, or in different
seasons). This may lead to
a reduced building energy
(carbon) footprint due to its
effcient use.16 Often there
is also a shift in private
and public (community)
use; for example, an offce
meeting room can be used
as a residents’ hobby room
in the evening, or a school
is used for private events in
the holidays. See also radical
inclusivity in Table 2.9
Figure 3.13 The analysis of

urban densifcation of diverse
quarters in Aarhus by Asger
Brix Pedersen, illustrating
different land use and building
typologies to create diverse
densities and qualities of open
spaces.
121
reduced tree and vegetative cover, and lower wind speeds that cause 3.12 EXAMPLES
a build-up of heat. Especially in summer, this can exacerbate already
high temperatures and create building overheating risk, affecting Inspiring 15-minute city/
citizens’ health and wellbeing. sustainable densities
examples
The 15-minute city • Amsterdam, the
Sustainable densities on their own are not enough. To optimise the Netherlands – while not
benef its of sustainable densities, cities should offer mixed-use designed as a 15-minute
neighbourhoods or buildings so that daily needs are within a city, the density and
15-minute walking or cycling distance, known as the ’15-minute’ prioritisation of pedestrians
city or neighbourhood. Mixed-use neighbourhoods form the basis of and cyclists makes it an
the 15-minute city and achieve sustainable densities. They enable the interesting case
effcient use of infrastructure throughout the day. Additionally, the mix • Copenhagen (Denmark) is
of commercial, leisure and community facilities near housing reduces considered a 15-minute city,
car reliance.14 Safe and easy ways to cycle, walk and cross roads are with the new development
district Nordhavn being
key to a 15-minute city, as are good public transportation links and
designed as a 5-minute
cycle storage. A 15-minute walk on mostly fat surfaces can enable a
district
person to cover about 1–1.25 km distance. A 15-minute cycle is about 5
• Melbourne (Australia)
km at a leisurely pace (both also depend on stoplights and how easy
– introduced the
and safe it is to cross roads). Fifteen minutes is the time most people
20-minute (800-m walk)
are prepared to walk or cycle from their home to local services (e.g.,
neighbourhood pilot
supermarkets, health centres, primary schools, nurseries, community programme
› see Theme 8 centres or parks). This also supports social infrastructure. › • Ottawa (Canada) – in
› see Theme 4 In addition, urban areas should integrate passive resilience › and 2019 developed a 25-year
green and blue infrastructure. As such, your design should be based growth blueprint to create
› see Chapter 1 on these principles; your exploration phase (Step 1) › will help you map 15-minute neighbourhoods
the existing available facilities and their vicinity, which will further • Paris (France) – city
develop your own programme into a 15-minute city or neighbourhood, strategy to ban car traffc
in the centre and transform
or a mixed-use or a hybrid building with different functions in one
the French capital into
› see Note 3.11, building or development. ›
Table 3.3 and 15-minute city
Figure 3.14
Figure 3.14 In a 15-minute city,

key services and amenities
including public spaces and
facilities are accessible within
a 15-minute walk or cycle.
These principles support active,
healthy, more sustainable
lifestyles, deterring individual
car use, and supporting
community and social
infrastructure.
122

KEY RECOMMENDATIONS: SUSTAINABLE DENSITIES AND 15 MINUTE CITY
□ Investigate and create a project with a sustainable population density. Express

densities as a mix of dw/ha, person/ha and person/dw and habitable room/dw or
habitable room/ha (a habitable room typically includes all living spaces, so living room,
kitchen and bedrooms, but not a bathroom).
SUSTAINABLE
DENSITIES □ Consider medium densities as a middle ground between land consumption and
community wellbeing; provide a mix of densities.
□ Consider community car-sharing schemes including locally solar-powered electric cars.
› see Chapter 1, □ Use land effciently, avoiding sprawling development or the use of greenfelds. ›
Section 1.3.1
□ Map the presence of existing facilities, public open spaces and transport infrastructure
› see Chapter 1, within about 1 km (or a 15-minute walk) from your project site. ›
Table 1.2
□ Refect on which everyday needs may be missing and how your project can provide or
enhance this.
□ Consider sustainable modes of transport (e.g., cycling, walking, public transport),
THE including safe and interesting, high-quality spaces to walk, cycle and wait for public
15-MINUTE transport as well as storage for bikes.
CITY
□ Consider how you can mix diverse functions in your project to increase the usability
and life of the area.
□ Consider how spaces can be used at different times (e.g., hybrid buildings) – see Note
3.11. Avoid distribution of different uses into single-use areas.
□ Consider how you can integrate green and blue infrastructure (see Table 3.4), energy
› see Chapter infrastructure › and social infrastructure (Theme 8) and passive resilience (Theme 4).
4, Theme 5
› see also Green inf rastructure › 3.13 EXAMPLES

Chapter 4,
Theme 3
Green infrastructure is the network of natural green spaces and
Inspiring green infrastructure
landscapes within and around urban environments, such as food-
examples
growing areas, wetlands, forests, parks and wildlife gardens. It
• GrowNYC Teaching Garden,
supports not only local wildlife and biodiversity but also people’s
Governors Island, New York
health and wellbeing through better air quality and a reduced urban
City, USA
› see Note 3.06 heat island effect ›, and can mitigate some food events. › Your • Hammarby Sjöstad,
› see Glossary project must tread lightly: after all, placing a new structure is hugely Stockholm, Sweden
disruptive, as the developed land will have lost its existing ecological • Nomadisch Grün –
value forever. Your choice of site is therefore vital. Value and aim Prinzessinnengarten, Berlin,
› see Chapter 1, to retain as much of the natural habitat as possible. › A climate Germany
Theme 2 and 3 emergency design is not compatible with constructing on land of • Pangyo New City,
› see Chapter 1, high biodiversity value › or where the construction is disruptive to Seongnam, Republic of
Section 1.3.1 natural habitats. › Korea
› see
recommendations • Vauban, Freiburg, Germany
Typically, natural landscapes have been separated from the urban
in Table 3.4
environment. Instead, green open spaces should be integrated into
the city and ideally connected to the surrounding city green spaces to
› see Figure 3.15 create green wildlife corridors. › Mature trees and landscape habitats
› see Chapter 1, are irreplaceable and should not be demolished. › In fact, design
Note 1.14 proposals should be carefully inserted into the site instead of frst
removing natural elements and then adding some greenery back into
the site. Additionally, considerate land use, appropriate landscaping
works and construction methods to support natural habitats are key.
123
Placing green areas strategically can enhance the local microclimate, Figure 3.15 Creating green
and reduce noise and air pollution and a building’s energy use by corridors and connecting
› see Chapter 4, providing protection from cold winds or solar shading. › For accessible greenery at different scales (city,
Themes 2 and 4 neighbourhood, building) is
areas, equal access to green infrastructure, whether accessed as a
crucial to support and restore
› see Theme 1, visual amenity or physically, is important to enhance everyone’s health biodiversity and to enable
7 and 8 and wellbeing, and not just the privileged. › visual and physical access
› see also Blue infrastructure ›
to green space for citizens.
Chapter 4, Adapted from Sofe Pelsmakers,
Theme 3 Blue infrastructure, which consists of natural and human-made water The Environmental Design
systems, reduces the run-off of water in the city and surrounding Pocketbook, RIBA Publishing,
areas. Depending on the context and goals that you set for your 2015.
project, you might be working with climate adaptation strategies that

address rising seawater levels, fooding, heavy rains or strong winds,
› see Note 3.06 which will infuence your design. ›
Working with water is particularly important given the changing
climate that brings increased rainfall intensities and fooding. Because
water collection and run-off infrastructure tend to be in place for a
long time, we must plan now with the future in mind, for example
allowing for the changing climate and rainfall variability. In the colder
Nordic region, a faster melting of snow and more severe precipitation
events also increase the food risk there.
Typically, city surfaces are made from impermeable materials (i.e.,
they do not allow water through), and they collect surface water from
the streets into underground sewers. Heavy rains can cause local
› see Glossary fash foods (pluvial foods ›) because the city sewers reach capacity.
City sewers take surface water and water from buildings’ roofs
away to local rivers and streams. This in turn can overburden rivers,
› see Glossary leading to river fooding (fuvial foods ›). Permeable city surfaces are
therefore needed, where water can seep through to prevent fooding.
Meanwhile millions of people live in coastal areas that are at risk of
territorial loss due to rising sea levels (tidal or coastal foods). These
areas are especially vulnerable to fooding from the sea and tidal
movements, but also from the mechanisms described above, when
combined with extreme weather and heavy rainfall. Flooding damages
property and infrastructure, affects the economy and health, and can
lead to loss of life.
124
Designing with water in mind is an important part of a climate 3.14 EXAMPLES

emergency design. Sustainable urban drainage systems (SuDS) reduce
the run-off of water into sewers, and they include many different Inspiring blue infrastructure
› see Glossary approaches such as multifunctional retention basins › and permeable examples
› see Glossary surfaces. › At the urban scale, blue and green infrastructure provides • De Urbanisten –
and Chapter 4, recreational value and can also cool by evaporation (locally reducing the Benthemplein Water
Theme 3
effect of UHIs or heatwaves in summer). Square, Rotterdam, the
Netherlands
We clearly cannot design urban areas in the way we have been – a
• Lanxmeer, Culemborg, the
new transformative approach is needed that looks at the city as
Netherlands
an interconnection of water (and natural) systems in the urban • Sino-German Ecopark,
environment and its surroundings, rather than thinking of the city ‘as Qingdao, China
a collection of various built elements adversely affected by fooding’.17 • The Climate City, Middelfart,
When you are developing on or near water or future potential food Denmark
risk zones, consider food-resilient strategies such as sacrifcial • Turf Design Studio – Sydney
basements (where water is temporarily stored in the lower foor to Park (water reuse area),
protect the upper foors), elevated ground foors (e.g., on stilts to build Australia
habitable spaces above the ground and food risk level) and foating
structures (i.e. building in the water, connecting to services with
› see Figure 3.16 fexible pipes). ›
and 3.17 and
Table 3.4 However, foodwaters are often polluted and come suddenly, and
the likely impact of food damage on people and communities
is signifcant. Land-use planning related to food risk is crucial in
decision-making; for example, the temporary loss and clean-up of
a basement car park will impact building users signifcantly less
than the fooding of a residential or business ground foor. In the
latter cases, building users may need to move out during repair
work, causing them severe disruption; insurance may not cover sites
with signifcant food risks now or in the future. For these reasons,
housing and vulnerable functions should only be created in low-risk
food zones. It is your responsibility to make ethical judgements to
not place vulnerable functions in food-prone areas. Regardless of
which food-resilient strategy is selected or in which food risk zone, all
structures should also be designed to be wet-proofed (i.e., through the
use of water-resistant materials and placing services at a higher level
different design approaches
to minimise damage after fooding) and designed for disassembly to the water edge, especially
(DfD – so that a development can be deconstructed and rebuilt related to food protection at
› see Theme 1, elsewhere if needed). › the site scale.
Table 3.2
125
Figure 3.17 Flood-resilient

strategies at the building scale
include a sacrifcial basement,
elevated ground foor and stilts,
foating structures, and design
for disassembly to move the
structure to a food-safe zone.

KEY RECOMMENDATIONS: GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE AND BLUE INFRASTRUCTURE
› see Chapter 1, □ Prioritise previously developed land (brown- or greyfelds) › with low ecological
Section 1.3.1 value and undertake bioremediation if necessary.
□ Investigate presence or absence of protected species near the site and how your
project proposal can support or enhance native habitats; undertake restorative
measures (i.e., leave your site in a better condition).
□ Do not demolish or remove existing open spaces or trees; instead, carefully insert
your proposal into the existing site with minimal damage and disruption.
□ Map open spaces near your project site and those that connect to larger natural
› see Chapter 1, environments, and plan to retain or enhance these natural areas. ›
Tables 1.2 and 1.3 GREEN
INFRASTRUCTURE
□ Provide minimum 15% open space provision, ideally 30–50%, and ensure these
spaces are equally (physically and visually) accessible to all people.
□ Create a green infrastructure plan for your project that integrates open spaces of
different kinds (e.g., parks, wildfower meadows, food-growing areas, green roofs,
wildlife corridors).
□ Draw a large-scale map of your site and its location and connection within the
surrounding environment, and look at potential connections to the larger green
spaces surrounding the city to create green wildlife corridors.
□ Increase green permeable surfaces (roofs, on the ground) to increase biodiversity
and vegetation and reduce the UHI effect and pressure on water systems,
including surface and wastewater treatment.
□ Map existing blue infrastructure – see Chapter 1, Table 1.3.

□ Consider food risk predictions as far in the future as 100 years.
□ Do not propose interventions in (potential) food risk areas unless related to
functions that are not vulnerable to fooding and/or are temporary (i.e., ensure
BLUE
robust land-use planning).
INFRASTRUCTURE
□ Carefully select a food-resilient strategy – see Figure 3.16 and 3.17. Work with
water rather than against it and consider future climate changes in blue
infrastructure design (e.g., increase capacity of retention ponds by 20–50%).
› see Chapter 4, □ Create sustainable urban drainage systems (SuDS). ›
Section 4.3.2
OTHER
□ Include waste segregation and treatment facilities (e.g., onsite composting,
space for waste-selective collection containers and take-back schemes).
126

Passive resilient design strategies focus on site-responsive design
Passive and active design
and the site’s free resources to keep people comfortable with
strategies
minimal energy use. Decisions made in this stage of the project are
A passive design strategy
fundamental and often irreversible over the building’s lifespan. It
relies on the building design
involves making the most of the local site and its climate, including
to harness natural elements
harnessing the prevailing wind direction for ventilation and the sun’s
for ‘free’ heating, cooling,
orientation for free heating and natural lighting. By making informed lighting and the provision
decisions, you can develop your project to demonstrate a high level of fresh air (see Figure 3.18).
of passive resilience and give a high degree of confdence that Active design strategies
your design will perform well into the future. This section focuses rely on ‘active systems’ such
on passive design strategies at the site scale (i.e., microclimate), as boilers, water heaters,
principles of building orientation, zoning of spaces and form, depth electrical fans and artifcial
of plan, and use of passive solar design for winter and summer, lights that use energy to
as well as thermal and visual comfort. This all leads to reduced deliver heating, fresh air,
energy use and should be integrated before active design strategy cooling and light. They can
› see Note 3.15 considerations. › How to achieve this through detailed building also be systems that produce
design is covered in Chapter 4 (e.g., building fabric standards, use of energy on site, such as
thermal mass, ventilation systems, architectural solar shading and solar panels. Passive design
window design). strategies enable you to
reduce the building’s reliance
Climate and microclimate on active systems, but there
Working with climate is a great frst step. Utilising the site’s (micro) will still likely be the need
climate is important so that less energy is needed at later stages to for certain active systems
heat, light, ventilate or cool spaces and protect your building from at specifc times of the day
prevailing wind forces. Ensure that you understand and harness the or year.
local climate and its surrounding landscape in your design response.
A good starting point is to fnd out which climatic zone your project is
› see Chapter 1, located in. › Depending on the climate, your design strategies should
Figure 1.3 be different to ensure that it works with and not against the climatic
› see Chapter 2, forces, e.g., bioclimatic approaches. › Given that our buildings
Tables 2.4 and 2.5 will last for 50 or 100 years or more, you should also anticipate
the implications of a changing climate and other changing
› see Theme 1 conditions on your project over the following century. ›
In a cold climate, we construct well-insulated and airtight buildings
to keep people comfortable in winter. But this strategy would 3.16 EXAMPLES
lead to uncomfortable conditions in a hot, humid climate, where
continuous airfow is needed for a comfortable environment. Inspiring (micro)climatic
Similarly, when working in tropical areas that are subject to heavy design examples
› see Glossary storms, tornadoes, typhoons or hurricanes ›, your architectural • Anupama Kundoo – Wall
› see Figure 3.22 response needs to refect this. › House, Auroville, India
• Dorte Mandrup – Wadden
A local microclimate is related to the site’s specifc location. For
Sea Centre, Denmark
› see Glossary example, due to their thermal mass ›, cities usually are warmer than
• Francis Kere – Gando
and Chapter 4, the surrounding countryside, often by several degrees, especially at
Section 4.4 Primary School, Boulgou
night. We refer to this as the urban heat island (UHI) effect. Likewise, Province, Burkina Faso
topography affects the local microclimate; for example, a valley • Hiroshi Sambuichi – Rokkō
location is less exposed but may be colder lower down and have Shidare Observatory, Kobe,
greater air pollution than a hilltop location at certain times of the year. Japan
Additionally, local topography can also create opportunities for views • T.R. Hamzah and Yeang,
across the landscape or act as a barrier. The local climate can inspire Roof-Roof House, Kuala
strong concepts – see Figure 3.20 and 3.22 and Note 3.16. Lumpur, Malaysia
127

different passive design
strategies at the building scale
in cold climates, including
maximising winter solar gain
and summer solar shading,
and the use of thermal mass to
temporarily store heat.
Orientation 3.17 NOTE

Something as simple as a well-oriented building can make a big
difference to the energy needed to operate to provide users with East–west orientation
Due to the low-angled sun in
› see Glossary thermal and visual comfort. › On any site, the building locations
and Chapter 4, the east and west, windows
and external areas must be carefully coordinated and the building
Section 4.7.1 and spaces facing these
location balanced with the needs of the external areas and
orientations are exposed to
neighbouring spaces and places. In an urban setting, there needs
sun that penetrates deeply,
to be careful consideration of the design of streets and buildings to
and this can increase the
work with prevailing winds and the sun path. Typically, orient your
overheating risk in summer
building towards the sun (maximum 30° f rom east–west) to gain (see Figures 3.18 and 3.19).
f ree winter heat for housing, nurseries and nursing homes, as well Ancillary functions such as
› see Figure 3.19 as external gathering spaces in temperate to cold climates. › Free lifts, stairs and bathrooms are
solar gains can provide as much as 10–20% of the heat needed in a well placed in these areas. A
well-insulated home.18 careful summer solar shading
However, some functions (e.g., offces, leisure) may not beneft from design is needed to locate
this free winter solar gain, as they might already have high internal bedrooms or habitable spaces
on the east or west elevations
heat gains (e.g., from equipment or the presence of people), or cooler
(see Chapter 4, Theme 4).
temperatures may be desirable (e.g., in exercise spaces). In these cases,
orienting spaces away from the sun might be more suitable. In warm
and tropical climates, facing away from the sun is crucial to avoid
overheating of spaces and reduce, or even eliminate, the need for
active cooling systems.
Similar principles apply when locating rooms in buildings: some rooms
and functions are more desirable facing towards the sun (e.g., living
› see strategic spaces, community rooms, cafes) and others facing away from the
design
recommendations sun (e.g., bathrooms, bedrooms, lifts and stairwells, computer server
in Table 3.5 rooms, kitchens and catering facilities). ›
Most spaces and rooms beneft spatially and visually from dual
› see Glossary aspects; the term aspect › refers to the number of different directions
in which windows face.Good positioning of windows enables a visual
connection to the outdoors and allows people inside to experience
› see Biophilic the different seasons and times of the day. › Windows in multiple
design, Chapter directions improve access to natural daylight, improving people’s
2, Table 2.8
128
wellbeing, and reducing the need for artifcial lighting during 3.18 EXAMPLES
daylight hours. In colder climates, occupants enjoy direct sunlight
passing through the windows into their homes, where they spend Inspiring orientation
a large amount of time. However, this is less important in offces or examples
educational buildings, as the occupants are there for work or study • I.M. Pei – Suzhou Museum,
and generally have options to move around within the building. China
In these buildings, direct sunshine might even cause glare (i.e., • Jojko+Nawrocki – Houses in
› see strategic unnecessary refection of sunlight). › Rybnik, Poland
design • Jørn Utzon – Can Lis,
recommendations When considering building orientation and wind protection, it is often
Majorca, Spain
in Table 3.5 better to orient the building so that the main ventilation openings • Mike Reynolds – Earthships,
face towards the prevailing wind to ensure good natural ventilation. New Mexico, USA
However, it may be best for sites with extreme wind velocities to • Milena Karanesheva and
provide some form of wind screening against the prevailing wind Mischa Witzmann – Passive
(see Figure 3.19). This may be provided by other buildings or possibly House, Bessancourt, France
› see strategic planted screens such as trees or hedges. ›
design
recommendations While the overall orientation is important in relation to natural
in Table 3.5 ventilation, daylight and access to direct sunlight, not all project sites
allow for an ideal orientation, and compromises may be necessary.
Remember the impact your project will have on the surroundings,
and avoid casting long shadows on neighbouring buildings and
open spaces, especially in cold and temperate climates. Create a
(digital or physical) site model to see how to minimise impacts from
your design proposal.

orientation principles at the
building scale in the northern
hemisphere, illustrating how
the low east and west sun
penetrates spaces deeply.
129
Figure 3.20 Marleen Stokkeby

designed a structure in Finnish
Lapland that changed during
food events caused by yearly
snowmelt, and the chimney-
like structures were detailed
to retain snow (in red) as an
additional insulation layer.
3.19 NOTE
Where to locate unheated

rooms?
If there are unheated rooms
such as stores, bike and car
parks, or staircases, these
are better grouped together
and positioned towards
the north (south in the
southern hemisphere) of the
building. The insulation and
Building overheating prevention airtightness of the envelope
While maximising sunlight is desirable for many buildings and (including foors) needs to
external spaces in cold and temperate climates in winter, too much separate these cold spaces
solar gain in summer can risk those spaces overheating, leading to from the heated spaces
residents using electrical energy to cool them. This not only leads to (see Chapter 4, Theme 4
an increased UHI effect by dumping hot air from inside to the outside and Figure 3.21).
surroundings, but it also risks increasing carbon emissions, depending
on the active cooling systems and the fuels they use. Active cooling
systems need maintaining and are expensive to operate, which cannot
be afforded by all. External spaces might be deserted if they are too
› see Theme 7 hot and unshaded. ›
and 8

how unheated spaces can be
grouped on the colder side
of the building, and heated
and insulated spaces on the
warmer orientation (northern
hemisphere).
130
Building overheating can signifcantly impact health and wellbeing, 3.20 NOTE
especially of younger and older people. Your design should be
robust to current and future summer overheating risks. Key Which form factor is right for
recommendations can be found in Table 3.5, and range from zoning my project?
functions to green roofs and vegetation (e.g., parks are usually cooler Based on different building
by 2–3°C than the surrounding urban area), as well as light-coloured types, Figure 3.24 gives a
refective surfaces (including squares and road surfaces) to courtyard range of form factors to
building typologies, and designing architectural solar shading and target: small-scale housing:
› see Glossary good purge ventilation. › When designing solar shading, take care to 1.7–2.5; medium to large-
and Chapter 4, maintain good daylight throughout the year. scale housing: 0.8–1.5;
Section 4.4.4 offces: 1.0–2.0; educational
Building form buildings: 1.0–3.0.19 For these
In cold climates, for a large part of the year, buildings need to be (and other building types
heated to provide thermal comfort. This heat is provided from that do not ft the above
categories), work out how
passive solar gains, internal heat gains (from people and equipment),
to keep the form factor low
and active heating systems that often burn fossil fuels, leading to CO2
without compromising and
emissions. Buildings lose this heat through their envelope; however,
lowering standards in other
› see Chapter 4, a well-insulated building retains its heat for longer. › Further, the
sustainable design aspects.
Theme 4 smaller the surface area of a building that is exposed to the outside
3.21 EXAMPLES
Inspiring compact
architecture examples
• DUS Architects – 3D Printed
Canal House, Amsterdam,
the Netherlands
• Jakub Szczesny – Keret
House, Warsaw, Poland
• Kisho Kurokawa – Nakagin
Capsule Tower, Tokyo, Japan
• Tatiana Bilboa Estudio –
Housing+, San Cristobal,
Chiapas and Acuña, Mexico
• Transsolar – Diogene, Weil
am Rhein, Germany
Figure 3.22 Anyana

Zimmerman designed a
hurricane-proof structure from
bamboo in Cuba. Left: The
permeable bamboo structure
allows natural breezes through
while providing solar shading
in normal conditions. Right: The
facade is fully closed during a
hurricane. See also Figure 1.29.
131
Figure 3.23 Diagram

illustrating principles of building
shape affecting form factor.
› see Figure 3.23 air, the lower the heat loss and the lower the heating needs will be. ›
3.22 NOTE
and Figure 3.24 The term ‘form factor’ is used to express this value of building
› see Note 3.20 compactness; the smaller the number, the lower its heat loss. › Form factor in design
However, you should make judgements about the suitable form development
factor for your project, considering many other issues such as its It is important to ensure that
function, layout, access to sunlight, daylight, natural ventilation, scale the form factor is considered
› see Note 3.22 and the site. › For example, a deep-plan compact building may have early on and throughout the
a good form factor and low heat loss but is likely to provide poor design phase. If changes are
daylighting, with an increased need for artifcial light. The form factor made to the building form
is expressed as: and compactness, it is good
to do a sense-check of how
Form factor = Exposed external surface area of the heated building (m2) this has impacted the form
Gross internal foor area of the heated building (m2) factor. It will be too late to
reduce the form factor once
the building layout is fxed.
Balance form factor with
access to daylight, natural
ventilation and views
(see Note 3.20).
Figure 3.24 Diagram

illustrating form factor
comparisons, with smaller
form factors (annotations in
red), which are typically more
compact buildings, leading to
reduced heat loss.
132
Natural light and ventilation 3.23 EXAMPLES

While a building with a low form factor leads to reduced energy for the
heating of spaces, there may be an increase in electrical energy for the Inspiring natural light and
provision of natural light and ventilation as well as to prevent building natural ventilation examples
• Alvar Aalto – Kunsten
overheating, negatively affecting energy use and people’s health and
Museum of Modern Art,
wellbeing. This is because these are often deeper-plan buildings (see
Aalborg, Denmark
Figure 3.25). Such trade-offs lead to a design that is not holistically
• Glenn Murcutt – Marie
sustainable and must be avoided at all costs. Remember to carefully
Short/Glenn Murcutt House,
balance heat loss reduction when optimising building compactness
Kempsey, Australia
with these other necessary aspects. To some extent, an increased form
• Herzog & de Meuron,
factor might be offset by higher building envelope standards (e.g.,
Dominus Winery, California,
increased insulation of the fabric and better airtightness). USA
The recommendations for good daylighting and ventilation are similar, • Sauerbruch Hutton – GSW
› see Figure 3.25 and rely on a simple rule of thumb. › In summary, a room or building Headquarters Tower, Berlin,
with single-aspect windows (i.e., facing one direction) should have a Germany
maximum depth of maximum twice its foor-to-ceiling height, if the • Muzharul Islam – The
facade is fully glazed. If dual aspect, the room or building depth can be College of Arts and Crafts,
› see Figure 3.25 Dhaka, Bangladesh
and Chapter 4, a maximum of four times the foor-to-ceiling height for good daylight
Section 4.7.5 and natural cross-ventilation. › Most buildings and rooms have a
maximum depth of 6–12 m depending whether they are single
› see Glossary aspect or dual aspect. › These simple rules of thumb disregard
external obstructions (such as balconies, neighbouring buildings or
trees) or roof lights on the top foor. The lower foors may be more
sheltered and harder to ventilate in urban areas than the upper foors.
Moreover, dwellings with better daylighting from multiple aspects are
found to be more adaptable and enable spaces to be divided more
easily. Changing the layout in an apartment with few windows means
› see Theme 1 spaces are created without access to natural light or ventilation.20 ›
Cross-ventilation is more effective than single-sided ventilation for
› see Table 3.5 cooling spaces, and may work up to 5 m foor-to-ceiling height. ›
and Figure 3.25
Finally, place window openings to maximise daylighting and natural
› see Chapter 4, ventilation, optimising views and connection to the outside. ›
Theme 4 and
Theme 7,
Section 4.7.5
Figure 3.25 Diagram

illustrating maximum room
depths for single-sided and
cross-ventilation.
133
TABLE 3.5. THEME 4: DESIGN STRATEGIES –

› for building-scale KEY RECOMMENDATIONS: PASSIVE RESILIENCE ››
recommendations,
see Chapter 4 □ Research the climate in which your project is located, including exposure to heavy
› see Chapter 1 storms, tornadoes or hurricanes. ›
and Figure 1.3
CLIMATE AND
□ Anticipate the implications of a changing climate and other changing conditions on
your project for the next 100 years, as that is the minimum lifespan you should be
MICROCLIMATE
aiming for.
□ Ensure your project harnesses the local climate and its surrounding landscape in
› see Chapter your design response. ›
2, Tables 2.4
and 2.5
General
□ Create a (digital or physical) site model with your massing model to investigate what
› see Chapter 5 kind of neighbourhood your project will be in. ›
□ Minimise the impact your project has on surrounding spaces and neighbouring
buildings (e.g., avoid casting long shadows).
□ Locate higher buildings towards the north of any site to avoid overshadowing.
□ Space adjacent buildings or streets by 1.5–2.5 times their height to ensure good
access to natural ventilation, daylight and direct sunshine.
□ Design courtyards to be at least as wide as the building’s height, and design urban
› see Glossary breaks › in large buildings and streets to allow wind and solar access at street level.
(Minimum break width of 5 m to avoid wind funnelling through them.)
□ Locate entrance areas and other key outdoor spaces to have good solar access, and
consider protecting them from prevailing winds.
□ Orient main ventilation openings towards the prevailing wind to ensure good
natural ventilation. For sites with extreme wind velocities, provide some form of
wind screening against the prevailing wind (e.g., other buildings, or trees or hedges).
□ Place window openings and zoning of functions to optimise solar gains (if
desirable) by orienting towards the sun, ideally from +30° to -30° from the east–
› see Figure 3.19 west axis. › If exposure to heat is undesirable, locate windows and functions away
from the sun.
ORIENTATION □ In Northern Europe, the winter sun is very low, so it’s often not practical to design
for good direct sunshine in winter. Instead, aim for adequate direct sunshine
access from spring to autumn.
Commercial buildings
□ Locate rooms which do not require solar access (e.g., stairs, toilets, stores, lifts or
plant) as buffers to the west and east facades, which are prone to overheating as
they are diffcult to shade from low sun angles.
□ Place functions which do not require direct sunlight on the north facade to
provide a more regular north light.
□ Provide summer shading or screening for south-facing locations even in northern
› see Chapter 4, regions. ›
Theme 4 and 7,
Section 4.7.5
□ Consider the optimum orientation of the different spaces within for more diverse
or complex functions.
Housing
› See pages □ Design every dwelling with dual aspect. ›
128 to 133
□ Position living spaces on the sunnier aspects, and bedrooms away from the sun.
□ Avoid single-aspect units if possible. Single-aspect housing is only acceptable
for one-bedroom dwellings and if shallow plan (less than 6 m depth) so summer
natural ventilation is possible.
□ Provide a good level of direct sunshine in the living space and solar shading in
summer to prevent overheating.
134
Minimise summertime building overheating through the following measures:

□ Zone functions to appropriate orientations (e.g., bedrooms face cooler
orientations).
□ Use deciduous vegetation to provide external building shading.
□ Provide greenery for external shading and cooler spaces through evaporative
› see Glossary BUILDING cooling. › Provide cooling through water features, ponds, lakes and other bodies
› see Chapter 1, OVERHEATING of water. If near the sea, sea breezes can be utilised. ›
Section 1.4.4 PREVENTION
□ Use light-coloured roads and other external surfaces to refect sunlight (i.e., high
› see Glossary albedo materials.) ›
□ Use green roofs to provide evaporative cooling that also supports biodiversity.
› see Chapter 4, □ Consider cross-ventilation and night-cooling, also referred to as purge ventilation. ›
Theme 4
□ Design shaded courtyards (in hot climates), self-shaded building forms and
› see Chapter 4, movable architectural solar shading; ensure good daylight is not compromised. ›
Theme 7
□ Balance a suitably low form factor for your project, considering its other needs
BUILDING FORM and sustainability aspects (e.g., function, layout, access to sunlight, daylight, views,
› see Figures natural ventilation).21 ›
3.23 and 3.24,
and Notes 3.20
and 3.22 □ Avoid deep-plan buildings that are more than twice the depth of the foor-to-
ceiling height if fully glazed on one side, and if fully glazed on both sides, no more
› see pages 132 than four times the depth. ›
to 133 NATURAL
LIGHT AND
□ Design for cross-ventilation in summer, which is more effective than single-sided
ventilation. If the layout allows, locate spaces with ventilation access to more than
VENTILATION
one facade.
□ Consider locating naturally ventilated rooms facing the prevailing wind and away
from sheltered areas of the facade.
135
3.2.4 Theme 7: Health and wellbeing

Health and wellbeing is not simply the absence of disease, but also
includes social and psychological wellbeing. This theme is about how
your design impacts the users and the surrounding community and
citizens, and ensuring that the impact is always positive.
› see Chapter 4, Health and wellbeing aspects in architecture relate to good indoor
Section 4.7.5 environmental quality (IEQ), which includes air quality, thermal,
› see Theme 1 visual and acoustic comfort ›, adaptable and delightful spaces ›,
and Theme 9 and architecture that encourages healthier and more sustainable
behaviours (i.e., active architecture, Table 3.6.). Health and wellbeing
› see Themes 2 can also be supported by visual and physical access to nature › and
and 3, Table 3.4 inclusive access to these spaces and social infrastructure to support
and Chapter 4,
people to get together. › Some of these aspects were detailed
Section 4.7
› see Theme 8, in the previous chapters and themes. The focus here is on key
Table 3.7 recommendations – see Table 3.6 – related to strategic site aspects
of external environmental quality, connection to nature and active
architecture. These are crucial aspects to consider at the strategic
level of your design, as they are diffcult to introduce at later stages.
Finally, your project should support and enhance planetary health
and wellbeing because, without it, human and ecosystem health is
jeopardised.
Planetary health and wellbeing

Humans cannot be healthy on an exploited planet, where
environmental and climate tipping points are regularly exceeded.
› see Glossary A tipping point › is a threshold that, when exceeded, can lead to
irreversible changes in the ecosystem. Your project should never
contribute to tipping points and ecological or climate breakdown.
Instead, use your design to identify how you can positively impact
› see the planet and restore some of the previous damage done. ›
recommendations
Table 3.6 Environmental quality
Environmental quality affects people’s health and wellbeing, and it
depends on the presence or absence of environmental pollution (e.g.,
air, noise, soil and water) within or around the urban environment.
Your project’s design response needs to not only protect others
from the harmful effects but also counteract them by undertaking
restorative measures as part of your project’s intervention. You should
understand the presence of pollutants on the site and how they affect
› see Chapter 1, humans and non-humans. › The effects of environmental pollution
Table 1.7 are associated with social and spatial justice issues. This means that
people in lower socio-economic groups are often more exposed to
air and noise pollution and suffer the consequences from it, further
› see Theme 1, disadvantaging those exposed. ›
Table 3.1
Air pollution
Air pollution is a major hazard in urban areas around the world. In
Europe, millions of urban dwellers are exposed to pollution levels
higher than the recommended limits, and it is the single largest
environmental health risk.22 It is mostly associated with the use of
fossil-fuelled transport, though also some wood fuel-burning.
136
Cleaner vehicles, including electric vehicles, reduce local city air 3.24 EXAMPLES
pollution, but depending on how they are manufactured and where
the electricity comes from, they might simply displace the air Inspiring environmental
pollution to other regions. Different sustainable mobility models are health and wellbeing in
needed instead. architecture examples
• ecoLogicStudio – Photo.
Globally, urban air pollution is also exacerbated by cooking fuels and
Synth.Etica, Dublin, Ireland
the burning of open fres and other polluting industrial activities. In
• Emilio Ambasz – ACROS,
addition to a larger concentration of pollutants, the reduced wind
Fukuoka, Emilio Ambasz,
speeds in urban areas also limit the dispersion of pollutants. Air
Japan
pollution is also an international issue given that it is wind-driven • HafenCity, Hamburg,
across borders, between industrial areas and cities and between Germany
countries. Health impacts lead to the premature deaths of hundreds • Luciano Pia – 25 Green,
of thousands of urban dwellers in Europe alone from stroke and Turin, Italy
heart disease, lung diseases and cancer. Older people and those with • Turenscape – Liupanshui
asthma are at high risk. Minghu Wetland Park,
Design measures at the building scale only help control and China
› see Chapter 4, minimise outdoor air pollution from entering internal spaces. › This is
Theme 7 never as effective as minimising and controlling pollution sources in
the frst place, which is a priority. As such, you must make sure your
proposed design does not contribute to pollution. Instead, provide
or enhance alternative transportation modes (e.g., walking, cycling,
e-scooters, public transport, shared vehicles) and the use of greenery
to help flter local air. Vegetation can also absorb pollution and dust.
However, the tree canopy should not be placed too close to built
structures, as this can slow down wind speeds, trapping air pollution
and exacerbating localised pollution levels.23 Existing urban areas can
be changed to reduce car use and replace transport infrastructure
with green and social infrastructure, illustrated by Barcelona’s
› see key Superblock (Figure 3.26). ›
recommendations
in Tables 3.3, 3.4
and 3.7

Barcelona superblock principles,
illustrating how green and
social infrastructure can
replace traditional roads and
parking, moving them to the
periphery. This reduces air and
noise pollution and encourages
people to walk and cycle.
137
Noise pollution
Noise pollution is common in urban environments from road traffc,
trains, aeroplanes, refuse collection and parking, but also functional
activities (people congregating, pubs and music venues). It affects
the health and wellbeing (e.g., lack of sleep, and related high blood
pressure and heart disease) of a large number of urban dwellers
while also affecting children’s learning processes.24 25 Noise pollution
also prevents people from sleeping with windows open at night,
preventing passive night-time ventilation and leading to thermal
› see Chapter 4, discomfort. › Note that the move to electric cars, as planned in the
Themes 4 and 7 EU’s Climate Plan by 2030, will reduce urban noise pollution to some
extent in the future.
Map noise sources that your project site is exposed to (Chapter 1, Table
1.7) and use this information to design noise control strategies. These
include site strategies such as prioritising noise source reduction,
avoiding the creation of new sources of noise and placing buildings
suffciently far from sources, followed by reduction measures such
as acoustic screening close to the source (e.g., with vegetation and
landscaping). For building-scale measures, see Chapter 4, Theme 7.
Soil pollution
Soil pollution is common in, for example, brownfeld sites, near roads
and where industrial functions or waste management may have taken
place, but it can also be deposited by air pollution and fooding. Soil
contamination can percolate through to the groundwater table and
affect human health. To clean the soil, there are biological, chemical
and physical processes (i.e., removing the top layer of contaminated
soil from the site).26
If there is soil contamination on your project site, consider
bioremediation (also called phytoremediation), which is a biological
process that uses (aquatic) plants, algae and microorganisms to
reduce and break down the pollutants (usually in-situ) and can
be used to remove pollutants from the site over several weeks or
months.27 Plants must be carefully chosen by ecologists to ensure they
are tolerant to the pollutants and can absorb heavy metals and other
toxins; these are later harvested, treated and removed along with
the absorbed pollutants. This is considered a restorative process that
preserves biodiversity and protects human health while restoring the
ecosystem at a low cost.28 Depending on your design, you can provide
water retention capacity during storm events because bioremediation
› see Table 3.4 can be combined with blue infrastructure. › Moreover, bioremediation
supports biodiversity and increases human connection to nature.
138
› see Table 3.6 Connection to nature (biophilia) › Figure 3.27 Diagram

and Figure 3.27 illustrating biophilic principles,
At this stage, you should prioritise views of nature and trees,
including connection and
integrating generous physical access to different kinds and scales access to nature, both visual
of nature (e.g., parks, wetlands, ponds, forested areas, wildfower and physical, between spaces
meadows, street trees, green courtyards, private gardens, green roofs, and places, and from buildings.
terraces and balconies with greenery). Ideally, these spaces are part of
› see Table 3.4 a wider green infrastructure ›, connecting to each other and to other
green spaces and the surrounding green areas. Diversity of fauna and
fora supports different species but also increases the human sensory
experience. Connection to nature increases citizens’ wellbeing, 3.25 EXAMPLES
both when people are visually connected and when they have
Inspiring physical health and
› see Chapter 4, physical access. ›
Theme 3 and 7 wellbeing in architecture
Physical wellbeing examples
• Alvar Aalto – Paimio
To promote physical wellbeing, active architecture can be used to
Sanatorium, Finland
encourage citizens to choose more sustainable, healthier and more
• dRMM Architects – Maggie’s
active lifestyles. It is about creating delightful experiences so that
Centre, Oldham, United
people choose to make changes without thinking about it. Include
Kingdom
such moments in your architecture in your early design strategies;
• Friis & Moltke, Active+
for example, creating a safe and easy physical connection to nature School, Aarhus, Denmark
can encourage physical activity, cycling or walking to work or school. • Jan Gehl – ‘Copenhagen-
Creating mixed-use developments also encourages walking or cycling style bicycle lanes’ system,
› see 15-minute to amenities rather than driving. › Additionally, consider how you Denmark
cities, Section programme your streetscapes; adding activities or points of interest • Municipality of Barcelona
3.2.2
such as art, views or play spots can improve the enjoyment of being in collaboration with the
active. For active architecture at the building scale, see Chapter 4, Urban Ecology Agency –
Theme 7. Barcelona Superblock
139

› for building-scale KEY RECOMMENDATIONS: HEALTH AND WELLBEING ›
recommendations,
see Chapter 4
□ Promote a healthy planet by creating designs that have a positive impact and
aim to restore past damage.
PLANETARY
HEALTH AND
□ Identify and create a map of the potential impact of your design on the other
stakeholders and propose remedial measures to ensure a restorative approach.
WELLBEING
□ Remember, the environment and non-human species are also a stakeholder in
your project, in addition to your client and users.
□ Map and understand the presence of air, noise, water and land pollutants on the
› see Chapter 1, site and its impact on people and other species. ›
Table 1.7
□ Locate your project away from polluted areas.
□ Reduce existing sources of air, noise, water and land pollution – avoid creating
new environmental pollution sources.
Air pollution
□ Consider alternative transportation modes, reduce car use, and replace transport
› see Figure 3.26 infrastructure with green and social infrastructure. ›
ENVIRONMENTAL □ Increase greenery to help flter local air; make sure that the tree canopy (at
QUALITY maturity) is at least 1.5 m away from built structures to avoid trapping and
exacerbating localised air pollution levels.29
Noise pollution
□ Map noise sources at your project site (Chapter 1, Table 1.7) and design noise
control strategies accordingly (e.g., placing buildings suffciently far from
sources of noise, acoustic screening close to the source with vegetation and
landscaping). For building-scale measures, see Chapter 4, Theme 7.
Soil pollution
□ If there is soil/ground pollution, consider bioremediation; supporting biodiversity,
› see Table 3.4 connection to nature and water retention (i.e. green and blue infrastructure). ›
CONNECTION □ Ensure internal and external spaces are physically and visually connected to nature.
TO NATURE □ Integrate and connect nature of different kinds and scales in your architecture as
› see Table 3.4 (BIOPHILIA) part of a wider green infrastructure. ›
□ Create appropriate internal and external ‘nudge moments’ in your architecture

ACTIVE that are inclusive and accessible for all (e.g., a safe and easy physical connection
ARCHITECTURE to nature; a centrally located and easy-to-use stairwell, active circulation routes,
interesting cycle paths and footpaths)
140
3.2.5 Theme 8: People and community 3.26 NOTE

Your project proposal should support inclusive access for a diverse
Creating a democratic
range of people by refecting the community’s diversity in various
design plan
spaces, places and social infrastructures. Similarly, democratic
Set out how and when to
› see Chapter 2, processes such as co-creation and participation › by the community
include the local community
Table 2.9 ensure you understand the users’ and different communities’ needs
in a project. For example,
› see Theme 1, better, and identify any inequalities and injustices. › You can then
interviews or focus group
Table 3.1 respond appropriately in your design proposal. Remember, these discussions may help to
social aspects must be addressed all the way through your project. unfold specifc issues of your
design. Also, make prototypes
Diverse, affordable and inclusive design
and mock-ups of construction
First, refect on who you are designing for – for example who your details and test them with
users are; what social and age groups are represented; how they live, future users. You can organise
work and spend their free time; what activities they perform or how workshops or charrettes
› see Chapter 1, they meet. › These considerations help to defne the needs of the (see Glossary) or develop
Theme 8 users of your proposed design intervention. Users and communities your own design games to
you design for are not one homogeneous group (e.g., ethnicity, social, discuss viewpoints and needs
cultural, economic), and even within one seemingly homogeneous playfully and solve specifc
group (e.g., of the same background or age) there will be different architectural or planning
voices, needs and expectations. You need to give a voice to the problems in detail. (see
diverse people you work for and with, and this requires a plurality in Figure 3.28). If appropriate,
architectural responses. Spaces should be accessible to all people in include the local community
the community, including physical accessibility but also fnancially. in the process of construction.
For communication
Remember to include a long-time perspective that anticipates
techniques, see Chapter 5.
demographic changes and changing patterns of use. Consider time
aspects in your design when developing the plan and section of your
project (e.g., incorporate fexibility/adaptability strategies; ‘open-end’
3.27 NOTE
› see Theme 1, buildings). ›
Table 3.2
Your role in a live project
Democratic processes
A live project creates an
Collaborative design development may create a sense of ownership opportunity to engage
among the local community,30 and people who have agency over with real clients, the local
their environment tend to be more satisfed. However, the agency community and future users.
should not only be considered at the end of a project but in how Learn to negotiate between
users can use the spaces or building. After all, understanding what different stakeholders,
people want to begin with means you are more likely to match your understanding their needs
design to their expectations and needs. This is why involvement and constraints. Develop
must start at the beginning of a project to address the needs and group work, communication,
› see Chapter 4, values of diverse users. › negotiation and reporting
Theme 10 skills.32 Prepare for discussions
Participatory processes are based on mutual learning between the
and meetings to ensure good
users and the designers – the users share their needs, realities and local
group dynamics. Arrange the
‘expertise’. You as a designer provide the means to negotiate between
physical space to support equal
various wishes. This helps you create inclusive design solutions and
engagement (e.g., sitting in one
a user-centred design with customised architectural solutions. But row or a circular set-up) and
to make it happen, it is necessary to work in a truly inclusive design a favourable group size (e.g.,
process that extends beyond basic information or consultations. working in smaller groups on
Therefore, directly involve users to co-design the products, processes divided tasks). You can include
and environments that shape their lives.31 You can create a ‘democratic everyone in the discussion by
design plan’ of how you might go about including local communities in directing questions or asking
your design process. In many cases, you can undertake some (limited) about specifc issues and
inclusive design processes (see Note 3.26 and 3.27). different viewpoints.
141
Managing the expectations of the community and stakeholders is 3.28 EXAMPLES

crucial: some things they might want may not be possible (e.g., due
to cost or space constraints, other priorities, or because it is counter Inspiring social infrastructure
to climate emergency approaches). Moreover, not all members of the examples
community will have the same expectations. Managing this process • COBE Architects, Tingbjerg
through discussion and knowledge exchange is important to ensure Library, Copenhagen,
stakeholders are not disappointed. Denmark
• Effekt, GAME StreetMekka,
Social infrastructure Esbjerg, Denmark
Your project should support and encourage the connection and • Farming Architects – VAC
coming together of people. Include public functions in your design Library, Hanoi, Vietnam
(e.g., community and health centres, educational places and • Light Earth Designs –
libraries), alongside internal and external informal spaces as well as Rwanda Cricket Stadium,
places that encourage encounters between different community Kigali, Rwanda
members. For example, where can you place benches for people • Rozana Montiel – Common
to rest or people-watch? Can paths and walkways and stairways Unity, Mexico City, Mexico
be made wider to create viewing points or resting and gathering Figure 3.28 Johanna Lynn
places? Think carefully about the climate and seasonality, such as proposed a democratic system
a shaded spot under a tree or a place to take cover under a canopy of community living with co-
or in a protected niche from wind and rain. Make sure you include working and co-living facilities.
142
people (e.g., children, dog walkers, younger and older people) and 3.29 EXAMPLES
consider what kind of informal spaces are desirable and suitable
for them to gather in. Equally, what kind of spaces can support Inspiring diverse and
encounters between different people (e.g., young and old)? While democratic examples
you cannot force people to meet or mix, the idea is that these formal • Ash Sakula Architects –
and informal spaces bring people together from different walks of Canning Town Caravanserai,
life, which creates accidental (or planned) encounters, supporting London, UK
community cohesion and people’s wellbeing. • BIG Architects, Topotek 1,
Superkilen and Superfex –
It is important that these spaces for encounters are fully inclusive
Copenhagen, Denmark
for everyone in the community and that they are also not • CAUKIN Studio – Naidi
‘privatised’, limiting access for some. Spaces for encounters should Community Hall, Fiji
not be an afterthought, but generous and high quality, including the • Kondens Arkitekter –
links and connections needed to get to them. You can also combine Rundhøj Square, Denmark
› see Theme 7, this with nudge architecture. › • Rozana Montiel – Common
Table 3.6
Unity, Mexico City, Mexico

KEY RECOMMENDATIONS: PEOPLE AND COMMUNITY
□ Ensure that spaces are physically and fnancially accessible and inclusive for all
people in the community.
□ Defne and understand the needs of the local community affected by your
DIVERSE, project. Democratic processes will help you in this – see below.
AFFORDABLE AND
INCLUSIVE DESIGN
□ Include a long-time perspective that anticipates demographic changes and
changing patterns of use (e.g., incorporate fexibility/adaptability strategies and
› see Theme 1, open-end buildings). ›
Table 3.2
□ Create a narrative approach by developing your project through scenarios of use
› see Chapter 5, based on users (or, in the absence of real users, personas). ›
Section 5.3 and
Figure 1.24, □ If you can, involve diverse users at the start to address the needs, expectations
page 55 and values of users in your project proposal.
□ Create a ‘democratic design plan’ to include local communities in your design
› see Note 3.26 DEMOCRATIC process. ›
PROCESSES □ Undertake interviews or focus groups with local citizens or make prototypes and
mock-ups of relevant solutions and details and test them with future users.
□ Organise action plans, workshops, charrettes and design games to discuss
diverse viewpoints and needs.
□ Encourage the connection and coming together of people through formal

places (e.g., community and health centres, schools and libraries), and informal
spaces for accidental or planned encounters (e.g., parks, benches, resting places,
wide pavements, playgrounds).
□ Design informal spaces suitable for the climate and seasonality and diverse
SOCIAL people (e.g., young, old, different socio-economic groups).
INFRASTRUCTURE
□ Consider what kind of spaces can bring people together from different walks
of life.
□ Ensure that spaces are high quality and fully accessible to everyone in the
community, including the links and connections to them.
› see Theme □ Consider ‘nudge architecture’. ›
7, Table 3.6 and
Table 2.8
143
3.2.6 Theme 9: Delight 3.30 EXAMPLES

The previous chapters encouraged you to map moments of value,
Inspiring examples of delight
wonder, beauty, delight, stimulation and care on your site and its
in architecture
vicinity. You can start to integrate these moments into your own
• Álvaro Siza – Leça
design proposal in this step. This can mean protecting these moments
Swimming Pool, Porto,
by locating your own proposal to not interfere with the site, enhance
Portugal
and contrast with it, or even change it to complement or enrich the
• Carlo Scarpa – Museo
moment. It could also mean using these delightful aspects as design Castelvecchio, Verona, Italy
› see Note 2.30 inspiration for your own design. › For example, the way the sun hits • Hiroshi Sambuichi – Inujima
a material or the shade created in a courtyard on a hot day, or the Seirensho Art Museum,
way a building sits in its context and captures views and so on. Often Okayama, Japan
delightful moments are not big, overpowering physical gestures; • Jensen & Skodvin –
instead, they foster an immense meaningful human experience. Mortensrud Church, Oslo,
Remember, these moments do not have to be visual but can be touch, Norway
› see Chapter 4, smell, sound or thermal (e.g., a warm or cool feeling that is pleasant). › • Käpy and Simo Paavilainen –
Theme 7, Pirkkala Church, Finland
Section 4.7.5 While delightful spaces do not directly solve the climate emergency,
places we value and treasure indirectly reduce impacts because we
look after the things and places we love. Places we love lift us up, and
this contributes to wellbeing. As architect Lance Hosey asks: ‘Imagine
a day when we’ve perfectly solved the challenges of energy, resources,
and emissions, and everything we do and make is clean, harmless,
and infnitely renewable. Is that enough?’33 As a future architect, you
are in a unique position to harness these delightful moments in your
architecture, creating uplifting spaces and places accessible to all,
going beyond the space planning and provision of facilities. This is also
what separates architecture from simply ‘building’ or ‘shelter’.
Remember too, you do not create architecture for yourself. First and
foremost, it is giving something meaningful and uplifting back to the
community and public you work with and for. However, a delightful
space for the community on its own is not enough in the climate
emergency: clearly, a beautiful space or building means nothing if
your design is not also in harmony with its environment, and if it (in)
directly damages the planet and its (non)human occupants (e.g., if it
foods, overheats or is unaffordable to keep warm). We need a holistic
approach to all sustainability aspects, and this is why eventually you
should be integrating all the 10 climate emergency design themes
› see Chapter 0, into your project. ›
Section 0.3
TABLE 3.8 THEME 9: DESIGN STRATEGIES – KEY RECOMMENDATIONS: DELIGHT
□ Integrate the delightful and meaningful moments you mapped in Step 1 into your
› see Chapter 1, own design proposal. ›
Theme 9
DELIGHT □ Use these joyful moments and experiences to enhance or even replicate in your
own design intervention.
› see Chapter 0 □ Ensure a holistic sustainable architecture approach. ›
144
3.3 SUMMARY
This chapter focused on imagining design strategies, different
options and ideas (Step 3) that help you meet the project values,
› see Chapter 0, goals and ambitions that you developed earlier. › It looked at key
Table 0.2 themes and aspects and how to integrate these into your own
design strategies and design decisions, with key recommendations
provided in a summary table for the climate emergency themes
covered: future and global responsibility (Theme 1), infrastructure
(Theme 2), site-scale aspects of passive resilience (Theme 4) and
health and wellbeing (Theme 7), as well as people and community
(Theme 8) and delight (Theme 9).
Only by including these aspects right at the heart and at the start of your
design project – and all the way through – can you create restorative and
holistically sustainable architecture. It may seem overwhelming, but
remember you are not expected to include all of the themes in all of your
› see Chapter 0, projects, especially in the early stages of your studies. ›
Table 0.1
The next chapter will cover the remaining themes as well as building-
scale recommendations for Theme 4 (passive resilience) and Theme 7
(health and wellbeing).
145
CHAPTER 4
TESTING AND
DEVELOPING CLIMATE
EMERGENCY DESIGN
STRATEGIES
(STEP 4)
4.1 INTRODUCTION 147 4.6.3 Adaptive reuse as part of circular 192

construction
4.2 DEVELOPING YOUR DESIGN 149
THROUGH ITERATIONS OF TESTING 4.6.4 Life-cycle assessment and life-cycle 193
costing
4.3 THEME 3: THE ENVIRONMENT 150
4.6.5 Adaptability of structural 195
4.3.1 Flora and fauna 150
and non-structural systems
4.3.2 Blue infrastructure 153
4.7 THEME 7: HEALTH AND WELLBEING 197
4.4 THEME 4: PASSIVE RESILIENCE 157 4.7.1 Physical wellbeing 197
4.4.1 Passive heating 157
4.7.2 Social wellbeing 197
4.4.2 Passive cooling 157
4.7.3 Adaptable and fexible spaces 198
4.4.3 Thermal mass 158
4.7.4 Indoor air quality 198
4.4.4 Natural ventilation 160
4.7.5 Comfort 199
4.4.5 The building fabric 166
4.8 THEME 10: PERFORMANCE 211
4.5 THEME 5: ENERGY AND CO2 172 212
4.8.1 Target setting
4.5.1 Zero-carbon buildings 172 4.8.2 Performance risk plan 213
4.5.2 Energy systems 174 4.8.3 Key stakeholders and collaborators 213
4.5.3 Whole-life carbon footprint 178 4.8.4. User, maintenance, disassembly 214
4.6 THEME 6: MATERIALS 184 and reuse guides
4.6.1 Material selection in a sustainable 184 4.9 SUMMARY 215
design and construction process
4.6.2 Sustainable material selection 185
DOI: 10.4324/9781003297246-5
TESTING AND DEVELOPING CLIMATE EMERGENCY DESIGN STRATEGIES
4.1 INTRODUCTION
This is the stage at which you will test and refne your design
– developing an in-depth proposal that builds on the earlier
conceptual phases.
You should now have a design concept (Chapter 2) and initial strategic
approaches (Chapter 3) that should be grounded in the contextual
research undertaken during the earlier stages (Chapter 1). This chapter
will help you test and further develop detailed sustainable strategies
in your design approaches and solutions (i.e., Step 4). It is structured
around six of the 10 climate emergency design themes: environment
(Theme 3), building-scale aspects of passive resilience (Theme 4),
energy and CO2 (Theme 5), materials (Theme 6), health and wellbeing
› see Figure 4.1 (Theme 7) and performance (Theme 10). › During this stage, it is
crucial to work to scale through sketching, drawing and models to
continue to embed, develop, test and refne your chosen sustainable
› see Figure 4.2 strategies into architectural design solutions. ›
Testing your design is an iterative and reflective process in
which the design is tested, ref ined and re-tested through
design development and improvements to meet your climate
› see Chapter 2 emergency design concept and ambitions. › Testing is a process
to establish the quality and performance of your proposal. It involves
continuous design refnements and comparisons between options,

emergency design themes,
highlighting in red those that
are covered in this chapter.
147
Figure 4.2 Diagram of the fve

steps, emphasising Step 4, the
main focus of this chapter.
checking for scale and appropriateness on the site and whether it is 4.01 NOTE
aligned with your design concept, values and goals. You can do this
through, for example, drawing, sketching, modelling, material studies Start testing your design with
and fabrication, as well as daylight studies, energy and embodied a SWOT analysis
› see Chapter 5 carbon calculations. › Often you might just want to ‘fnish’ your design A SWOT analysis prompts
rather than iterate once more. However, it is important that you allow you to critically self-refect on
enough time for this step. This stage is important, as it also involves the strengths, weaknesses,
critical self-refection about your design options through questioning opportunities and threats
design decisions. For example: do the designed openings harness (SWOT) of your current design
the views, and give good daylighting? Does the intervention prevent strategies and options. A
SWOT analysis can be useful
biodiversity loss, and will any new habitats enhance wildlife? Are the
to critically compare your
materials selected low impact and locally sourced? Can you further
design options, and evaluate
reduce the need for energy use through passive strategies?
how they work on the site and
To help, probing questions, key recommendations and rules of thumb whether they meet your own
are provided throughout. Chapter 3 covered the themes missing from design concept (see Chapter
this chapter, along with strategic site approaches to achieve passive 1, Section 1.5).
resilience (Theme 4) and health and wellbeing (Theme 7).
148
4.2 DEVELOPING YOUR DESIGN THROUGH

ITERATIONS OF TESTING
Good architecture is never created f rom the f irst idea that
is then built. Your design should always involve the creation of
different design options and their analysis, as well as critiquing,
testing and comparing benefts and hindrances, leading to the
refnement of concepts and design options. Sometimes ideas are
discarded – this is part of the design process. A SWOT analysis is
› see Note 4.01 helpful as a starting point. ›
and Section 1.5.1
The process of testing and developing is part of iterative design,
where the ‘trial and error’ and ‘back and forth’ processes improve and
evolve the design. It is a repetitive process that occurs at different
stages and scales: further changes and refnements are made
continuously and again analysed, questioned, tested and so on.
Whether it is applied to the concept or the design approaches and
options, iterative design is a process that improves and refnes the
› see Figures design to arrive at the most appropriate and best decisions. ›
4.3. and 4.4

the fve steps and the iterative
design loops. Iteration is
fundamental to any design
process to improve and refne
your design.
Figure 4.4 Iterative model

development by Elvira
Lehostaieva to explore the
addition of new proposed
massing (white) to the existing
fabric (red).
149
4.3 THEME 3: THE ENVIRONMENT 4.02 NOTE
At present, our development and encroachment into natural habitats Green corridors
is causing a signifcant loss of species,1 contributing to what is A green corridor is a
› see Glossary known as the sixth mass extinction. › Therefore you should focus on continuous piece of land,
creating a low-impact and restorative approach to the environment, usually within an urban
› see Chapter environment, that supports
3, Theme 7, nature and biodiversity in your design, ensuring that the proposal is
Section 3.2.4 appropriate for the site’s topography, geology and ground conditions. › wildlife and often includes
Moreover, your design proposal should also aim for green and blue pedestrian or cycle routes
› see Chapter infrastructure regeneration. › and recreation areas. Green
3, Theme 2, corridors increase species
Section 3.2.2 While the following section focuses on blue infrastructure (water) diversity and can connect
and green infrastructure (fauna and fora), some suggested questions other green spaces in cites.
concerning topography, geology and soil are also set out in Table 4.1. Green corridors may also
create channels for cooler air
4.3.1 Flora and fauna to fow from rural areas into
A restorative or regenerative approach is crucial. Consider enhancing the city. Design undercrofts
and connecting the existing green infrastructure (e.g., natural or green bridges to connect
› see Note 4.02 habitats, forests, wetlands, parks, greenery) through green corridors › green habitats that would
and increasing them at different scales. otherwise be fragmented
(see Chapter 3, Theme 2,
Integrating fora and fauna into your project is an opportunity to Section 3.2.2).
protect, enhance and create natural environments for non-human
› see Chapter 3, species. There are several opportunities to do this on the site ›,
Theme 2 including in the facade and roof designs, which offer opportunities for
increased habitats for fauna, supporting rather than detracting from
› see Figure 4.5 biodiversity in your intervention. ›
Figure 4.5 Diagram of overall

in-depth strategies for the
environment, including green
roofs, green walls and the
placing of trees to achieve
noise reduction and wind speed
reduction (in cold climates).
150
Placement of trees and vegetation Figure 4.6 Diagrams showing

optimal tree placement in
The integration of vegetation into your site and building can
different climatic contexts
have considerable benefts not only for increasing non-human to reduce a building’s active
habitation, but also for reducing wind and urban heat island (UHI) heating or cooling needs. See
effects, providing shading to reduce energy demands for heating also Table 4.1.
and cooling, reducing noise and increasing psychological benefts.
Remember, the requirements will be contextual to your climate and
ecosystem – for example, see Figure 4.6 for different tree placements
4.03 NOTE
› see Glossary in different climates. To use trees or shelterbelts › for reduced wind
and noise, consider the distance between them and your building, Trees and vegetation as solar
the type of trees (evergreen, deciduous, height, density, etc.) and what shading
consequences there will be – for example, reduced daylight or views. When using deciduous trees
for solar shading the annual
Green roofs
changes need to be taken
When you situate your project in the site or landscape, you are
into consideration, as well as
reducing the existing biodiversity and natural footprint. Therefore, it is
the trees’ growth, maturity
important to replace this biodiversity as an integrated element within
and distance from the
your building. Green roofs (or sedum/vegetated roofs) are a good
building. Upper foors usually
way to do this. They can for example create natural landscapes and require architectural shading.
habitats, provide evaporative cooling, and reduce the UHI effect and Maintenance and pruning are
important to maintain winter
solar gain. Generally, the roots
of trees extend as wide as the
crown and foundations must
not be built within this root
zone (see Figure 4.7).

how deciduous trees can be
effective as a summer solar
shading approach, while allowing
winter solar gains in cold
climates. Adapted from Sofe
Pelsmakers, The Environmental
Design Pocketbook, RIBA
Publishing, 2015.
151
temperature fuctuations for the building as well as reduce heating

4.04 NOTE
and cooling demands (climate control), while improving acoustics, air
quality and on-site waste-water harvesting/treatment. However, it is Green roof systems
important to consider the extra weight of the roof, increased structural An extensive green roof
demands and appropriate roof pitch, as well as maintenance. system (maximum 35° slope)
There are two main types of green roofs – intensive and extensive is lighter, cheaper and easier
to maintain, as plants should
(see Figure 4.8), referring to the amount of substrate and possible
be restricted to sedum,
plant types. Make sure your chosen plants are suitable for the climatic
grasses and mosses. However,
context and condition of your green roof.
this type of roof cannot be
Green facades walked on or used for leisure.
Green facades or vertical gardens, where plants are grown in facade Alternatively, an intensive
systems, should be used sparingly and only when they are climatically green roof system (maximum
compatible, as plant roots rarely grow horizontally. Despite there being 5° slope) has a large substrate
many systems available, they often require more resources (i.e., water, depth, increasing possible
plant diversity and habitats.
nutrients, energy) to operate than the added vegetation can offset. As
Intensive roofs can be used
an alternative, use ‘climbing’ vegetation that can grow upwards from
for leisure (e.g., terraces and
the soil. It should be placed at least 400 mm from the building, and it
gardens), but the extra weight
is important to choose plant types carefully. For example, evergreens
will signifcantly increase
are suitable for the north facade (in the northern hemisphere) while
structural loads. Large species
deciduous varieties should be used elsewhere to ensure they do not
such as trees will need an
obstruct natural sun and daylight, especially in winter. enlarged tree pit to allow for
root growth (see Figure 4.8).
4.05 EXAMPLES
Inspiring fora and fauna

examples
• Geoffrey Bawa – Kandalama
Hotel, Dambulla, Sri Lanka
• Junya Ishigami – Art Biotop
Water Garden, Tochigi, Japan
• Malcolm Wells – Solaria,
New Jersey, USA
• Renzo Piano – California
Academy of Science, San
Francisco, USA
• Sarah Wigglesworth
Architects – Mellor Primary
School, Stockport, UK
Figure 4.8 Diagram comparing

extensive and intensive green
roofs, with increased soil depth
in intensive roofs to enable
larger vegetation to take root
and the roof to be used for
leisure. Adapted from Sofe
Publishing, 2015. See Note 4.04.
152
TABLE 4.1 THEME 3: KEY RECOMMENDATIONS –

TESTING AND DEVELOPING GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE
□ Protect existing nature.

□ Distribute green spaces throughout the city within short walking distances.
□ Connect wildlife habitats through parks with green corridors and pedestrian
› see Note 4.02 spaces. ›
□ Aim to increase areas for nature and wildlife by at least 50% more than the
footprint of your building proposal.
□ Create appropriate wildlife environments on the ground and roof spaces (i.e.,
wild or garden zones that are undisturbed by humans).
□ Integrate vegetation and food production through green roofs, walls, balconies
GREEN and courtyards.
INFRASTRUCTURE:
FLORA AND
□ Consider indigenous plants with seasonal interest, and low-maintenance wildlife
habitats, and whenever possible, harvest and recycle rainwater for irrigation.
FAUNA (for site
strategies, see □ Use trees and vegetation to protect from wind velocity and noise, reduce CO 2
› see Figures Chapter 3, Theme and dust, and to provide solar shading and reduce the UHI effect. › Specifcally:
4.5, 4.6 and 4.7 2, Section 3.2.2) □ Cool and temperate zones: Use evergreen plants to protect from the
prevailing wind (winter). Use deciduous trees and vines to provide shade in
the summer and allow light in the winter (especially facing east and west).
Trees can also be used to shade from the afternoon summer sun.
□ Hot-humid zone: Provide shade by placing trees on the east and west sides.
Trees with high canopies are preferable to allow a breeze and provide shade.
Use the wind for cooling by channelling it around and through the building.
□ Hot-arid zone: Use prevailing winds to cool the building. Place trees and
green walls facing the prevailing winds to cool the building and bring
humidity into it; they can also shade a building. A wide canopy is effective to
give shade for spaces underneath the tree.
4.3.2 Blue inf rastructure 4.06 NOTE
Water is an essential element of architecture at many scales. In some Incorporating non-humans

countries there is an excess, which is considered a design nuisance, into your building
while in others it is a precious and rare resource. It forms a complex It is important to provide
system, at many scales, from wider natural water bodies and fows a habitat for non-humans
to human-made infrastructure, and serving the human need and within your building, as you
experience (e.g., turning on a tap for drinking water or fushing a may have removed natural
toilet). Ultimately, it is important to understand where water is coming habitat through the design
from and where it is going to. It may not be possible to design for all of your project. This can be
scales, but keep in mind the complex larger system it belongs to. achieved at different levels
of integration and requires
Potable water is decreasing globally through overuse and pollution. extensive research of the local
Meanwhile, the creation or treatment of potable water is energy ecosystem. However, simple
demanding. It is crucial that water is considered a resource and used ideas include considering how
effectively and effciently and reused – even in countries where it to integrate nesting birds or
rains frequently. This can be done by, for example, using localised bats, insects or invertebrates
water management, collecting rainwater, reducing consumption and within your facade, or even
increasing groundwater recharge through permeable surfaces, which simple solutions such as a
› see page 154 in turn also decreases stormwater run-off (known as SuDS). › beehive on the roof.
153
At a larger scale when designing your building, remember the 4.07 NOTE
previous issues related to the increased food risk that your site may
› see Chapter face due to a changing climate › and the resulting food-resilient Water types
3, Section 3.2.2 strategies. • Potable (white) water is
and Table 4.2
clean water and is used for
Building elements such as roof pitches, overhangs, porches, gutters
drinking, showering, etc.
and downpipes are all vital for water harvesting. Additionally, water
• Rainwater can be collected
recycling strategies can relieve pressure on the use of potable water
on site and used directly for
and, if rainwater is harvested, also on the sewage system during
watering plants, including
extreme rainfall events. However, they should ideally be operated
edible plants. Rainwater can
with renewable energy. Remember to consider an increased risk of be fltered and used to fush
storms and extreme rainfall events – see Chapter 3, Theme 2. Also, the toilets.
challenge of protecting your building and collecting water is often an • Greywater is the output
opportunity to develop an inspiring building form. from washing machines,
dishwashers, sinks, baths
Sustainable (urban) drainage systems (SuDS)
and showers, and can be
Rather than relying on stormwater sewers, sustainable drainage used for fushing toilets,
systems (SuDS) replicate natural systems to manage water – cooling purposes and
collecting, storing and cleaning the water before it is released back providing thermal mass. It
into the natural environment to recharge and replenish water can also be used for watering
resources. At a local site scale, this includes a system of detention plants, but not edible plants.
basins, retention ponds, wetlands (reedbeds), swales, permeable • Black water is usually from
› see Figures paving and flter drains. › toilets or similar outlets,
4.9 and 4.10 and it contains bacteria and
The possibility of integrating SuDS into your project is closely related
pathogens. It may also be
to the topography, geology and soil, as well as the water table. Some
the result of foods or heavy
ground conditions will make it more or less viable; for example, clay
rain, which causes system
soils are unsuitable for swales or soakaways. Ideally you should keep
overfows including sewage.
5–10% of your plot for water retention.
cooling
tower
toilets
irrigation water quality
system filter strip
bioretention existing Figure 4.9 Diagram showing

pond outfall the different sustainable
water collection and storage
thermostate approaches within a building
and site. Adapted from Sofe
rainwater Pelsmakers, The Environmental
deposit porous compost sandy,
and filter pavement amended clay loam
soils Publishing, 2015.
154
Rainwater harvesting and storing Figure 4.10 Diagram showing

(for reuse and flood management) sustainable (urban) drainage
systems (SuDS) at the building
At a building scale, green roofs delay water run-off, while roof scale (left), and greywater
gutters and pipes can be used to harvest rainwater. This water can recycling approaches (right).
be stored and recycled to irrigate the landscape in drier periods, for Adapted from Sofe Pelsmakers,
washing clothes and as part of site water management. At a site The Environmental Design
scale, water should be temporarily stored in ditches and swales, Pocketbook, RIBA Publishing, 2015.
combined with permeable surfaces to enable delayed drainage and

› see Chapter 3, help reduce fash foods. ›
Theme 2
Additionally, larger infrastructure may include swales or soakaways that
overfow into ponds or reed wetlands, which can flter and store larger 4.08 EXAMPLES
volumes of water that are slowly released into sewer infrastructure
or other systems. The largest type is a retention pond with a hard Inspiring blue infrastructure
landscape that acts as a temporary water store. This could double as examples
› see Figures another function when dry, such as a skate bowl or sports court. › • BNIM – Omega Center
4.9 and 4.10 for Sustainable Living,
Water reuse or recycling Rhinebeck, USA
Both grey- and black water are usually sent straight to sewer systems; • Gottlieb Paludan Architects,
however, greywater can be recycled for non-consumption activities Solrødgård Climate and
such as toilet fushing and irrigation. Greywater should be recycled Environmental Park,
and used immediately (e.g., in toilets or irrigation) to reduce the risk Denmark
of potential bacteria build-up. At a building scale, some reuse systems • Orbicon and GHB
include the collection of bath, shower or tap water to be immediately Landscape Architects
reused in fushing toilets. At a site scale, more extensive systems can – Tåsinge Square,
Copenhagen, Denmark
be used such as biological ground systems (the use of reedbeds) or
• Orient Occident Atelier
biomechanical systems to recycle greywater on site to be used within
– WaterHall Project,
› see Figures the building again. ›
4.9. and 4.10 Battambang, Cambodia
Black water is harder to deal with and it takes expertise to design • Rua Arquitetos – 2016
a foolproof system; however, if you are interested, there are many Olympic Golf Clubhouse, Rio
composting toilet systems or reedbed fltration treatments available. de Janeiro, Brazil
155

TESTING AND DEVELOPING BLUE INFRASTRUCTURE
BLUE
INFRASTRUCTURE
□ Develop the building typology, ground foor, materials, permeable surfaces
and landscape for sea-level rise, increased rainfall and storms.
(for site strategies, see
Chapter 3, Theme 2, □ Given the high risk of urban fooding, ground foor spaces should be wet-
› see Chapter 3, Section 3.2.2) proof and always designed for disassembly (DfD). ›
Theme 2
Site and landscape:
□ Use permeable landscape surfaces (e.g., gravel, grass, paving with large gaps
in between).
□ Design swales, soakaways or reed wetlands with soft edging (reedbeds can
also flter and treat greywater).
□ Use hard surface retention ponds for extreme weather catchment. Ensure
they are also dual-purpose, i.e., spaces for leisure (skateboarding, square, etc.)
to reduce redundancy.
DESIGN FOR Building scale:

INCREASED RAINFALL □ Develop suitable roof pitches, suffcient roof overhangs and eaves (especially
› see Figures AND STORMS › to protect timber), porches, window sills, and gutters and pipes for rainwater
4.9 and 4.10 harvesting.
□ Avoid water penetration at weak points in the building fabric (e.g., windows,
doors, material connections) and joints.
□ Design adequate structural systems and robust, water-resistant materials.
□ Examine water harvesting and recycling strategies, ideally operated with
renewable energy.
□ Provide necessary spaces for related technical infrastructure (e.g., retention
basins, shafts for double pipes).
□ Design rainwater harvesting for irrigating the landscape especially during

hot and dry summer periods. This can be held in water tanks in buildings, or
RAINWATER on site in ponds.
HARVESTING
AND GREYWATER □ Consider greywater recycling from showers and basins for WC fushing.
RECYCLING □ At a site scale, use reedbeds to help flter polluted water and greywater, while
also acting as a food retention system. A lot of space is required for this, but
it can be part of your natural landscaping areas.
TABLE 4.3 THEME 3: KEY RECOMMENDATIONS – TESTING AND DEVELOPING

OTHER POTENTIAL QUESTIONS TO TEST AND DEVELOP YOUR OWN DESIGN
□ Ensure that your proposal celebrates the site’s topography (e.g., does it work
with or against the natural contours and shape of the landscape?).
TOPOGRAPHY □ Reduce disruptive land works and (re)moval of soil when possible.
– see Chapter 1, □ Maximise and celebrate available views in your design.
Section 1.4.3
□ Consider the impact of your intervention on the surrounding landscape
(e.g., test the scale, position, what kind of neighbour your proposal is to the
surroundings).
□ Prioritise land of low ecological value for your project proposal.

GEOLOGY & SOIL
□ If contamination measures are needed, consider bioremediation, for
example, which can also minimise the ecological impact and enhance the
– see Chapter 1,
site’s biodiversity.
page 36
□ Consider appropriate foundations for the geological condition, bedrock and
soil type (e.g., consider earthquake risk).
156
4.4 THEME 4: PASSIVE RESILIENCE 4.09 NOTE
In Chapter 3, you should have harnessed the sun’s orientation and the Direct gain (glazed room)
local (micro)climate to optimise the building for free winter heating, This is most commonly used:
good daylighting and ventilation, while also optimising the building the windows facing the
form and zoning of functions to avoid overheating. While Chapter 3 sun allow solar radiation to
focused on site-scale strategies, this section focuses on passive design directly and indirectly heat
strategies at the building scale. It covers aspects such as passive high thermal mass materials.
heating, building fabric standards, use of thermal mass and different This stored heat will radiate at
building ventilation strategies. Note that visual and acoustic comfort night to heat the space (see
along with window design and architectural solar shading are covered Figure 4.11).
in Theme 7 (Health and wellbeing).
4.4.1 Passive heating

4.10 NOTE
Chapter 3 introduced the passive design strategy to orient spaces
towards the sun, if free heat from the sun is desirable. Three main Indirect gain
building design principles (direct gain, indirect gain and isolated gain – (Trombe wall – see Glossary)
see Figure 4.11) are used to capture this passive solar heating during the A 150–300-mm thick thermal
› see Glossary winter to reduce heating demands and provide thermal comfort ›, while mass material is located
› see Theme 7 avoiding summer overheating. › They all require two elements: a glass directly behind sun-facing
surface facing south (in the northern hemisphere, but north in the glazing, absorbing the solar
southern hemisphere) to collect the sun’s heat, and interior thermal radiation and distributing
mass that is positioned directly in the sun’s path (e.g., walls and foor) it to the adjacent space via
› see Notes 4.09 to absorb, store and distribute the captured heat. › conduction. Operable vents at
to 4.11 the top and bottom of the wall
Remember, the use of these passive heating strategies must be create convection currents for
combined with passive cooling strategies to prevent summer faster heating.
overheating risk. Key guidance for these three principles is provided
in Table 4.6.
4.4.2 Passive cooling 4.11 NOTE

A well-insulated building envelope not only reduces heat loss but
Isolated gain (conservatory/
also reduces solar heat gains. However, once the heat has entered
winter garden)
the space (whether from the sun entering through windows, or from
This combines direct and
warm air entering through openings), it can build up and contribute to
indirect solar gains (see
overheating. In the same way that the sun can be utilised to passively
Notes 4.09 and 4.10) through
heat a building, the wind, orientation and vegetation can be used to
the use of a glazed room
› see Chapter 3, passively cool a building. ›
(conservatory/winter garden)
Section 3.2.3
that is independent from
the main room but shares a
thermal mass vented wall.
Thermal mass and the air in
the sunspace are used to store
energy from solar radiation.

the three main design principles
to achieve passive solar heating:
direct gain, indirect gain and
isolated gain.
157
1. Design site layout, streets and

external spaces with environmental
considerations in mind
3.
2. Increase urban vegetation: park
2. areas are 2–3°C cooler than
surrounding streets
3. External materials with high

5. reflectance/albedo
4. Design airtight and

well-insulated buildings to
buffer external temperatures
4. 8.
5. Solar shading that does not
H2 compromise good daylighting
6. High ceilings and shallow

plan buildings
6.
7. Exposed thermal mass with
H1 summer night-cooling
7. 2. 8. Good cross-ventilation,
particularly at night, is an effective
passive ‘cooling’ strategy in summer
single aspect: 1.
H1>H2
max 2 x H
dual aspext:
max 4 x H
At the building scale, you should design summer solar shading that Figure 4.12 Diagram illustrating
reduces unwanted summer solar gains, while benefting from desirable key design strategies at the
› see Glossary winter sun – see Theme 7. To ensure summer thermal comfort ›, the building scale to achieve passive
cooling. Adapted from Sofe
› see Glossary use of purge ventilation › and thermal mass are key strategies.
and Table 4.4
Designing with a combination of these passive cooling strategies Design Pocketbook, RIBA
means that active cooling is not usually necessary in temperate Publishing, 2015.
and cold regions in housing projects. However, these strategies are

increasingly necessary due to a warming climate (see Figure 4.12), and 4.12 NOTE
particularly in warmer regions where seasonal active cooling strategies
might need to be deployed in addition to the passive cooling Balancing window openings
strategies. In a hot climate (in some regions), taller ceilings help to Design window openings
naturally cool the indoor space, and an elevated ground foor slab can carefully, balancing the
cool foors. project’s needs and its many
functions and requirements.
4.4.3 Thermal mass For example, windows allow
for solar gain in winter, which
Thermal mass relates to a material’s capacity to store heat. As a rule
is benefcial in many cases
of thumb, the denser the material, the better its thermal capacity.
(see Chapter 3, Theme 4), but
In colder and hot-dry climates, thermal mass is often used to they also lose signifcantly
moderate day and night temperature by storing winter solar gains more heat than insulated
in cooler seasons. Use of external thermal mass moderates external walls. Windows provide spatial
microclimates, though this can exacerbate the UHI effect. In this delight and atmosphere
› see Chapter 3, case, surfaces should be light-coloured. › In cooler climates, external (Theme 9) as well as natural
Theme 4 thermal mass extends the ‘outdoor season’, allowing outdoor spaces ventilation, light, views and
to be used for longer. Thermal mass may not be suited to buildings connection to the outside,
with intermittent occupation, as it slows down the heating and all important for health and
cooling of spaces. wellbeing (Theme 7).
158
Summer benef its 4.13 NOTE

In most temperate climates, thermal mass combined with night-time
ventilation can provide an excellent solution to prevent buildings from Using thermal mass
overheating in summer. This means that with suitable night-time Remember that thermal
ventilation, use of thermal mass helps to reduce air-conditioning. This mass requires adequate
is likely to become increasingly important in a warming climate. openings for night-time
purge ventilation, and that
The principle is quite simple: as the external air and sunlight warm a large surface of a thermal
up spaces during the day, the carefully designed thermal mass will mass wall or foor is more
absorb the heat and store it. This stops the internal air temperatures important than its thickness.
from rising quickly. However, it is crucial that it is combined with Thermal mass is most
night-time cooling so that when the external air temperature drops effective for the frst 100 mm
at night, the stored heat will be released. By the following morning of depth. For foors this can be
the thermal mass will have lost a good deal of this heat and will provided by the foor screed.
once again be ready to store heat during the day. If thermal mass is Thermal mass is only effective
positioned near a person’s body, they will beneft from radiant cooling when it is exposed to the air
because the material has a lower surface temperature, increasing in rooms and so it should not
thermal comfort. be fully covered up.
Winter/spring/autumn benef its

In cooler months there are also benefts to including thermal mass in
› see pages 134 your design, and passive heating principles utilise this. › Thermal mass 4.14 EXAMPLES
to 135 and 204 can help to keep buildings warm if window and shading design allow
to 211 Inspiring examples for
for direct winter solar gain to be incident on high thermal mass foors
passive heating and cooling
and walls. These elements will store heating energy and release it back
• HHS architects/Hélène
into the building once the direct sunlight has passed. Some buildings
Jourda and Gilles Perraudin
have specially designed sunspaces that facilitate this, and they can be
– Mont-Cenis Academy,
thermally separated from the rest of the building when there is little
Herne, Germany
solar gain.
• João Filgueiras Lima –
Sarah Kubitschek Hospital,
Salvador, Brazil
• Kamal el-Kafrawi –
windcatchers in University
of Qatar, Doha, Qatar
• Laurie Baker – Centre for
Development Studies,
Thiruvananthapuram, India
• Haworth Tompkins
– Everyman Theatre,
Liverpool, UK

that in buildings with
lightweight structures and
foors effective thermal mass
can be provided in the foor
screed or in suspended ceiling
elements. In the Woodland
Trust Headquarters, Feilden
Clegg Bradley Studios designed
a CLT superstructure with
suspended pre-cast concrete
thermal mass elements.
159
Structural thermal mass 4.15 PRACTICE

In the past, the use of dense structural elements such as concrete
Specialist advice for natural
and brick has been justifed as they have excellent thermal mass
ventilation design
properties, if left exposed. However, they are also high in embodied
In practice it would be normal
› see Themes energy and carbon. › In a climate emergency, you need a more holistic
for a specialist consultant
5 and 6 approach that considers the impacts and the entire life cycle of the
to advise on the design
› see Theme 6 materials you select. › For example, rammed earth and stone also
of building ventilation for
have good thermal mass potential, and while not renewable materials,
the provision of fresh air,
› see Theme 6, they are natural, with a lower carbon footprint if locally sourced. › For the extraction of air and
Table 4.13 alternative design strategies, see Table 4.14. to prevent summertime
overheating. Usually, dynamic
Non-structural thermal mass
building energy models are
The main benefts from thermal mass are achieved in the frst 100 mm created to aid in the design
nearest to the surface. Therefore, it is possible to include thermal mass (see Chapter 5, Table 5.6).
in projects with lighter and more sustainable structural systems such
› see Theme 6 as timber. › You can include thermal mass in foor screeds, partition
walls or ceiling elements, but make sure the additional weight is taken
› see Figure 4.13 into account in the structural system. ›
4.4.4 Natural ventilation

In Chapter 3 you learned some key passive resilience principles at the
site scale to maximise the potential for natural ventilation through
building massing. Ventilation in buildings is normally a combination
of natural and mechanical approaches. In this section, natural 4.16 NOTE
ventilation approaches are considered, while mechanical or active
› see Theme 7 ventilation systems are in Theme 7 (Health and wellbeing). › Diffculties with natural
ventilation
Ventilation strategies enable the exchange of fresh air to the inside
The following situations may
and stale, and warm air to the outside. Strategies depend on external
make it diffcult to rely on
air quality and noise, because they impact how much windows natural ventilation alone, and
can be opened. They also depends on external climate and wind typically require some form of
conditions, as well as on occupant activity, function and whether it is mechanical ventilation. It may
winter or summer. For example, ventilation is needed throughout the still be possible to provide
year to expel stale, humid and polluted air and replace it with fresh natural ventilation at certain
› see Glossary air, called background ventilation. › In summer, purge ventilation times of the day or year,
and Table 4.4 and night-cooling increases the airfow to help cool spaces and however.
› see Theme 7 provide thermal comfort. › • Bathrooms, kitchens, labs,
workshops, clinical rooms.
While you can design for active ventilation systems, consider suitable
• Spaces with polluted or very
organisation of spaces to enable passive ventilation strategies when
noisy external environments.
developing the plans and sections of your design. This includes the
• Spaces with specifc
› see Chapter 3, design of dual-aspect shallow spaces and buildings. › Some key
acoustic requirements
Theme 4 recommendations are provided in Table 4.4. However, providing
such as classrooms or
year-round good background ventilation to ensure good air quality
performance rooms.
is diffcult to control with natural ventilation (as it depends on • Buildings with large
external conditions that cannot be infuenced). Moreover, in the differences between
cooler seasons, opening of windows creates unnecessary heat loss internal and external air
(and therefore increases energy use). This is why, in low-energy and temperature and humidity.
low-carbon buildings, highly effcient mechanical ventilation with • Buildings with very low
heat recovery (MVHR) systems are an excellent low-energy solution if heating or cooling load, e.g.,
› see Theme 7 designed well. › Passivhaus projects.
160

the different passive ventilation
design principles: single-sided
high level ventilation, cross-ventilation,
glazing / solar
chimney to high-level ventilation and stack
promote airflow ventilation, with the option of a
solar chimney.
SINGLE-SIDED CROSS CROSS STACK

VENTILATION VENTILATION VENTILATION VENTILATION
with high
window vents
TABLE 4.4 KEY VENTILATION STRATEGIES
Background ventilation
This is required to maintain good internal air quality year-round, by replacing internal stale air with fresh
air from the outside. Trickle vents that are built into windows, or partially opening windows, can provide
some (unreliable) background ventilation. Instead, low-energy MVHR systems can provide good year-round
› see Theme 7, continuous background ventilation. ›
page 207
Purge ventilation
This is the rapid wind-driven ventilation of spaces by fully opening windows or ventilation panels. It is used
especially when background ventilation is insuffcient if there is a high occupant density in a room or
building (e.g., a classroom or lecture theatre), or to prevent overheating in the hotter months. It can help to
prevent overheating when temperatures outside are cooler than inside, ideally through cross-ventilation.
Single-sided ventilation
This is ventilation with windows on only one wall in a room. This is not an effcient form of ventilation, as it
is diffcult to achieve airfow.
Cross-ventilation
This is wind-driven ventilation that allows the intake of cool air to replace warm stale air where several
windows on opposite sides are opened. Remember that doors will block the fow of air unless it is
acceptable to leave them open during ventilation or provide a ventilation path above them.
Stack ventilation
This uses the air pressure created by height to move air through the building, and it may be combined
with a ceiling fan, which can help draw hot air out. As warm air rises, cool air is sucked into the building
through openings.
Night cooling
This is also referred to as night ventilation or night purging, and is always fundamental with the use of
thermal mass in summertime. It is only effective in climates with a suffcient temperature difference
between day and night (minimum 8°C).
Earth tubes
Earth tubes provide fresh air by drawing in air from a pipe buried in the earth. The earth’s constant
› see Theme 7, subterranean temperature (10–20°C at a depth of 1.5–3.0 m) is used to moderate the air temperature. This
page 208 provides cooling in summer and some base warmth in winter. ›
161
Figure 4.15 William Kreibich

developed a mixed-mode
ventilation scheme with night
purge for his assembly building.
162

that ventilation panels can
be incorporated into window
systems to give high ventilation
rates, in addition to openable
windows. They can also be
acoustically attenuated.
Some spaces are diffcult (or not allowed) to be naturally ventilated 4.17 NOTE
– for example, laboratories, clinical spaces and most kitchens and
bathrooms. Other instances where natural ventilation is diffcult are Protection from a
described in Note 4.16. warming world
Use passive resilience
Some key ventilation strategies are described in Table 4.5, with
strategies to prepare for
additional guidance set out in Table 4.6 and Figure 4.16.
a warmer and changing
Window openings and ventilation panels world. For example, to
avoid overheating use solar
A signifcant problem with opening windows is that in many situations
shading, overhangs, thermal
the openable area is small, and therefore insuffcient airfow occurs.
mass, bright and refective
› see Figure This is especially problematic in single-sided ventilation › Windows may
surfaces, solar control
3.25 and pages not be able to open wide for reasons of safety (risk of falling), security
132-133 glazing, and vegetation on
(especially on the ground foor), insects, noise and rain ingress. roofs and elevations, and
Ventilation panels are similar to openable windows, with the added limit unshaded skylights.
beneft that they can be left open all night to help with night purge To protect from heavy rain,
ventilation. This is because they have rain protection, secure louvres design overhanging eaves
and an insect screen in place in the opening. There is usually an and protective roofs (see
internal door to control airfow but this can be left open without the Theme 7, Chapter 3, Theme 1).
problems discussed above. Additionally, a good ventilation area can be
achieved if they are suffciently large, and they can be combined with
openable windows.
Attenuated ventilation panels

A variation on a ventilation panel is a ventilation path that
incorporates acoustic attenuation. These systems allow air to fow
through them but absorb some of the sound energy in the process.
Such systems can be used both in the external façade and in internal
partitions to allow for cross-ventilation without transferring noise
from room to room.
163

› for site strategy TESTING AND DEVELOPING PASSIVE HEATING, COOLING AND VENTILATION ›
recommendations,
see Chapter 3 □ Design the space to collect the sun’s heat through a glass surface facing
south (in the northern hemisphere; north in the southern hemisphere) and
PASSIVE HEATING
use interior thermal mass to capture the heat (see further below). This can
› see Notes be done through three principles: direct, indirect or isolated gains. ›
4.09 to 4.11
The guidance given here is based on cooler climates and may not be suitable
for signifcantly different climate zones.
□ Use external thermal mass surfaces to extend the ‘outdoor season’ (cooler
climates). Ensure external thermal mass is light-coloured and that it does
not exacerbate the UHI effect (warmer climates).
□ Leave thermal mass elements uncovered by plasterboard or insulative
THERMAL MASS coverings to allow the transfer of heat with the internal air. Specifcally:
□ consider plastering or painting thermal mass elements to improve light
refectance and a better fnish;
□ insulate on the outside of existing walls on retroft projects to retain useful
internal thermal mass and reduce the risk of unintended consequences
such as moisture build-up in the fabric elements (i.e. interstitial
› see Glossary condensation). › Make judgements about heritage.
NATURAL VENTILATION
□ Design shallow-plan, dual-aspect spaces to optimise natural ventilation to

› see also reduce overheating of spaces in summer. ›
Chapter 3,
Theme 4
□ Allow for small windows above doors to enable cross-ventilation.
□ During summer, allow cooler air from the outside to pass over occupants
if they are close to an opening window without causing annoyance (e.g.,
blowing paper around, noisy) to achieve thermal comfort.
□ Design for effective night-cooling and ensure the following conditions can
PURGE VENTILATION be met:
AND NIGHT COOLING □ there is a diurnal temperature swing in the hotter months (i.e., night-time
external air temperatures are cooler than in the daytime);
□ building security is not compromised, and unwanted insects are not
allowed into the building – providing insect screens works, but reduces
the airfow;
› see pages □ night-cooling is combined with exposed thermal mass; ›
158-159
□ alongside openable windows, there are design ventilation panels that
can be left open all night to help with night purge ventilation.
BACKGROUND
□ Consider that year-round background ventilation is diffcult to reliably provide
with natural ventilation.
VENTILATION
› see Theme 7 □ Use effcient MVHR systems for a good low-energy solution. ›
□ Consider this only for shallow rooms (i.e., rooms up to twice as deep as the
SINGLE-SIDED foor-to-ceiling height) and where the ventilation opening area constitutes
› see Figure 4.14 VENTILATION › at least 5% of the foor area.
□ In a hot climate, use bigger openings.
› see Figure 4.14 CROSS-VENTILATION ›
□ Use a similar size of inlet and outlet openings for cross-ventilated rooms
where the depth of the room can be a maximum of fve times its height.
164
□ Use stack ventilation if you can create a height difference in the space
(usually at least 1.2 m) between low-level fresh supply air and high-level
warm exhaust air.
□ Use high-level dark surfaces to create a solar chimney effect, which enhances
the stack effect.
□ For best results, use the stack effect when the inside and outside temperature
difference is more than 2°C and when diurnal temperatures differ.
□ Use stack ventilation to design interesting spatial sections of your building,
generating a strong architectural language.
STACK-VENTILATION
□ Keep clear airfow between the rooms in plan and section.
□ Some spaces cannot be easily naturally ventilated year-round, e.g., bathrooms,
› see page 160 kitchens, laboratories. ›
□ Consider the acoustics and possible noise when locating openings and
ventilation devices.
□ Use attenuated ventilation panels that incorporate acoustic attenuation
(e.g., in the external facade for external sound, or in internal partitions and
above internal doors for cross-ventilation without transferring noise from
room to room).
□ Always include a combination of different measures at different scales.

□ At the site scale – use the wind, orientation and vegetation to passively cool
› see Chapter 3 a building. ›
□ At the building scale – design a well-insulated building envelope, and
appropriate summer solar shading (vegetation or architectural elements) to
› see Figure 4.12 PASSIVE COOLING › provide summer thermal comfort.
□ Ensure desirable winter sun is still harnessed. For solar shading, see Theme 7
and Chapter 3, Theme 4.
□ Higher ceiling heights and elevated ground foors can help keep spaces cool
in warmer climates.
□ Use thermal mass as a key strategy combined with night-time ventilation
165
4.4.5 The building fabric 4.18 NOTE

An important aspect of passive resilience is the performance of
Designing a Passivhaus
the building fabric, or ‘envelope’. The envelope, which usually does
building
not change much for several years, has a signifcant impact on
The Passivhaus standard
the systems that are needed to ensure a building is comfortable.
is based on a fabric-frst
The better the building fabric performs, the less is required of
approach and incorporates
heating, cooling, lighting and ventilation systems and renewable
the main design principles
energy technologies, signif icantly reducing the operational below.
› see Theme 5 energy and carbon impacts. › This has led to the term ‘fabric frst’ in • High levels of insulation
architecture. to achieve space-heating
The crucial requirements of climate emergency design are weather demand of maximum
protection, insulation, airtightness and moisture management, and 15 kWh/m2a.
are covered in more depth in this section. There are many aspects • High-performance windows.
of the envelope such as context, aesthetics, scale, form factor, • Summer solar shading to
reduce overheating (over
accessibility, robustness and material choices that also need to be
25°C) to a maximum of 5%
› see also considered as part of a holistic design. ›
Chapter 3 of occupied hours per year.
Weather protection • Very high levels of
airtightness (0.6 air changes
The building fabric protects the building and its occupants from
per hour).
external weather and microclimate conditions, including solar
• Absence of thermal bridges
radiation, UV light, wind, precipitation (rain, snow and hail), air
by providing a continuous
temperature and humidity. Moreover, weather conditions are
layer of insulation.
becoming more extreme due to a changing climate.
• MVHR system used to
In most microclimates the envelope design can take advantage of the provide year-round good
gravitational effect on precipitation, and overlapping materials such as background ventilation
a tiled roof will tend to shed rain. However, in extreme microclimates (windows can be opened).
wind-driven precipitation can negate this effect and a more sealed See also Chapter 2, Table 2.6
approach might be required.
Protection is usually achieved through a combination and layering
of materials that work together to protect against the elements.
Protection from solar radiation, UV light, wind and precipitation is 4.19 NOTE
usually achieved through either a sealed system or a permeable
Example of a permeable
system. In a sealed system, the external layer of the envelope is
weather protection system
impervious to water, air and solar penetration. Examples include a
A wall clad with timber slats
standing-seam aluminium roof or a rendered wall. Permeable systems
is a permeable system and is
combine several layers that each provide protection against specifc known as a rainscreen. The
types of weather. A common example in Europe is a brick cavity wall. timber slats on the outside
The outer layer of bricks defects solar radiation and most wind and defect solar radiation and
rain, but bricks are permeable and some moisture may penetrate. precipitation, but air can
The second layer, an air cavity, allows any penetrating moisture to be blow through the gaps.
› see Note 4.19 removed through ventilation. › A ventilated zone and a
second layer consisting of
Insulation
a waterproof membrane
In most climates, insulation is an important element in the building
protect against wind and any
envelope, as it slows down the transfer of heat, either from inside precipitation that is blown
to outside, or vice versa if the outside air temperature is higher through the frst layer. The
than the internal temperature. It is essential to include high levels second layer does not need
of insulation in new buildings and seek to add high levels of to be resistant to UV light,
insulation to existing buildings. The levels of insulation required however, as the frst layer has
are considerably greater than in the past, and this means that walls, already protected against
roofs and ground foors need to be considerably thicker, even in that aspect.
166
high levels of Figure 4.17 Diagram showing

insulation building fabric considerations
to achieve passive resilience
in a cold climate: use of high
levels of insulation, airtightness,
avoiding thermal bridges,
MVHR system use of controlled background
summer solar
shading to reduce ventilation and high-performing
overheating windows (with summer solar
shading where needed).
absence of thermal
bridges insulated window
frames
very high level high
of airtightness performance
windows
› see Figure 4.17 a warming climate. › This has a signifcant impact on the design
4.20 EXAMPLES
and must be considered early in the design phase. Designing
a Passivhaus building is a well-proven strategy to achieve high Inspiring examples for
insulation standards, and this is summarised in Note 4.18. building fabric
You can view the building envelope as a ‘climate modifer’ that ensures • Eleena Jamil Architect
the user’s comfort, which is why you must understand the climate – Classroom Prototype,
Millennium School Project,
and microclimate of your project (e.g., the requirements for hot,
Camarines-Sur, Philippines
› see Glossary cold, wet and dry climates differ). To select an insulation material ›,
• Henning Larsen – SDU
which is a material that has a high resistance to heat fow, consider
Kolding, Denmark
the function of the building and relevant climatic conditions. In a
• Icelandic Vernacular turf
cold climate, you should use a large amount of insulation materials
house (Glaumbær Farm),
(around 300–500 mm thick, depending on the materials and
Iceland
climate), which wrap the building continuously. In a hot climate, • Petersen Architekten –
the need for insulation is much lower. Make sure you consider the Friedrichstrasse Offce
insulation thickness early on, as it will affect the depth of the walls, Building, Berlin, Germany
roof and foor in your design. You can check some typical insulation • Staab Architekten &
thicknesses in Annex I. Transsolar – Tower Building
Moreover, in a cool or cold climate, you should create an airtight C10, Hochschule Darmstadt,
construction with well-sealed joints to reduce air infltration. In a Germany
hot and humid climate, you can use an air-permeable construction.
Windows are weak points in terms of heat loss in the building
envelope, and might need protection from overheating, but well-
placed windows also give access to desirable heat gains, natural light,
› see Theme 7 views, connection to the outside and so on. ›
167
U-values 4.21 NOTE

The performance of an insulation layer in the building envelope is
determined by the material properties of the insulation and how Thermal resistance (R-value)
thick the layer is. The full life-cycle implications of insulation materials The R-value (m2K/W) is
› see Themes 5 should be carefully considered. › the thermal resistance of a
and 6 material/construction layer.
To understand the performance of insulation in a building envelope,
The greater the R-value, the
› see Notes 4.21 we use the term U-value or R-value › as a measure of how well the full
better its thermal resistance
and 4.22 envelope performs in terms of slowing down heat transfer. U-values
to heat fow. The R-value is
can be calculated from material properties2 and thicknesses, but often
simply the thickness of a
these values are available for common construction build-ups from
material divided by its k-value,
insulation suppliers. To understand the material performance of the and it is the reciprocal of a
insulation product itself we use the k-value or λ (lambda)-value. The U-value (R=1/U) (see Annex II).
k-value tells us the thermal conductivity of the insulation material
itself. The lower the k-value and U-value, the better the insulation is at
reducing heat loss. In Annex I you can fnd a list of insulation materials
and their k-values, and the required material thickness for a well-
insulated wall, roof or foor for a cold climate.
4.22 PRACTICE
Working out the U-value of a

construction build-up
In practice, insulation
suppliers will provide accurate
U-value calculations based on
detailed construction build-
ups. Many insulation websites
also offer an insulation
calculator. As a student of
architecture you may not
have access to full supplier
information, but simple rules
of thumb (see Annex I) are
suffcient to enable you to
factor insulation into your
design. In Annex II there is a
worked example of how you
can calculate the U-values of
construction build-ups.
Figure 4.18 Thomas Cran

showed the potential wall
thickness required to integrate
insulation into a rammed-earth
wall in this detail.
168
A continuous layer of insulation

4.23 PRACTICE
Effective insulation must provide a continuous wrapping around the
conditioned rooms in a building (i.e., heated and cooled spaces). If Achieving airtightness on site
there are unconditioned spaces, such as a garage or storeroom, the Airtightness is often achieved
insulation must separate those spaces from the conditioned areas. through a combination of
A good test is the ability to draw a continuous line (often called the building materials, as in the
thermal line) around the conditioned spaces, both in plan and section. examples below.
If the thermal line has gaps, the continuity is inadequate. • Using airtight tapes to join
boards such as airtight
Thermal bridges plywood or oriented-strand
At a smaller scale, gaps in the continuity of insulation are known as board (OSB).
‘thermal bridges’, where heat is lost locally, and they typically occur for • Continuous plastering over
two reasons. internal plasterboard or
First, repeated parts of the envelope that span through the insulation masonry walls.
• Applying a ‘parge coat’ to
provide a path for heat to pass through. Typical examples of this are
otherwise leaky masonry
cavity ties or timber studs that pass through the insulation. For ties
such as brick or blockwork
there are many low-conductivity products available that should be
(often used for existing
used. For timber studs it is best practice to either stagger or offset the
buildings).
studs to minimise the thermal bridge. ‘I-joists’ (formed of softwood
• Using airtight tapes to join
fanges connected by a thin OSB web) are a good alternative to timber
waterproof membranes.
studs, as their overall conductivity is lower. • If the airtight line is towards
The second type of thermal bridge, which is important to avoid, is the inside of the envelope
an isolated thermal bridge caused by poor construction detailing. (i.e., the heated space) it is
In the built world the consequences of these thermal bridges can good practice to design a
be quite serious, because they often result in cold internal surfaces protective layer (often made
which promote condensation and mould growth, affecting human of plasterboard or plywood)
over the airtight elements
with space for services
behind.
Figure 4.19 Samuel Letchford

used iterative hand drawing to
develop thermal continuity for a
retroft project.
169
Figure 4.20 Samuel Letchford

investigated the continuity
of insulation to the existing
concrete structure in precise
hand drawings.
4.24 PRACTICE
Testing of airtightness
In practice, airtightness is
usually demonstrated through
pressure testing on site (i.e., a
blower door test). The building
is (de)pressurised and air
leakage paths are revealed.
Weak points for air leakage
are gaps and cracks around
material junctions, in corners,
and around windows, doors
and service penetrations.
health and wellbeing. Again, the simple test of drawing the thermal
line around the conditioned space is good, but remember that the
insulation should generally maintain its thickness, although elements
such as windows will be thinner.
4.25 NOTE
Thermal bypass of insulation
Thermal bypass is the condition whereby air movement in the Vapour-open and vapour-
envelope can fnd a path around or through the insulation, and the closed envelopes
insulation becomes signifcantly less effective. These heat losses can Vapour-open envelopes are
be caused by poorly detailed or installed airtight membranes, partially sometimes called ‘breathing’
insulated cavities or voids, and larger cavities in party walls. A simple envelopes. These systems
test is that wind-driven air should not be able to freely move through allow vapour to move through
and inside the envelope. However, don’t confuse thermal bypass with the envelope from inside
to outside, by ensuring that
airtightness – see below.
the vapour-permeability of
Airtightness materials reduces from inside
By combining high levels of airtightness with high levels of insulation, to outside.
you can achieve a fabric-frst approach, which is a key aspect of passive Vapour-closed envelopes aim
resilience. to prevent moisture from
passing into the envelope
Leaky buildings are no longer acceptable, and we must move
by having a highly vapour-
beyond the standards that used to be considered adequate. A impermeable layer towards
leaky building means that uncontrolled air movement through the inside of the building
the envelope leads to considerable heat loss, which increases envelope. Often this layer
energy demands and may lead to uncomfortable draughts for is also the airtight barrier.
building occupants. Be careful not to equate airtightness with In practice, vapour-closed
poor ventilation and ‘stuffy’ internal conditions. Good background systems are more common as
› see Section 4.7 ventilation is required, but it must be controlled. › they are easier to specify.
170
In student projects, the best way to demonstrate airtightness 4.26 NOTE

is showing a continuous airtight line, similar to the thermal line
discussed earlier (i.e., draw a continuous airtight line around the Hygroscopic internal fnishes
conditioned spaces, in the envelope construction, and show it on your Hygroscopic materials
submitted drawings). include unfred clay products,
plaster and lime plaster,
Moisture management unpainted timber and cork.
Buildings should provide protection from the external weather and These materials absorb
moisture but should also protect users and the building fabric from water vapour when internal
the moisture that is created inside (by cooking, showering, drying humidity is high and release
clothes, etc.). Unmanaged internal moisture can lead to mould it again when the humidity
growth on fnishes and in the construction itself, both of which are drops, and can be used
potentially harmful to occupant health and lead to deterioration of the internally to help regulate
construction materials. internal humidity.
The primary approach is to provide good levels of background

› see page 161 ventilation. › The passive design of your building envelope also has an
and Theme 7 important role, relating to material fnishes and construction build-
ups (e.g., hygroscopic materials, and vapour-open or vapour-closed
envelopes) – as summarised in Notes 4.25 and 4.26.

TESTING AND DEVELOPING BUILDING FABRIC
GENERAL
BUILDING
□ Consider fabric-frst principles.
› see page 166 FABRIC □ Consider the envelope requirements for your project’s specifc context and climate. ›
› see Note 4.19
and Chapter 3, □ Take into account the changing climate in your building fabric design to ensure
Note 3.06 WEATHER weather and climate protection now and in the future. ›
PROTECTION
› see page 166 □ Consider designing a layered construction to ensure weather protection. ›
□ Design a highly insulated envelope if your project is in a cool or cold region. If in a
different climate, consider what indoor climate-modifying envelope strategies you
can use to ensure thermal comfort.
□ Allow around 300–500 mm insulation thickness in a temperate or cold climate to
› see Annex I INSULATION ensure a well-insulated envelope. ›
› see Note 4.18 □ Consider designing to the Passivhaus standard. ›
□ Avoid thermal bridging by ensuring the insulation line is continuous and there are
no gaps.
□ Draw a continuous thermal line on your drawings (i.e., where the insulation layer is).
□ Create an airtight construction in a cold or temperate climate.
AIRTIGHTNESS □ Draw an airtightness line on your drawings and ensure it is continuous.
› see Theme 7 □ Consider using a year-round background ventilation system such as MVHR. ›
Manage internal moisture by considering the following:
MOISTURE □ Use hygroscopic internal fnishes – see Note 4.26.
MANAGEMENT □ Design vapour-open envelopes (breathing envelopes) or vapour-closed envelopes
– see Note 4.25.
171
4.5 THEME 5: ENERGY AND CO 2 4.27 NOTE
Even after optimising passive design strategies (Theme 4), energy is Zero-energy versus zero-
needed for heating, ventilating and cooling spaces as well as hot water carbon buildings: do not
provision, artifcial lighting, and using appliances and equipment. This waste clean energy
energy challenge can be met through renewable energy technologies The greater the energy use, the
and energy-effcient active systems. The key is not to rely on active harder it is to create zero-carbon
systems that burn fossil fuels. For a defnition of active versus passive buildings. Even clean energy
systems, see Chapter 3, Note 3.15. should not be wasted because
the more energy we need, the
In Step 2 (Chapter 2) you set the goals for your project and – larger and more expensive
depending on your focus and year of study – you may have included a new energy systems need
vision for energy reduction or production in your project. Depending to be. Clean energy systems
on your local context, you will also have considered relevant passive need to be manufactured and
heating, cooling and ventilation approaches (Chapter 3). Once you have an embodied carbon
have reduced the need for energy through passive resilience (Theme impact. Regular maintenance
4), it is much easier and more sustainable to meet the energy needs is also required, and they
through renewable energy systems (e.g., solar panels, photovoltaics, have a limited lifespan so
heat pumps and wind turbines). If your design results in an energy need replacing over time.
surplus, consider how to store this surplus and how it can contribute to A building might be zero
the surroundings. carbon but it is unlikely to be
zero energy, as some energy
In each project, decisions should be made about the balance of
is still needed for operation.
centralised energy systems (e.g., national electricity and gas supply
networks) compared to decentralised energy systems (electricity or 4.28 NOTE
› see Note 4.30 heat created locally in the neighbourhood or on site). › Decide which
energy system may be suitable for your site. Renewable energy versus
effcient systems
This section summarises some of these systems, with a focus on
Renewable energy is
the most common and/or suitable systems for use at a small site or
energy generated from
building scale – see Table 4.8. In reality, you would work with other
natural resources that are
specialists, but understanding some background and key design not depleted and can be
parameters is necessary to understand the design implications sustained indefnitely (e.g.,
› see Note 4.54 early on. › Embodied carbon aspects are also covered in Table 4.8. wind, sun, water – waves, tidal,
motion – and geothermal).
4.5.1 Zero-carbon buildings Renewable energy is usually
Energy is used to keep people warm or cool, provide fresh air and supplied in the form of
lighting, and to undertake activities in the building (e.g., cooking, electricity, which can be used
running equipment and computers). This is referred to as ‘operational for heating, lighting, building
energy’. Depending on the fuel used, for each unit of energy we systems and transport.
use, usually expressed as kWh, there is an associated CO2 footprint, Generally, these sources are
expressed as kgCO2/kWh. Optimising energy use is fundamental to considered carbon neutral
your project, as it reduces pollution and the demand for clean energy. and ‘clean’ – i.e., they do not
cause direct carbon emissions
The carbon released today is carbon that stays in the atmosphere and
or emit local pollutants in their
contributes to the climate crisis, now and for decades into the future.
operation. Effcient systems
Any energy used to operate and construct buildings, plus the
are systems such as heat
associated embodied carbon, is like upf ront borrowing f rom our
pumps that use a source of
future: we can no longer do it.
energy (usually electricity)
Giving typical building energy use fgures for each country is diffcult, to provide heating in an
because it depends on the climate and the building standards (e.g., effcient way. If the electricity
how well insulated or airtight the building is), and building size is provided from renewables,
(a larger building typically requires more space-heating energy). these systems can also be very
Building energy needs also depend on its use (e.g., an offce, school, low carbon (see Table 4.8).
172
library or housing) and human behaviour and usage patterns 4.29 EXAMPLES
(e.g., equipment used, and for how long). Use rules of thumb and
› see Glossary benchmarks (a standard or point of reference) › to estimate the Inspiring zero-carbon
› see Table 4.7 energy use of your building. › buildings examples
and Figure 4.21 • A01 – No Footprint House,
Given the CO2 pollution associated with building energy use, most
Ojochal, Costa Rica
countries are moving towards zero-energy or zero-carbon buildings.
• ArchiBlox – Carbon Positive
Depending on the region, there are slightly different terms used,
House, Australia
such as ‘nearly zero energy (nZEB)’ in the EU and ‘net zero carbon’
• Practice Architecture – Flat
in the UK (see Chapter 2, Table 2.6). If all carbon emissions are
House, Margent Farm,
offset through renewable energy (either on or off site), it is a (net) United Kingdom
› see Chapter zero-carbon building (i.e., zero kgCO2/m2a). › Zero-carbon design • Snøhetta – Powerhouse
2, Section 2.3.5 strategies focus on optimising the reduction of energy demands
and Table 2.6
Telemark, Norway
through passive resilience (Theme 4) prior to installing active • Von M – Hotel Bauhofstrasse,
systems. Even when only clean energy is used, reducing the need for Ludwigsburg, Germany
› see Note 4.27 energy in the frst place is crucial. ›
Table 4.7 explains how to estimate your building’s estimated
operational energy use and associated operational carbon footprint.
TABLE 4.7 ESTIMATING A BUILDING’S OPERATIONAL ENERGY AND CARBON FOOTPRINT
Estimating a building’s operational energy use (i.e., operational energy footprint)

Energy use is generally presented per foor area, given that energy use, especially space heating, depends
on the size of a building. Your building’s estimated energy use can be calculated by multiplying the total
foor area by the estimated energy use (m2 x kWh per year). See Figure 4.21 for a worked example. To
estimate the associated carbon footprint, see further below. Energy use fgures can be obtained from any
of the following methods:
• Building regulations
Your national building regulations set maximum energy use criteria. However, note that these criteria
are the worst allowable, so you should always aim to design better.
• National statistical databases
You can use energy use data from national statistical databases that have collected real energy use
data for different kinds of buildings over time. Note that these will be average building energy use
numbers dating back several years, and are therefore based on less energy-effcient buildings than are
now required to be constructed.
• Benchmarks
You can use benchmarks as a rule of thumb. For example in the UK, benchmarks you can use are
CIBSE, the LETI (London Energy Transformation Initiative) ‘Climate emergency design guide’ and the
RIBA 2030 Climate Challenge targets (e.g., less than 35 kWh/m2 per year by 2030 for housing and less
than 55–60 kWh/m2 per year for newbuild offces and schools in the UK, respectively). To achieve this,
space heating should be 15 kWh/m2 per year or less, similar to the Passivhaus standard.
• Energy models
› see Chapter 5, You can obtain energy use data by modelling your project in a building energy model. ›
Section 5.4.4
Estimating a building’s operational carbon footprint
A building’s operational carbon footprint (kg CO2/year) is the building energy demand (kWh/year) x CO2
intensity (kgCO2/kWh). You can also calculate this per foor area of the building (i.e., kg CO2/m2 per year).
CO2 intensities are the associated carbon emissions of the fuels used to provide heating or electricity.
The closer they are to zero, the cleaner the fuel and therefore the energy used. For example in Iceland,
geothermal energy is used to generate electricity with nearly zero-carbon emissions. However, most
countries still burn fossil fuels such as coal, oil or gas to generate electricity and heat, with a CO2 intensity
of around 0.5–0.9 kgCO2 per kWh. You can fnd CO2 intensities from your country’s national yearly energy
mix, which is based on what fuels are used to generate electricity.
173
Take, for example, a UK While in Finland, the same Figure 4.21 A worked example
building with 1000kWh/m2 building would have a
per year electricity carbon impact nearly 2.7
of estimating and comparing
UK consumption. This leads to UK times lower than the UK a building’s carbon footprint
233 kg CO2 / 233 kgCO2 /m2 per year, 233 kg CO2 / (and 7.5 times lower than in
m2 per year m2 per year in different regions. Adapted
because the UK’s CO2 fuel China), due to Finland’s
intensity is 0.233 kgCO2 per cleaner energy mix feeding from Sofe Pelsmakers,
kWh of electricity used. into its electricity grid: The Environmental Design
China Finland Pocketbook, RIBA Publishing,
Assuming the same electric-
657 kg CO2 /
ity consumption in China,
86 kg CO2 /
2015. See also Table 4.7.
with a CO2 fuel intensity of
m2 per year 0.657 kgCO2 / kWh, this m2 per year
would lead to a carbon
footprint 2.8 times larger 4.30 NOTE
due to China’s current fuel
mix for the production of Centralised versus
grid electricity:
1000kWh/m per year x 0.657 kgCO2 / kWh
2 1000kWh/m per year x 0.086 kgCO2 / kWh
2 decentralised energy systems
˜ 657 kgCO2 per year ˜ 86 kgCO2 per year Many countries are now
making commitments to
convert their energy networks
4.5.2 Energy systems to predominantly renewable
and low-carbon sources. There
At this stage of your design, you must add depth to your conceptual and
are often effciencies to be
strategic proposals in terms of energy systems. Table 4.8 sets out key
made by producing energy on
factors to consider along with design recommendations to inform your
a large, centralised scale – but
design. For tools to test and validate energy options, see Chapter 5.
equally, generating energy on
If available, frst consider plugging into any existing decentralised site may be effective in terms
› see Note 4.30 energy systems, such as local community or city district heating. › Even of CO2 emission reductions
and Table 4.8 when these supply networks are not yet zero carbon, they are moving and can offer resilience in case
in that direction. Moreover, they are often more effcient and easier of national energy blackouts.
to operate (by the city or a community provider) than providing and Heating energy systems such
maintaining single-building solutions. Consider opportunities for the as city or neighbourhood
› see Note 4.28 use of effcient, renewable energy systems or a combination of them. › district heating networks
and Table 4.8 can be very effective, as long
On-site energy production in dense urban areas is often more diffcult,
as they have well-insulated
and it is not always feasible to provide large proportions of the required
supply pipe networks.
energy. For example, wind speeds may be too low or too unpredictable,
› see Table 4.8 or perhaps there is insuffcient solar access to optimise solar panels. ›
If supplying on-site clean energy in the building, the ‘two of everything 4.31 PRACTICE
rule’ usually applies – i.e., a back-up of another energy supply system is
Designing energy systems
required (often linked) in case of local failure or downtime.
To incorporate systems, you
need to understand the basic
design parameters early on,
Ideally panel but in practice, a specialist
orientation to be
10° from south, will advise on the best type of
50 – 60° if underfloor although 30° is system to use for your site and
heating also acceptable (for
pitched roofs) building, and the implications
light-coloured
roof surfaces to 30 – 40° for hot of this for your building design
reflect heat – water only
(e.g., space requirements,
green roof also
suitable allow for 150mm heating systems).
ventilation under
avoid the PV panel to
avoid overheating. Figure 4.22 Diagram showing
overshadowing
detailed design guidance for
typical solar panel placement.
hot water store Solar thermal panels (SV-T) Ideal solar panel angles are
(min. 250 l) combine well with underfloor max. 30° max. 30°
context dependent and should be
heating
south in Northern verifed according to the region.
hemisphere Adapted from Sofe Pelsmakers,
north in Southern The Environmental Design
hemisphere Pocketbook, RIBA Publishing, 2015.
174
TABLE 4.8 ENERGY SYSTEMS (see key recommendations in Table 4.9.)
National energy supply networks

In some cases the best or only option is to use energy from national networks. Many countries are now
phasing out gas supply networks to many building types, and electricity will become the only national
energy network. This means that space- and water-heating systems should focus on electrical systems.
Generating electricity or heating energy on site should be considered alongside utilising national energy
supply networks. See Table 4.9 and Note 4.30.
District/community heating
Generating energy closer to where it is used reduces transmission losses. This can be achieved with
community, neighbourhood or city district heating, which provides heat from a central source to one or
many building blocks via its own well-insulated heating pipe network. Ideally there is a steady supply of
heating needed for buildings that are spaced closely together to minimise distribution losses and costs.
This means mixed-use developments are ideal, at 55–100 dw/ha density. Dwellings do not require individual
heating systems, but typically have a heat exchanger in a technical room that supplies space heating and
hot water, with separate heat meters (required under the EU Energy Effciency Directive).
Solar energy capture systems – see Figure 4.22

There are three main types of solar collectors used on buildings: photovoltaic (PV) panels generate
electricity and work well with green roofs because they are more effcient on a cooler surface and with
ventilation under them. Photovoltaic-thermal (PV-T) panels generate both electricity and heat, and are
still innovative, while solar thermal panels generate heat only. Generally, solar thermal and PV electrical
panels are the most suitable options in urban areas, if an unshaded south-facing roof is available.
You can check the ideal solar angle in freely available online solar panel angle calculators. See key
recommendations in Table 4.9.
Wind energy capture systems – see Figure 4.23

Large wind turbines are highly effcient, but are normally only suitable for large open areas of land a long
way from buildings or outdoor activities. These turbines are noisy and can cause a ficker effect as the sun
passes through or refects off the blades. Smaller, micro-wind turbines may sometimes be suitable for rural
project sites, but they are much less effcient. In general, micro-wind turbines on or near buildings in urban
and suburban areas are unsuitable due too low, variable and unpredictable wind speeds. This is why a
whole-life-cycle carbon analysis should be made before specifying them. Yearly average wind speed should
be minimum 5.5 m/s, with no tall obstructions nearby. Local measured wind speeds are usually taken near
airports and are typically higher than those in a built-up area, so they do not represent the average wind
speed on your site. See key recommendations in Table 4.9.
Heat pumps
A heat pump extracts heat from one location (the ‘source’, e.g., the ground, water or air), upgrades the heat
and then moves it to another location (the ‘sink’). The sink is typically a water-based radiator or air heater.
The electrical energy used for the pump can be met by a renewable energy source such as a PV panel.
Heat pumps are an effcient technology because they harvest freely available heat and top it up to the
temperature required. See key recommendations in Table 4.9.
Combined heat and power (CHP)

The principle of CHP is that a fuel (e.g., gas, biomass) is burned to create electricity locally to a building
or neighbourhood, as opposed to electricity being generated at remote power stations. In this process
more heat is created than electricity, and this heat can then also be used in buildings. This is a signifcant
difference from conventional power stations, where most of the heat is exhausted into the local air.
Another beneft is that the electricity supply is decentralised and may offer better resilience against
national shortages. Moreover, CHP systems are only suitable for buildings that require a lot of heat (e.g.,
swimming pools, elderly homes). Gas-powered CHP plants are no longer feasible in a climate emergency.
Biomass fuel could be used, but only if it is available as a waste product from a local supply chain; this is
because burning wood is polluting and is no longer considered sustainable in most cases – see Chapter 2,
Section 2.3.5, Note 2.19.
175
TABLE 4.9 THEME 5: KEY RECOMMENDATIONS – TESTING AND DEVELOPING ENERGY

AND CO2 (for a summary of each energy system see Table 4.8)
ZERO-ENERGY/
□ Use passive resilient strategies (Theme 4) to reduce energy needs (i.e., to heat,
cool, light and ventilate the building) prior to considering renewable or effcient
CARBON BUILDINGS
energy systems – see below.
NATIONAL ENERGY □ Consider using the national energy supply networks alongside generating
SUPPLY NETWORKS electricity or heating energy on site – see Table 4.8 and Note 4.30.
DISTRICT/
COMMUNITY
□ Consider district heating if there is a steady supply of heating needed in mixed-
use developments (55–100 dw/ha density).
HEATING
For all three types of solar panel (PV, PV-T and solar thermal panels), the following
recommendations apply:
□ Locate solar panels where they are not heavily overshadowed by buildings or trees.
□ Aim to orient the panel as close to the sun as possible to capture most of the
sun’s free energy.
□ In the vertical plane the optimal inclination is around 30–40° from horizontal,
for most European locations.
SOLAR ENERGY □ Avoid locating solar panels on vertical building facades, as this does not
CAPTURE SYSTEMS – optimise the panels’ effciency (due to shading and the 90° angle)
see Figure 4.22
□ On fat roofs or the ground, install the panels on a frame support to allow for
the optimum angle.
□ On a fat roof installation, ensure there is safe access provided for maintenance/
cleaning/replacement with edge protection. Ensure that the edge does not
overshadow the panels.
□ On a pitched roof, ensure that there is access to get a mobile elevated work
platform (MEWP) in place to allow for safe maintenance/cleaning/replacement.
□ Ensure any support structures can withstand the wind loads imposed on panels.
□ Ensure yearly average wind speeds are minimum 5.5 m/s with no tall
obstructions nearby. If not, a wind turbine is unsuitable.
□ Ensure the turbine blades will not cast a shadow onto windows. If they do,
there will be a ficker effect. Locate turbines away from opening windows
to minimise noise impact and remember to factor this into your ventilation
WIND ENERGY
strategy (see Theme 4).
CAPTURE SYSTEMS – □ Ensure safe access can be provided for maintenance/replacement. For diffcult
see Figure 4.23 locations the use of a MEWP may be the safest option.
□ Ensure the structure of the building is adequate to support turbines if they are
located on the building.
□ Consider the aesthetics of locating a micro-wind turbine on your building, and
if other systems would be more effective and less intrusive in providing clean
electricity.
□ For most effcient use, use in well-insulated buildings and for space heating
that requires lower temperatures than for hot water.
□ Avoid conventional radiators, as they require heat input of around 60°C and
45–50°C is the maximum temperature that can be obtained from heat pumps.
HEAT PUMPS Instead use underfoor heating, or low-surface-temperature radiators (they
need 30–45°C heat input).
□ Avoid air source heat pumps in cold climates and for hot water provision; while
most common they are the least effcient (extracting heat from cold air in
winter is limited).
176
□ Use heat pumps combined with solar thermal panels to meet year-round hot
water demand.
HEAT PUMPS
□ Avoid using heat pumps in reverse to meet cooling requirements – it can be
expensive and leads to lower winter effciencies.
□ Use CHP systems only for buildings that require a lot of heat (e.g., swimming pools,
COMBINED HEAT elderly homes).
AND POWER (CHP) □ Use biomass fuel, but only if it is available as a waste product from a local
supply chain see Chapter 2, Section 2.3.5, Note 2.19.
MOST APPROPRIATE ideally no obstructions 5.5 m/s minimum

LOCATION in radius of 10 m x h windspeed
always check local wind speed

and obstructions.
Remember: building-mounted unsuitable turbine may be

turbines are noisy and there is location for H = min 10 m suitable if it is
H
no guarantee obstructions will turbine the highest point
not be built in future within radius of
10 m x h
RURAL AREAS
ideally no obstructions
MAY BE SUIOTABLE IF ≥ 15 within 450 m radius
STOREYS
always check local wind speed 5.5 m/s minimum

and obstructions. windspeed
H
Remember: building-mounted
if any obstructions
turbines are noisy and there is
within 10-20m
no guarantee obstructions will
turbine should be
not be built in future wind energy
2x height of
obstruction unlikely to be viable
In all cases care has to be at lower heights
taken that turbines do not cast
flickering shadows onto
windows
(SUB)URBAN HIGH RISE AREA
windspeed is below 5.5

m/s & turbulence makes
highly unlikely to be this location unlikely to
suitable and must be be suitable for micro
avoided wind generation
(SUB)URBAN LOW RISE LOCATION

detailed design guidance for on-
site micro-wind turbines, which
are generally unsuitable in urban
and suburban areas due to
obstructions and unpredictable
wind speeds. Adapted from Sofe
Publishing, 2015.
177
4.5.3 Whole-life carbon footprint 4.32 EXAMPLES

Combining the operational energy use with the embodied energy
Inspiring examples: energy
from material resources (for manufacturing, transportation, end of life,
and CO2
etc.) leads to a whole-life energy footprint, and an associated whole-life
• Mole Architects – Cavendish
› see Figure 4.24 carbon footprint, typically over a building’s full life cycle. ›
House, Cambridge, United
Embodied carbon Kingdom
• SANAA – Zollverein School
Embodied carbon is also referred to as ‘upfront carbon’, and is associated
of Management and Design,
with the energy needed to construct buildings – to manufacture,
Essen, Germany
assemble into components, package, deliver to site, install and, over time,
• Snøhetta – Powerhouse
maintain, adapt, replace and disassemble them. This upfront carbon is
Kjøbro, Sandvika, Norway
not legislated for in most countries at present, but similar to reducing • T.R. Hamzah and Yeang –
operational carbon emissions, it must be signifcantly reduced. Mesiniaga Tower, Petaling
There is also a paradox: to achieve zero-carbon buildings, often Jaya, Malaysia
additional materials and products are needed (e.g., additional • Werner Sobek – B10 House,
insulation, renewable energy systems). As operational carbon reduces, Stuttgart, Germany
the embodied carbon will become a more signifcant proportion of the
› see Figure 4.24 whole-life carbon, and it needs to become zero embodied carbon. ›
You can reduce the embodied energy and carbon footprint of
your building by using reclaimed materials (see 4.6), and reduce
a material’s carbon footprint by introducing materials that are
produced and the processes fuelled by renewable energy (though 4.33 NOTE
the embodied energy remains unchanged). Reduced transportation
Battery electrical storage
of materials and products is also important, which is why locally
The principle behind battery
manufactured materials are part of a design for the climate
storage of electricity is that
emergency. You can use plant-based materials that can be carbon
it works with other on-site
negative and act as a carbon sink (i.e., biogenic materials that absorb
electricity generation systems
to provide a steady fow of
electricity when those systems
are not working effciently.
For example, during the night
PV panels will not generate
electricity, and when wind
speeds are too low turbines
are ineffective. Battery storage
also ties into the concept of
energy responsibility, whereby
users tailor their activities to
match electrical production
both locally and nationally.
Figure 4.24 Diagram

illustrating whole-life carbon,
which is the combination
of operational carbon and
embodied carbon (including
replacement and maintenance;
data from LETI for a typical 2020
building).3
178
› see Glossary more CO2 than they release). › Finally, the structural system in your Figure 4.25 Diagram showing
and Table 4.12 that each building’s operational
project will have a signifcant role in terms of the overall building’s
and embodied carbon needs
embodied energy and carbon, because these systems are often to be signifcantly reduced by
made from carbon-intensive materials such as concrete and steel. 2030, yet at present embodied
Look closely when selecting materials for the substructure and carbon is not regulated in
superstructure of your building. most countries. The diagram
also shows that proportionally
The substructure of a building includes the foundations, retaining embodied carbon becomes
walls and any basements. These elements are generally formed from more prominent once
in-situ concrete and are both high in embodied energy and diffcult operational carbon is reduced
to reuse other than by breaking them up as a low-grade hardcore. (data from LETI).6
The superstructure of a building is all of the elements that hold the
building up, and support the foors, roof, the weight of the envelope
and any other heavy parts such as stairs. The superstructure can
be independent of the walls and foors, consisting of columns and
beams, or the walls and foor slabs may be integrated as part of the
structure. The design of the superstructure is important in terms
of embodied carbon, duration of construction, and adaptation and
disassembly of the building over time, and may play a role in the
› see Theme 4 internal environmental strategy by providing thermal mass. ›
Guidance on how to reduce the impact of substructure and
superstructure can be found in Table 4.14.
179
We must also move away from a linear economy to a circular Figure 4.26 Diagram
economy. Instead of replacing or removing materials, or demolishing showing cradle to cradle, from
raw material extraction to
entire buildings that are incinerated or end up in landfll, we must
manufacturing, construction,
think of materials being stored in buildings as part of a longer cycle
use, deconstruction and reuse
of use and reuse, and keep these materials in circulation for as long or recovery – all part of circular
› see Figure 4.26 as possible. This means designing for disassembly (DfD). › construction principles.
and Chapter 2,
Table 2.2, Chapter When developing your project, Table 4.10 offers an overview;
3, Theme 1 however, you can calculate the embodied energy and carbon
› see Chapter 5 footprint of different material choices and other impacts. ›
180
TABLE 4.10 KEY CONSIDERATIONS FOR EMBODIED CARBON IN MATERIALS
Timber frame or structural insulated panels (SIPs)

These can be used for small buildings, offering possible lowered embodied carbon (and locally sourced)
solutions.
Solid-mass superstructure
This involves using materials stacked up or cast to form walls that are structural. Reinforced concrete
forms walls that are very strong, durable and fre-resistant, but the embodied carbon is high and
deconstruction is diffcult and only yields aggregate. Solid brick cavity walls are well used in Northern
Europe and can provide superstructure, cladding, moisture management and insulation in a single
build-up. Bricks have high embodied carbon due to their fring process, but if designed correctly bricks
› see Table 4.11 can be reused. › If designing with bricks, always seek to use recycled bricks and always specify lime
mortar, which allows the bricks to be reclaimed intact in the future.
Rammed-earth walls
These often use local soils compacted into a formwork, and may provide low embodied-carbon
structural walls, though building height is limited. The walls must be protected from rain and water
ingress and external walls will require an extra layer of thermal insulation. They have a good thermal
› see Theme 4 mass potential. ›
Straw-bale walls
These can provide very low embodied-carbon structural walls, but must be protected from rain and
water ingress, and building height is usually limited. Straw-bale walls will be thick, but this may be an
advantage in terms of creating deep reveals that shade windows.
Engineered timber products

These can provide excellent, low embodied-carbon alternatives to steel or concrete for larger or more
complex buildings. Cross-laminated timber (CLT) provides large slab-based products that can be used
for walls, foors and roofs. Glu-lam can provide large columns and beams capable of spans similar to
steel. Brettstapel is similar to CLT but uses timber dowels as opposed to glue, and is seen by some
as a great option for low-carbon construction.4 Nowadays it is not unusual to see large and complex
buildings such as airports, offces and high-rise residential buildings made from engineered timber.
(Recycled) steel or concrete structures – see Note 4.39

Concrete is a high embodied-carbon material and should only be used exceptionally where there are
practical reasons for whole-life carbon benefts. Designing partitions and external envelopes from in-situ
concrete is no longer appropriate for a design in the climate emergency. If steel or concrete structures
are the only options (e.g., in large infrastructure projects such as bridges), aim to offset the embodied
carbon by renewable energy production of the materials, offsetting with other biogenic materials5
and the use of reclaimed components, and always ensure that the structure can be disassembled and
› see Theme 4 reused at the end of life. Where possible, utilise its thermal mass capacity effectively. ›
For concrete structures, you should design pre-cast elements for reuse at a later date. Pre-cast
concrete sofft systems offer better-quality fnishes and speed of construction, and may be designed for
disassembly and reuse (provided they are not reliant on an in-situ concrete topping).
Finally, even recycled steel is high in embodied carbon. Reduce its impact with reclaimed steel sections
› see Chapter 3, and design for disassembly. ›
Theme 1
181
› for different
terms of TABLE 4.11 THEME 5: KEY RECOMMENDATIONS – TESTING AND DEVELOPING
sustainable MATERIALS, ENERGY AND CO2 ›
materials see
Table 4.12 □ Consider whether you need to build new at all. Instead, consider adaptive
› see Theme 6 reuse of a building. ›
□ Consider shared spaces, and utilise existing spaces in nearby buildings in the
neighbourhood for sharing. Design hybrid buildings that support effective use
› see Chapter 3, of space. ›
Theme 1
REDUCING
□ Design structures, services and fnishes that are long-lasting and adaptable,
› see Theme 1, EMBODIED
including designed for disassembly (DfD). ›
Chapters 2 and 3
CARBON □ Avoid concrete and steel and other high embodied-carbon materials; instead
› see Theme 6, EMISSIONS FROM select low embodied-carbon materials, and prioritise the use of reclaimed
Figure 4.32 CONSTRUCTION: materials. ›
› see Glossary
GENERAL
□ Use renewable and biogenic materials, or natural materials. ›
and Theme 6,
Note 4.36 and
□ Undertake embodied carbon and life-cycle analysis (LCA) to compare options
and help your design decision-making process – see Chapter 5, Table 5.5.
Table 4.12
□ Estimate the whole-life carbon footprint, which is the sum of the embodied
carbon footprint of the materials and construction process, and the
operational carbon footprint of the building.
□ Avoid designing retaining walls; instead use slopes or timber retaining walls
on the site. Always try to reuse any excavated material elsewhere on the site.
□ Design the building above to be as light as possible, while taking into account
› see Theme 4 the passive resilience beneft of thermal mass. ›
□ Consider alternatives to a concrete substructure such as screwed elements,
› see Glossary timber pile foundations › or dry-laid masonry.
SUBSTRUCTURE □ Always try to use locally resourced and recycled aggregates. In a circular
economy there is more likely to be a source of such materials from local
demolition.
□ Ensure that future adaptation of the building can be facilitated by the design
of the substructure.
□ Consider low-carbon foamed-glass products, which perform well when wet
and also have a high compressible strength for below-ground insulation.
□ When possible, reuse an existing superstructure. The design may need both
reuse and new superstructure, but reuse as much as is realistic.
□ Always try to line up the superstructure vertically. If columns or walls land
mid-span on the level below, transfer structures will be needed with higher
embodied-carbon costs.
SUPERSTRUCTURE □ Design appropriate spans to suit the initial use and the longer-term fexibility.
Large spans require deeper structure with higher embodied carbon, but are
needed for some spaces and may provide better adaptability into the future.
□ Overall, lighter building envelopes, partitions, fnishes and loads will allow
for a reduced superstructure. If possible, locate heavy loads directly on the
substructure.
182
□ Consider using a timber frame or SIPs as a low-carbon alternative for small

buildings.
□ Consider using recycled bricks as a reduced-carbon alternative to solid-mass
superstructure. Remember to use lime mortar for easier future reclamation
and reuse.
□ Consider rammed earth for projects with limited building heights and where
› see Theme 4 thermal mass is needed but rain and water ingress is not an issue. ›
□ Consider straw-bale walls for low embodied-carbon structural walls. However,
building height will be limited, and they need to be protected from the rain.
› see Table 4.12 MATERIALS › □ Consider engineered timber products as an alternative to steel or concrete.
Use CLT for walls, foors and roofs, and glu-lam for columns and beams.
□ Avoid using concrete as solid mass superstructure as the embodied energy
is high, and it is diffcult to deconstruct or reuse in more than aggregate. If
a concrete superstructure is unavoidable (e.g., for a large bridge design), use
pre-cast elements for reuse at a later date.
□ Avoid steel (even recycled) and, if needed, use reclaimed steel and ensure
› see Chapter 3, design for disassembly. ›
Theme 1
□ Ensure that your structure can be disassembled and reused, and consider
offsetting embodied carbon with renewable energy production and other
biogenic materials.
183
4.6 THEME 6: MATERIALS 4.34 PRACTICE
Often buildings have an expected lifespan of 60 to 100 years; some Sustainable construction
buildings have lifespans shorter than this (e.g., 40 years for supermarkets).7 In practice, non-standard
If buildings are demolished sooner, materials and resources are wasted and innovative materials
unless they can be used again. We need to reduce energy use and CO2 and products are not always
emissions now and every year before 2030 and beyond, i.e., well before the predictable, and the project
end of a building’s lifespan. This means that reducing the energy needed team will need to plan
and ensuring clean fuels are used to manufacture materials are carefully for this. If reused
› see Theme 5 fundamental to an architecture that responds to the climate emergency. › materials are specifed,
the design may need to
Apart from previously mentioned embodied-energy and embodied-
be amended to their exact
carbon impacts of materials, our material choices are affected by properties and dimensions
resource use, with impacts including mineral extraction, water (see Figure 4.27 and 4.28).
consumption, deforestation, destruction of the ozone layer, acid rain,
waste, toxicity and biodiversity loss. Sourcing materials, including
reused and local components, that reduce these impacts is crucial.
This section covers the different sustainable materials to consider. Life-
cycle design strategies, which are closely related to material selection
strategies, are explored in Chapter 3, Theme 1, Section 3.2.1.
4.35 PRACTICE
4.6.1 Material selection in a sustainable
design and construction process Selecting sustainable
materials in practice
Sustainable design requires an integrated process characterised by a
In practice there are specialist
holistic, whole-system approach through multiple design iterations
suppliers that provide a wide
and optimisations. Long-term thinking is required about usage, reuse,
range of low-impact products
recycling and disassembly for the end-of-life scenario (see Chapter 3,
and supporting guidance.8, 9
Theme 1, Table 3.2). Prefabrication and circular construction aspects
These products are well
are used to minimise resource use, waste generation and energy
tested and can give clients,
consumption (and associated CO2 emissions). All of this requires contractors and the design
innovation and creative solutions, which takes time. team confdence in specifying
them. As a student you can
access this information to
inform your material choices.
It is often better to specify
a product that has been
thoroughly developed and
tested by specialists, rather
than designing something
yourself from scratch (e.g.,
windows).

a sustainable construction
process with sustainable
decisions and goals set early
in the project, and possible
iterations in later stages.
184
Figure 4.28 Sustainable

material selection criteria: using
local resources and assessing
environmental, socio-cultural
and economic impacts of the
chosen materials during their
entire life cycle.
All these life-cycle design aspects, construction and material decisions 4.36 NOTE
must be made early in the design process, not after the building has
› see Figure 4.27 been designed, as they impact on the whole building design. › Example renewable materials
and typical uses
4.6.2 Sustainable material selection Timber can be used for
The choice of design strategy for your project not only affects the load-bearing elements,
choice of suitable structural systems but also infuences the selection secondary framing, roof and
of materials, fnishes, connections and details of the designed wall cladding, internal linings
and fooring, and furniture
building. There are general rules to consider when developing
and fttings. Locally sourced
sustainable architecture.
bamboo acts as an effective
First, you should always minimise resource use – even natural and and economical structural
low-impact resources should not be wasted – and always avoid using solution due to its light
scarce resources (e.g., copper, marble). weight and strength. Flax
can be used as a lightweight,
Second, a sustainable material is always contextual – choose it in
fre-retardant insulation.
relation to the place and function that it is used for, based on your
Cork is an elastic, nearly
contextual research (Step 1, Chapter 1) and your project values (Step
impermeable, insulating
2, Chapter 2). When selecting materials for your project, you must
material often used for
consider their environmental conditions (landscape, climate, available
acoustic protection in foors
resources), socio-cultural context (local traditions, skills and standards)
and walls. Straw and hemp
and economic context as well as performance over time (modes of use create biodegradable and
› see Figure 4.28 and life-cycle performance). › affordable insulation.
Third, select low-impact materials that are non-toxic and are low in
› see Table 4.12 embodied energy and embodied carbon, or even biogenic. ›
There are different sustainable materials that can be grouped in different
categories, all of which mean different things, and signify different
impacts. You should ensure that you are familiar with these defnitions
and use the correct language in describing your design approaches – see
Table 4.12. More information is provided below for natural and renewable
materials, and reused and recycled materials (see page 186).
185
thatch cladding provides

shading
ventilation panels
Figure 4.29 Example building:

in the Enterprise Centre in
Norwich, designed by Architype
Architects, local thatching was
used to create a contemporary
solar shading element.
Natural and renewable materials 4.37 EXAMPLES

Healthy, clean and non-toxic natural materials that limit habitat
destruction and pollution positively infuence indoor climate, air Inspiring natural or
quality, ventilation, daylight distribution and noise diffusion, and renewable examples
› see Glossary help to avoid sick building syndrome. › However, not every natural • Arcop – SIREWALL,
material is sustainably harvested and produced. When you are Islamabad, Pakistan
• Henning Larsen – Feldballe
selecting materials, investigate where they come from, and how they
School, Denmark
were planted, harvested, produced and transported. Materials being
• Oneartharch architect – Macha
transported from distant places may outweigh their environmental
Village Center, Baiyin, China
benefts. Therefore, it is important to check available local resources,
• Taller de Arquitectura
their sources and conditions, as well as environmental, social and
Mauricio-Rocha – The
› see also economic impacts. ›
School of Visual Arts of
Chapter 1,
Section 1.4.6 You can choose between renewable or non-renewable materials. Oaxaca, Mexico
Renewable, mostly plant-based, materials include those with short • Tatiana Bilbao, Ajijic House,
regeneration cycles (i.e., decades or less), such as timber, fax, cork, Jalisco, Mexico
hemp, cob, straw, grasses, sod, bamboo and seaweed. They can be
used for structural elements (e.g., timber, bamboo), roofs (e.g., wooden
shingles, straw), insulation (e.g., cellulose, cork), external and internal
claddings or furniture. Typical uses are summarised in Note 4.36.
186
TABLE 4.12 KEY SUSTAINABLE MATERIAL OPTIONS

Some approaches are detailed below and in Table 4.13.
Low-impact materials
These are materials with reduced environmental impact, e.g., natural or reclaimed materials
Low embodied-energy materials

These are materials that require minimal energy to produce (i.e., extraction, manufacture, transportation,
and assembly and disassembly – expressed in MJ/kg).
Low-carbon materials
These are materials that do not lead to signifcant amount carbon emissions. Ideally, they are also low
energy; for example, if steel is manufactured in a wind turbine-powered factory, that steel will have low
embodied carbon, but will still have high embodied energy due to the high operating temperatures
required to produce steel. The carbon intensity is calculated by multiplying the embodied energy with the
› see Section carbon intensity of the fuel used in production and construction, expressed in kgCO2/kg. ›
4.5.1; Table 4.7
Renewable materials
These are natural materials that can be easily replenished, typically those that grow (e.g., timber, straw,
thatch) as long as they are sustainably managed, especially in forestry (i.e., trees are felled as part of
› see also sustainable forest management). ›
Section 2.3.6,
Figure 4.28 Natural materials
These materials are found in nature, such as earth, stone, straw, thatch and clay. Not all of them are
renewable (i.e., they are fnite) and not all have minimal impact. For example, if stone is mined, it is not
renewed over time, and it also requires large amounts of energy for extraction and transportation and has
signifcant ecological impacts from mining – see Figure 4.31.
Biogenic materials
These are materials that sequester carbon, i.e., they absorb more CO2 than they produce in extraction and
manufacturing, e.g. timber.
Healthy and non-toxic materials

These are materials that do not affect human health adversely during production or in use. For example,
some materials, including many engineered wood products or natural materials, contain formaldehyde or
fre and insect pest treatments that can affect human health (or ecosystems).
Biodegradable materials
These are materials that can be decomposed by bacteria or living organisms in a fairly short period of time.
Cradle-to-cradle materials
These are renewable or recyclable materials that can be upcycled in continuous biological and technical
production loops to eliminate waste.
Reused or reclaimed materials

These are materials that can be reclaimed for reuse elsewhere – see below.
Recycled materials
These are materials from any recovery operation by which waste materials are reprocessed into products,
materials or substances, whether for the original purpose or others.
Recyclable materials
These are materials that can be recycled, broken down and moulded into new products.
Reusable materials
› see Chapter 3, These are materials designed for disassembly (DfD) for reuse elsewhere in the built environment. ›
Theme 1
Upcycled or downcycled materials
These are materials that are reused to create a new material or product of higher value or quality (i.e.,
upcycling) or of lower value or quality (i.e., downcycling; for example, crushing concrete structure to
become gravel for paving). Upcycling can involve transforming and reinventing ordinary objects into
extraordinary architecture.
187
Figure 4.30 Fungal mycelium

as a building material, by
Melissa Bacher. The diagram
illustrates the process of
cultivating mycelium and
baking it into a brick that is later
used as insulation and cladding
within timber structures.
4.38 NOTE
Reusing and recycling of

products and materials
In a circular economy the aim
is to reuse – i.e., products are
cleaned or repaired and used
again as a similar product;
for example window systems.
Generally, renewable materials are processed to be used as ‘Rethought reuse’ refers to
standardised building elements. More recently, the approach to products that are reused for a
natural materials has shifted towards innovation in cultivating, different purpose – e.g., road
breeding, raising, farming or growing future resources.10 Examples signs used as wall cladding.
of this are wood foam (high insulation properties, high strength, low Recycling is sometimes
thermal conductivity for facades and furniture), biopolymers (strong, referred to as ‘downcycling’,
water-soluble, biodegradable, thermally insulating composites, as the materials are often
concrete and asphalt modifers, cement replacements), lignin-based transformed into lower-
carbon fbres (lightweight thermal insulators) and even fungal grade components, and
mycelium biomaterials (strong, lightweight, fame-resistant insulators, the process requires energy
› see Figure or used as building blocks). › and resources. For example,
4.30 concrete may be broken
If selection of renewable materials is not possible, choose non- down and used as site
renewable materials that are natural and abundant (e.g., stone, earth, hardcore, but this is a much
clay, sand, gravel). Alternatively, select organic, slightly processed lower-grade use than the
materials with low-carbon constituents (e.g., bricks, earth blocks). original wall or slab. Steel
Key characteristics are in Table 4.13 and Figure 4.31. For methods may be melted down and
to evaluate the environmental impacts of materials, see Chapter 5, reformed, but the process is
Section 5.4. resource intensive.
188
Figure 4.31 The material

selection matrix show the
relationship between different
building material properties.
Use this diagram to help you
choose suitable materials for
your project.
4.39 NOTE
Should you use concrete in

your building designs?
Concrete is a very high
embodied-carbon material
and typically very poorly
reused. Concrete should only
be used if there is no viable
alternative, and then only with
a strong circular economy
strategy. If concrete elements
are designed for disassembly
and reuse, the carbon impact
can be spread over hundreds
of years, though remember
that we need to reduce
carbon now. Aim for pre-cast
elements rather than in-situ,
as they can be more easily
disassembled, and try to
use as little concrete as
necessary. If in-situ concrete
is essential, aim for the
lowest-carbon composition
concrete available. (In practice,
specialists would advise on this.)
Finally, natural materials have specifc aesthetics, and you should choose
them to be appropriate to the building’s function and use. Remember to 4.40 EXAMPLES
test how the appearance of selected materials will change over time due
to weathering, wear, maintenance and social preference. Reused/recycled material
examples
Reused and recycled materials • Kengo Kuma & Associates –
You cannot create zero-carbon buildings (see Section 4.5.1) unless you China Academy of Arts Folk
also use high proportions of reclaimed materials, with the remainder Museum, Hangzhou, China
low impact. The chosen low-carbon materials must also be purposely • Lendager Group –
designed to be reused and recirculated at the end of life. Aim for at The Resource Rows,
least 50% reused materials by 2030, while 80% should be able to be Copenhagen, Denmark
reused and kept in circulation at the end of the building’s life. This • Shulin Architectural Design
will help to reduce carbon emissions by 65%. The next step is for 100% – Qingxiao Residence,
› see Figure 4.32 reused, 100% reusable materials, and zero-carbon buildings.11 › Zhejiang Province, China
• Superuse Studios –
Using previously used materials in your project is a strong driver and Dordtyart, Dordrecht, the
strategy to reduce demand for primary resources and reduce carbon Netherlands
emissions by extending their life cycle. It also minimises the amount • TEd’A arquitectes – Jordi and
of waste generated. Very often, the materials’ appearance shows África’s House, Montuiri, Spain
189
100% 100%
reused reusable
50% 80%
reused reusable
2030 TARGET WHOLE LIFE NET ZERO TARGET
% target of total building % target of building materials

construction materials & & elements designed to reuse
elements that are reused at the building’s end of life
traces of time and previous use. It is important to acknowledge the Figure 4.32 Diagram showing
unique character of these materials and embrace it in your design by the targets of reclaimed
materials to be used in our
choosing suitable solutions.
designs (50% by 2030) and to
›see Chapter 1, After creating a harvest map › that maps local resources and design for reuse at the end of life
Section 1.4.6 speculates on how you can use them, you should investigate (80% by 2030). For zero-carbon
possible sources of the reused materials. Remember to set targets, 100% reusable and 100%
reused materials are necessary
environmental goals for your project (e.g., levels of recycling) at the
(guidance from LETI).12
beginning of the conceptual phase. The availability and specifcity of
these kinds of materials often defnes the form and structure of your
design. There are different types of reused materials that you can
implement. According to the waste management hierarchy,13 you
should opt for actions that frst reduce the amount of waste, then
› see Table 4 .13 reuse it or recycle it. ›
TABLE 4.13 THEME 6: KEY RECOMMENDATIONS – TESTING AND DEVELOPING MATERIALS
□ Always minimise resource use – even sustainable materials should not be wasted.
□ Always avoid using scarce resources (e.g., copper, marble).
□ Ensure you select materials that are appropriate for the local context – assess the
contextual conditions (see Chapter 1). These infuence the life cycle, robustness
and maintenance of the material choices.
SUSTAINABLE □ Select low-impact materials that are non-toxic, with low embodied energy and
MATERIAL embodied carbon, or even biogenic.
SELECTION
□ Refect on the weight and size of elements, their handling and the equipment
needed for installation – can it be safely done by a single person? Make sure
you undertake a health and safety risk assessment of the design (maintenance,
disassembly, etc).
□ Ensure that you are familiar with the different defnitions of sustainable materials
› see Table 4.12 and their implications. ›
190
› see Note 1.18 □ Ensure that timber products are certifed. ›

□ When working with natural and renewable materials, examine their availability to
avoid over-harvesting. Look for local, sustainably managed sources which track
supply chains and ensure clean extraction and production (e.g., sustainable timber
› see Glossary harvesting, reversible quarries ›).
□ Use local construction methods and craftsmanship, and traditional details for
design inspiration.
□ Test how the appearance of selected materials will change over time due to
weathering, use and maintenance, and how they are perceived by users.
□ If selection of renewable materials is not possible, choose non-renewable materials
that are natural and abundant (e.g., stone, earth, clay, sand, gravel) or organic and
slightly processed with low carbon.
□ If selection of renewable materials is not possible, use locally available stone or
NATURAL AND clay for structures (e.g., stone walls, bricks), roofs (e.g., ceramic tiles, slate), facade
RENEWABLE claddings, internal fnishings and landscaping.
MATERIALS
□ Consider hard stones (e.g., basalt, granite) when high compressive strength,
durability and weather resistance are needed.
□ Consider soft stones (e.g., sandstone, limestone) in non-structural building
elements (e.g., fooring or roofng) and note that they weather more quickly
than hard stone. Consider using bricks when a durable, weather-resistant,
insulating and versatile material requiring little maintenance is needed. Note
that the production of bricks is energy-consuming, but they can be reused.
□ Consider light clay as insulation in warmer climates, but note that it is not
structurally strong.
□ Consider cob, (made out of clay, sand and straw) when a malleable and
freproof material is needed.
□ Consider earth-based materials (e.g., earth blocks, rammed earth, clay plaster) for
material use, as they are energy-effcient, have a positive impact on indoor climate
and recycle well.
› see Chapter 1, □ Create a harvest map › to map local resources and speculate on how you can use
Section 1.4.6 them.
□ Investigate possible sources of reused materials and set environmental goals for
› see Step 2, your project (e.g., levels of recycling) at the beginning of your project. ›
Chapter 2
REUSED AND □ Consider the type of material, its state and level of contamination to know if it is
RECYCLED viable to reuse or recycle. These materials often defne the form and structure of
MATERIALS your design.
□ Follow the waste management hierarchy, 14
i.e., opt for actions that frst reduce the
› see Note 4.38 amount of waste, then reuse it or recycle it. ›
□ Aim for minimum 50% reused materials and 80% that can be reused at the end of
their life.
191
4.6.3 Adaptive reuse as part of circular construction 4.41 EXAMPLES

The previous sections discussed reuse and life cycles at a material
Inspiring adaptive reuse
level, and this following section continues with the same principles
examples
› see Figures 4.26, at a bigger scale. Designing for the climate emergency promotes
• Flores & Prats – Sala Beckett,
4.32 and 4.33 circular construction and reuse strategies. › Adaptive reuse aims
› see Chapter to use an existing building for a new purpose to accommodate
Barcelona, Spain
2, Table 2.2 • Heatherwick – Zeitz MOCAA,
and Chapter 3, demographic and economic shifts, changing needs of users and
Cape Town, South Africa
Theme 1 diverse uses. › This can be done through renovation, conversion,
• Medusa Group – Bolko Loft,
› see Figure 4.33 infll, redesign, subtraction or addition. › Moreover, you could Bytom, Poland
› see Glossary implement the 3R (reduce, reuse, recycle) strategy ›, which • Peter Zumthor – Kolumba
and Table 2.7 treats buildings as resources by accepting their current state and Museum, Cologne, Germany
reducing the design and construction process to indispensable • Vandkunsten Architects –
interventions only. Apartments in Constable
School, Copenhagen,
Denmark

strategies for adaptive reuse:
renovation, conversion, infll,
redesign, subtraction and
addition (based on Muck Petzet,
Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, Resource
Architecture, 2012).
Figure 4.34 Examples of

innovative material production
and reuse: Ningbo Museum
by Wang Shu, which uses a
new structure to create large,
tilted walls with the wapan
technique that combines locally
sourced building rubble (left).
Volontariat Home for Homeless
Children by Anupama Kundoo,
where experimental in-situ
baked brick is used (right).

strategies for material
reuse that include direct
reuse, transplanting, spolia,
adaptation, reassembly and
recycling (based on Muck
Petzet, Reduce, Reuse, Recycle,
Resource Architecture, 2012).
192
It is not always feasible to reuse all building elements in the same Figure 4.36 Diagram
way – some may be kept in place, while others can be used for synthesising the fnancial cost
of the production cycle and
a new function or for material reuse and recycling. Remember,
in-use cycle – aspects of both
they will need cleaning, repair and screening to check for toxic
are included in life-cycle costing
› see Glossary contamination prior to reuse (e.g., wood rot, leaching of toxic plastic (LCC) and whole-life costing
and Table 4.12 or lead compounds). Some of these components will be upcycled › (WLC) principles.
› see Glossary through material reuse, transplanting, spolia ›, adaptation,
› see Figure 4.35 reassembly or recycling. › These different ways of material
processing open up endless possibilities for creative design.
4.6.4 Life-cycle assessment and life-cycle costing

Life-cycle assessment (LCA) can be undertaken to understand,
evaluate and compare the environmental impact of a material or
product over its lifetime and aid informed decision-making. It includes
resource use, pollution, waste, and toxicity to air, water, land, humans
and ecology, as well as energy and carbon used for extraction,
transportation and manufacture, maintenance, demolition, recycling, 4.42 NOTE
waste disposal or deconstruction and reuse. You can use LCA tools to
Whole-life costing
› see Chapter 5, help you in your design. ›
Table 5.5 Life-cycle costing is related
Life-cycle thinking also relates to economic considerations to the building and is part
concerning your project. For example, when a building or some of its of WLC, which also includes
elements are dismantled for reuse, this can create a cost saving (or non-construction related costs
resale value and income), which should be factored into the costing such as land costs (or income).
193
› see Glossary of buildings. Life-cycle cost (LCC) analysis › can estimate the cost Figure 4.37 Timber
of the future dismantling and reuse of building elements and the construction designed
for disassembly with clear
potential fnancial gains. This is alongside the cost of the building’s
organisation of functions and
construction and operation (i.e., the cost of extraction, transportation,
building layers by Annika Lyon.
production and construction, maintenance and replacement of a
material or a building).
LCC or whole-life costing (WLC, see Note 4.42) are important for
your design as they look at long-term costs and benefts, informing
sustainable design decisions. For example, often the cheapest material
is specifed, but it might turn out to be more expensive than pricier
options once maintenance and replacement over the building’s
lifespan are considered. Therefore, undertaking LCC as part of an
iterative design process is crucial for architects and clients to make
informed decisions. In your project, you are unlikely to gain access to
cost data, but you should be aware of these principles, and researching
different options will help in your decision-making.
Figure 4.38 Examples of

reversible joints: 1. tongue-and-
groove joint; 2. tapes; 3. screws;
4. dowels.
194
4.6.5 Adaptability of structural and 4.43 EXAMPLES

non-structural systems
Inspiring examples of
Structural considerations for climate emergency projects
structural adaptability
require that you ensure flexibility and adaptability of the chosen
• Buckminster Fuller –
solutions. Analysis of the entire life cycle of the designed building
Dymaxion House, Wichita,
and the design strategy selection will infuence your choice of a
USA
suitable structural system. Different structures are characterised • Bureau SLA + Overtreders
by diverse properties, lifespans and load-bearing capacities. There W – People’s Pavilion,
› see Chapter 3, are implications for fexibility, adaptability and reversibility › of the Eindhoven, the Netherlands
Section 3.2.1 designed building because they use different construction methods, • Feilden Clegg Bradley
materials and joints. For example, common concrete and hollow- Studios –Woodland Trust
brick construction systems are durable and economically feasible, but Headquarters, Grantham, UK
they have environmental impacts and compromise the fexibility of • NORD Architects – Villa
your design. You may encounter similar issues when choosing brick Wood, Copenhagen,
or stone. However, you can try to avoid these negative impacts by Denmark
considering timber as a structural material (see Figure 4.37) – there • Shigeru Ban – Japanese
are key recommendations in Table 4.13. Expo 2000 Pavilion,
Hannover, Germany
Moreover, the principles of traditional timber construction, which
› see Glossary favour open-plan and column-slab or column-beam-slab structures ›,
can be translated as a design rule for any sustainable structural
› see Glossary system. Such solutions – contrary to, for example, wall-slab systems ›
– ensure greater fexibility and adaptability of a designed building
where easy modifcations of non-structural elements accommodate
changing functions and modes of use. Key recommendations can be
found in Table 4.14 and Figures 4.38 and 4.39.

design for disassembly
considerations and details
by Søren Nielsen, from ‘The
Tectonic Potential of Design for
Deconstruction (DfD)’, in CIB
W115 Green Design Conference
Proceedings 366, 2012, pp21–6.
195
TABLE 4.14 THEME 6: KEY RECOMMENDATIONS – TESTING AND DEVELOPING

MATERIALS AND ADAPTABILITY
□ Assess the technical state, structure, previous patterns of use, aesthetics and socio-
cultural context of an existing building before considering adaptation for a new
› see Chapter 1 function. ›
□ Use the evaluation to choose an adequate adaptation strategy, which should
embrace and enhance the qualities of the existing building while improving the
› see Figure 4.33 ADAPTIVE weak points and rearranging for new functions. ›
REUSE AS PART
OF CIRCULAR □ Consider the properties of a material, source, previous patterns of use, technical
CONSTRUCTION and aesthetic state, and new purpose as well as its maintenance and future life
cycle when choosing the optimal method.
□ Question common patterns of exploiting resources and rethink traditional
› see Figure 4.36 construction methods, as this may help you to optimise and upscale them. ›
□ Optimise material fows and close waste-resource loops by reusing materials, using
by-products, off-cuts or surpluses.
LCA AND LCC

□ Consider both LCA and LCC to help you make informed decisions – compare
different options and the justifcation of your design choices.
To ensure a fexible and adaptable approach, consider the following (see also
Theme 1, Chapter 3).
□ Opt for standardised, prefabricated and modular elements to secure effcient use
of resources, fast construction, easy disassembly and repeated reuse.
› see Glossary □ Choose reversible systemic connections. › Avoid chemical joints (e.g., adhesives)
and connections that destroy the material (e.g., nails).
□ Use reversible, mechanical joints: bolts, screws, dowels, tapes, Velcro – and explore
the actions of clamping, hanging, hooking, pitching, overlapping, plugging,
consoling, futing, stacking, sliding, slitting, grooving, bending, protruding, lifting,
› see Figure 4.39 resting, spanning and splitting.15 ›
□ Investigate timber as a more sustainable material choice for a structural system.
□ Study and be inspired by traditional wooden architecture: old, resource-effcient
timber solutions; structural frames inflled with lighter, replaceable partition walls
connected with reversible joints.
□ Consider timber columns, beams, trusses or rafters. Note, this depends on the scale
ADAPTABILITY and function of your project.
OF STRUCTURAL
AND NON- □ To achieve larger spans and higher, stable but lightweight structures, consider
› see Table 4.13 STRUCTURAL using modifed or engineered timber (e.g., CLT, LVL, glu-lam or Brettstapel).16 ›
SYSTEMS □ Avoid concrete and hollow-brick construction systems because they have
environmental impacts and compromise the fexibility of your design. You may
encounter similar issues when choosing brick or stone for the structure of your
design. However, you can try to avoid some of these negative impacts.
□ Consider replacing standard concrete systems with massive wood in your projects
and with reversible joints to enable future fexibility and disassembly.
□ Use the appropriate construction system for the material choice (i.e., if massive
wood is not designed for adaptability or later disassembly, it can also lead to
buildings that may face premature obsolescence).
□ Use locally sourced and reused materials.
□ Select mortars which ensure reversibility of bonding (e.g., use lime mortars instead
of cement, which bonds so strongly that it destroys bricks during dismantling).
□ Replace raw materials with recycled substitutes to reduce environmental impacts
(e.g., steel, concrete).
□ Provide reversible connections of designed steel systems to ensure their future
› see Figure 4.38 recyclability. ›
196
4.7 THEME 7: HEALTH AND WELLBEING

Health and wellbeing is important at the detailed, building or urban
scale. As we spend so much of our time indoors, your design proposals
should create (indoor and outdoor) spaces that foster good health
and wellbeing – physically, socially and psychologically. This is a
complex theme which overlaps and relates to all design themes, and
accordingly some information is covered by other topics – see Themes
1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 8.
› see Section For example, Chapter 3 › outlined this theme from a broader site
3.2.4 or city perspective. Physical wellbeing within healthy spaces can be
achieved by creating access and connection to green infrastructure
and providing equal access to spaces as well as being supported
by specifying healthy materials and designing spaces that keep
people comfortable. In addition to the physical advantages, there
are accompanying psychological benefts of visual comfort and a
connection to nature. Research has shown healthy space affects, for
example, productivity in offces, better learning and faster recovery
in hospitals. These softer values can be strong motivators for your
design decisions. Remember that low-carbon transition must go
hand in hand with enhancing people’s wellbeing. We must avoid
unintended consequences on our health when saving CO2 emissions
and reducing energy use.
4.7.1 Physical wellbeing

There are many opportunities to improve physical wellbeing in
architecture, especially through physical movement and activities.
› see Chapter 3, This can be achieved through active or nudge architecture ›, providing
Theme 7 and well-designed and openly accessible circulation options, which may
Chapter 2,
Table 2.8
be more convenient and attractive than the less active alternative.
Ultimately, it is about making the most active mobility option the
most desirable, or the ‘path of least resistance’. However, in doing this
don’t compromise on providing good inclusive design for the less able.
For example, stairs should be designed for everyday use, which may
be achieved by an easily accessible stairwell with delightful views
that is wide enough to enable users to pass each other safely, with
suffcient landings for them to pause and say hello. A lift will still be
needed to ensure inclusive and universal access for everyone, but
seeing the stairs while waiting for the elevator increases the likelihood
of them being used. You can also reconsider the design of required
services, for example using accessibility ramps to create interesting
pathways through the building. Or consider where different functions
are placed to increase activity. Small movements throughout the day
make a big difference to a healthy lifestyle.
4.7.2 Social wellbeing

There is a direct connection between social interaction and your
overall health and wellbeing.17 It is crucial to design spaces that foster
and support both quantity and quality of social engagement. This is
› see Table 3.7 covered in more depth within Theme 8 (people and community) ›;
197
however, some quick tips are also included here. Interventions do 4.44 NOTE
not have to be intensive, and could be as small as providing places to
stop and interact with someone else, such as a park bench, a stairwell, Common indoor pollutants
a public table or a beautiful square where you can linger. Consider • Microorganisms (fungi and
unprogrammed spaces that allow people to dictate how they are used and moulds) are often visible
› see Chapter 1 can be tailored to their social needs. Study existing social spaces › on surfaces and release
Table 1.8 and consider how you can contribute to existing social infrastructure, and spore particles into the air.
what elements foster different types of social activities. For example, a They often grow in warm,
playground or feld for play, a quiet view for contemplation, or an wet and poorly ventilated
allotment for gardening. For inspiration, think about the spaces you environments such as
enjoy being social in and what their properties are. bathrooms.
• Particles (viruses and
4.7.3 Adaptable and flexible spaces pollen) are usually
introduced from exterior
As each person is different, it is diffcult to design robust spaces and
environments by people or
indoor environments that satisfy every user’s comfort needs (beyond ventilation systems. They
physical accessibility). Therefore, designing adaptable and fexible can affect health as a result
spaces works with adaptive comfort theory18 to allow inhabitants to of inadequate ventilation or
have some control over their own environment. This can occur within air circulation.
your design at different scales – for example, being able to change • Carbon dioxide is another
your dwelling’s layout to meet changes in lifestyle (see Chapter 3, contaminant formed by
Theme 1), providing unprogrammed space for user or community users exhaling, or in some
ownership, being able to open a window to change the temperature situations originating
at your desk, fnding a cool spot on a hot day or a sunny nook on a from tobacco smoke or
cold day. Creating adaptable spaces not only provides a level of control household appliances.
and freedom, but is also extremely relevant in the current context of • Volatile organic
the climate emergency and huge societal challenges such as ageing compounds (VOCs) see
demographics. For more on adaptation see Chapter 3, Section 3.2.1 Glossary, which are most
(Strategy 3), Notes 3.05, 3.07 and 3.09. commonly formaldehyde,
may be released (off-gassed,
4.7.4 Indoor air quality see Glossary) from building
materials and furniture.
Indoor air quality (IAQ) is an essential part of a project’s overall
indoor environmental quality (IEQ). Good air quality within buildings
is essential to ensure comfortable and healthy environments, as
polluted air (containing a range of volatile chemicals, particles and
biological contaminants) can be responsible for various illnesses,
› see Section especially respiratory diseases. Chapter 3 › goes into detail on
3.2.4 external air pollutants, showing how to reduce their infltration in
your project. However, these pollutants can also be produced in
the indoor environment – the building construction or materials,
household items or everyday activities such as drying laundry inside.
There are several different types of air pollutants, which originate from
different situations, and have various properties (e.g., some you can see
› see Section
3.2.3 for natural and some you cannot due to their size) and different consequences
ventilation and and design needs. Some common indoor pollutants, which affect
page 207 for health and wellbeing to different extents, are listed in Note 4.44.
mechanical
ventilation To provide good IAQ, it is important to consider good ventilation ›
› see Sections natural light, insulation and the use of non-toxic materials. › Consider
3.2.3, 4.7.5 and 4.6 the orientation of openings for effective airfow, while avoiding
polluted outdoor areas (e.g., roads and industry). Use mechanical
background ventilation with appropriate fltration systems to support
good IAQ. Additionally, controlling humidity is achieved through
198
good airfow, but also ensuring a dry construction and designing 4.45 NOTE
spaces (e.g., bathrooms, kitchens and laundry-drying facilities) with
good ventilation. However, selecting non-toxic materials is one of the Daylight modelling
most effective ways to reduce indoor air contaminants, and this is In practice more complex
covered in Section 4.6. methods may be used
to quantify daylight.
4.7.5 Comfort Climate-based daylight
modelling (CBDM) is a more
Visual comfort
sophisticated software-
It is essential that we design for good visual comfort to ensure that based method that uses real
buildings are ft for purpose now and into the future. We need buildings sky conditions to simulate
that can last, with the capability of adapting to future needs. If good daylight and is becoming
visual comfort is not provided in the initial build phase, it can be diffcult more widely used. See
or impossible to fx later in the building’s lifespan. This will probably Chapter 5 for daylight
lead to user dissatisfaction and, ultimately, an early demolition. Visual examples, and how students
comfort can only be considered as part of a holistic design process, as it used it to test, validate and
› see Section is closely related to site or urban design, thermal comfort ›, develop their projects (see
3.2.3 ventilation ›, orientation › and delight ›, and also supports the Figures 5.28 to 5.30).
› see Sections adaptability of spaces (e.g., division of rooms).19 Views, connections to
3.2.3 and 4.7.1
nature and good daylight have a positive impact on the occupants’
› see Section
3.2.3 psychological wellbeing.20 Additionally, the connection to delight
› see Section (Theme 9) supports the needs for spaces that are wonderful to
3.2.6 inhabit and that have been carefully crafted with users and their
needs in mind.
Daylight
Daylight is essential for human health in all spaces that
are occupied by people for any length of time. It is generally
acceptable for rooms that are only used for short periods to rely
solely on artifcial lighting – for example storerooms, plant rooms
and bathrooms (although daylight is still best in the latter example). Figure 4.40 Diagram
The better we can design for daylight in buildings, the less energy indicating average and
will be required for electric lighting. Daylight is a vital aspect in the minimum average daylight
delight and enjoyment of internal spaces, providing colour, sunlight factors for different room
functions. Aim for these in your
and shadows that allow us to read building forms and spaces. It also
projects, and never go below
connects us to the outside world and communicates the time of day,
minimum average daylight
seasons and weather. In purely practical terms, daylight allows us to factor, for which simple rules
perform tasks without additional electric lighting, though sometimes of thumb can be used (see
it may be necessary. Figure 4.41).
classroom / hospital cafe

bedroom living room kitchen
office ward (daylit)
average daylight factor 2% 5% 5% 5% 5% 5-10%

min. average daylight factor 1% 2% 2% 2% 3% 5%
199
a.
b.
1/2 H
a. direct sunlight
ideally no obstructions b. external reflection
above this line c. internal reflection
H H2
H3 c.
25°
angling of façade gives
better daylight
2 m above H1
floor level
building split by H1 ≥ H2
courtyard to
1.5 - 2.5 x H3 max 4 x H1
increase daylight
ideal distance
There are several methods to quantify daylight, but in Europe daylight Figure 4.41 Diagram
factor (DF) is the best method to understand, as it is simple and illustrating principles for
daylight access, including
commonly used in architectural practice. DF takes an overcast sky
taller windows on lower
condition (with full cloud cover) and is expressed as the percentage
foors, creating suffcient
of daylight inside a room compared to the daylight outside. Key distance to other obstructions
design recommendations are listed in Table 4.15 and Figure 4.40. For and splitting deeper-plan
DF, direct sunlight is not factored in, and this tends to make it more buildings with lightwells or
accurate in climates with a good deal of cloud cover (such as the UK or courtyards. Adapted from Sofe
Scandinavia) but less so in climates with clearer skies and more direct Pelsmakers, The Environmental
› see Note 4.45 sunlight. ›
Publishing, 2015.
It is important to understand the target daylight factors you should
aim for in your designs, and the implications for window design.
These are described in Table 4.15 in general terms and for specifc
room types.
Good daylight should be provided deep into rooms, and not just in
the areas adjacent to the windows. Generally, higher window heights
allow light to reach deeper into rooms. As a rough guide, daylight will
Figure 4.42 Diagrams

illustrating different window or
daylight sources (e.g., side, top
or combination).
200
penetrate around two times the window height into a room. It may be
necessary to introduce additional windows or skylights in deep rooms;
better still is to design shallow spaces. Courtyards or atrium spaces
can be effective to bring light into deep-plan buildings. Lighter (more
refective) internal surfaces will have a signifcant beneft in terms of
› see Figures daylight, as light will be refected around the internal space. ›
4.41 and 4.42
Daylight can be provided in rooms through translucent but obscured
windows and skylights, or by light pipes (i.e., refective tubes that
bounce light into a ceiling-mounted diffuser). It is important to note
that these systems do not adequately provide the connection with the
outside world that is an important aspect of glazing, so they should
› see Figure 4.41 never be used as direct window replacements. ›
TABLE 4.15 THEME 7: KEY RECOMMENDATIONS – TESTING AND DEVELOPING DAYLIGHT
internal daylight x 100

DAYLIGHT FACTOR DF =
external day light
AVERAGE TYPICAL WINDOW

DAYLIGHT AREA REQUIRED AS A
QUALITATIVE FEEL OF THE ROOM
FACTOR PERCENTAGE OF THE
(DF) WALL AREA
Feels poorly daylit, with little connection to the outside world

<1% <10%
and artifcial lighting required at all times.
Feels predominantly artifcially lit with some infuence from

1–2% natural daylight. Artifcial lighting is usually required for 10–20%
specifc tasks.
Feels well daylit with a fair connection to the outside light

2–5% and weather conditions. Artifcial lighting will be required 20–40%
sometimes for specifc tasks.
Feels very well daylit with a good connection to the outside

light and weather conditions. Artifcial lighting is rarely
5–10% 40–60%
required during the hours of daylight. Occupant experience of
the room will generally be positive.
>50%. Spaces designed for

Feels highly daylit, almost like an outdoor space. Artifcial this level of daylight might
lighting is not required during the hours of daylight. May be also incorporate skylights,
10%+
too bright for specifc tasks. This level of daylight factor might or might only aim for the
be aimed for in an atrium-type space. target DF in certain parts
of the space
Note: All recommendations need to be balanced with wintertime heat loss and summertime potential
overheating risk (especially if there is no solar shading). In addition to the above window-opening
percentage of the wall area, you can also check the proportion of window-to-foor area: if over 40%,
overheating may become a risk, and if below 20% of the foor area there will be insuffcient daylight.
Figure 4.40 also sets out DFs to aim for.
201
Sunlight
In some building types, the occupants will expect direct sunlight to
penetrate through windows into certain rooms. This is always the
case for dwellings in temperate climates, and may also be desirable in
› see Section 4.4 many other building types. Dual-aspect dwellings, discussed earlier ›
and Chapter 3, are a way of ensuring adequate access to sunlight. For such buildings,
section 3.2.3
the target is based on designing at least 25% of probable sunlight
hours to enter the room across the year, and at least 5% of probable
hours in the northern hemisphere winter period from 21 September to
21 March (from 21 March to 21 September in the southern hemisphere).
Views
In almost all buildings, views form a key part of visual comfort.
Views into a building from outside may also be important in some
buildings, but must be considered carefully (especially in residential
buildings) to provide adequate privacy to users. Views out should
be provided in most rooms that are occupied by people. They may
include views into internal courtyards or, possibly, internal atria for
non-residential buildings, provided they are large enough to allow
the eyes to focus into the distance, provide visual interest and do
not compromise acoustic performance or access to fresh air supply,
privacy and daylight.
Views to the outside can be considered in three ‘layers’ (see Figure 4.43):
• The sky or upper layer includes the sky and its interface with the
ground (e.g., horizon, buildings, hills, sea).
• The middle layer includes the urban context, adjacent buildings,
outdoor spaces, roads, parks and landscape elements.
• The lower or foreground layer includes only the ground areas
adjacent to the building (e.g., paving, grass, planting, snow).
Where possible, include all three layers in views. If this is not possible, Figure 4.43 Window shape,
aim to include the sky (upper) and middle layer in views. To do this, size and position has a
signifcant impact on the
ensure the window head is higher than the eye height of a standing
perceived quality of view.
occupant, and the window sill is lower than the eye height of a seated
Consider including the three
occupant. In terms of horizontal positioning, aim to include distant (or frst two) layers of views (i.e.,
views, views of natural elements, changing elements and points of sky or upper layer, middle layer,
interest. Example window considerations are shown in Figure 4.43. lower or foreground layer).
202
Acoustic comfort 4.46 PRACTICE

Acoustic comfort may sometimes be overlooked in student (and some
built) projects, as it is more diffcult to represent in a drawing than Specifc acoustic
other aspects of health and wellbeing. However, noise problems in requirements
Room functions such as
buildings can be very detrimental to health and wellbeing. Acoustic
performance or recording
design must be considered as part of a holistic approach. Key
may need a higher level of
approaches are set out below.
noise reduction, and it would
Keeping ambient noise out be normal in practice for a
All buildings sit within sites with varying ambient noise levels, while specialist acoustician to advise
different internal functions require specifc maximum background noise on such projects. In practice
levels. For most sites, and most internal functions, normal envelope partition and ceiling systems
build-ups (walls, roofs, external foors) and closed windows and doors manufacturers will provide
proven sound reduction levels
are enough to keep ambient noise to a suitable level in the building.
for their products.
However, open windows only provide a small reduction in noise levels
from outside to inside (in the region of 5–10 dB). It is essential that your
project shows awareness of both the external ambient noise levels and
› see Chapter 1, the required internal background noise levels. ›
Section 1.4.7,
Note 4.47 If the external ambient noise level is 5–10 dB greater than the
and Chapter 5, required internal background noise level, then simply opening
Figure 5.18 windows for ventilation will not be adequate. In this case there are
three possible solutions:
• natural ventilation with acoustic attenuation (as described in
Section 4.4)
• mechanical ventilation (discussed on page 207)
• mixed-mode ventilation (discussed on page 207).
In poorly designed buildings occupants are sometimes forced

to choose between adequate natural ventilation and thermal
comfort (i.e., opening windows), or adequate acoustic comfort 4.47 NOTE
(i.e., keeping windows closed).
Maximum background
Acoustic separation between adjacent noise levels
buildings or adjacent rooms As a guide, these are the
The approach to acoustic separation between spaces is similar to maximum background noise
that for keeping noise out, but in this case, the concern is noise levels that are acceptable for
passing through the wall or foor construction or, in the case of the different functions:
same building, noise passing through air vents or open doors. In • Light engineering
terms of noise separation through foors and walls, there are a range workplace – 65 dB
of products and systems available that – if installed correctly – will • Living room in dwelling
provide adequate separation. For architecture students, it is usually (daytime) – 55 dB
suffcient to realise that these constructions may need to be quite • Living room in dwelling
thick to allow for acoustic insulation and internal cavities (i.e., required (evening and night-time) –
to stop vibration noise). As a guide, allow 300 mm wall thickness 40 db
• Bedroom (night-time) – 30 dB
for partitions between noise-sensitive rooms and 150 mm for more
• Offce – 40 dB
normal noise separation.
• Classroom – 35 dB
See Section 4.4 for methods to limit noise transfer in internal air • Amateur/educational
paths. If noise transfer through open doors is an issue, it will be performance room – 30 dB
necessary to provide lobbies with two sets of doors. • Concert hall – 25 dB
203
1. FIXED HIGH
Acoustic absorption panels fixed at
high level to walls allow for
unobstructed air flow to the soffit, 1.
services can be fixed to soffit and
windows are unobstructed.
2. SUSPENDED HORIZONTALLY
Acoustic absorption panels
suspended horizontally below the
soffit allow for good air flow to the 2.
soffit and windows are unobstructed.
Soffit mounted services need to be
coordinated with the panels.
3. ACOUSTIC BAFFLES
Suspended horizontally below the
3.
soffit allow for excellent air flow to
the soffit, services can be fixed to
soffit and windows are unobstructed.
Lighting needs to be coordinated
with the baffles.
Internal noise: speech, reverberation and absorption Figure 4.44 Diagram

Now you have considered how to keep noise out of the rooms in your indicating different acoustic
absorption techniques and how
project, you must consider the noise that is created inside the room
they can also allow good airfow
itself. This may be from equipment and amplifed music, but it will
within a space and over thermal
mainly be from occupants talking. Consider both the intended use of mass in soffts.
the room and the sources of noise. In a noisy environment such as a
factory, users will expect to approach each other to talk, whereas in a
classroom, users will expect to hear adequately across the length of
the room. With the exception of specifc spaces, such as performance
or recording rooms, the solution is to provide acoustic absorption
within the room. By absorbing sound energy, you limit how long
sound will refect around the space (known as reverberation) and thus
› see Note 4.47 make speech clearer and more intelligible. ›
The main ways of providing acoustic absorption are detailed in Table
4.17 and Figure 4.44.
Thermal comfort
Thermal comfort is an individual’s satisfaction with a thermal
environment, usually whether it is (too) hot or too cold. Thermal
comfort is affected by a combination of factors such as air
temperature, humidity, air velocity (draughts), temperature of
surrounding surfaces (radiant temperature) and each individual’s
metabolic rate and clothing. Thermal discomfort can lead to thermal
stress, particularly in older people (e.g., when they are exposed to
extreme hot or cold temperatures). In this section, solar control and
mechanical ventilation are discussed, while topics such as natural
ventilation and thermal mass can be found in Section 4.4.
204
allow for Fgure 4.45 Diagrams

ventilation illustrating different solar
between fabric
and shading shading techniques, including
horizontal shading for south-
facing windows (in the northern
hemisphere), vertical shading,
awnings, and combinations
of horizontal and vertical
sliding / fns which are effective on all
rotating
facades. Adapted from Sofe
HORIZONTAL SOLAR VERTICAL SHADING HORIZONTAL + Design Pocketbook, RIBA
SHADING 90-96 % solar gain reduction VERTICAL ‘FINS’ Publishing, 2015.
75 % solar gain reduction west / east 60-75 % solar gain reduction
south south east/ south west
AWNING (MOVABLE) (MOVABLE)

60-75 % solar gain reduction HORIZONTAL VERTICAL FINS /
85-90 % solar gain reduction LOUVRES
85-90 % solar gain reduction
4.48 PRACTICE
Solar control (shading)

Solar control
in practice
The solar control of glazing is important to ensure that buildings do In practice it is common for
not overheat in a warming climate or in extreme weather conditions. overheating simulations to
Even in temperate climates, uncontrolled solar gain on glazing can be conducted by a specialist
cause internal overheating. The key design strategies for solar control engineer, and they would test
are listed in Table 4.16 and include building and room orientation, glazing and shading options.
trees and vegetation, external shading, movable external shading, It would also be normal for a
› see Notes 4.48 internal solar shading and glazing specifcation. › Usually, a single landscape architect to specify
and 4.49 solar control design strategy is insuffcient on its own to eliminate the details of planted species
building overheating entirely, but a combination of measures is and how they should be
required.21 maintained.
Figure 4.46 Diagram

illustrating user-controlled
timber shutters that are
prevalent in Swiss vernacular
architecture. These shutters can
be locked open or shut, but also
incorporate a variable louvre
angle to ‘tune’ visual comfort
qualities.
205
4.49 NOTE
TABLE 4.16 STRATEGIES FOR SOLAR CONTROL
External shading and
Orientation architectural quality
› see Chapter 3, Orientation of the building and rooms is the frst strategy to consider. ›
Consider that external
Theme 4
Trees and vegetation for solar shading 22 shading, and the changing
Deciduous trees can be effective for providing shading in summer yet pattern of shadows cast by it,
allowing light to pass through in winter. This strategy is most effective can make a rich contribution
for shading east- and west-facing glazing when the sun angles are lower. to the architectural language,
Note that even in winter a typical deciduous tree will block 10–30% of expression of your design
the available daylight, and therefore windows must be sized accordingly. and atmospheric delight.
Trees take a long time to grow, so the design strategy must also be
As we design for a warming
effective while the trees are growing. Vegetation climbing up or growing
climate, think about options
› see Note 4.48 on parts of a building may also provide effective shading in summer. ›
and 4.49 for adapting shading in the
Solar control (low transmittance) future; shading elements
Solar-control glass works by allowing a good proportion of daylight can also be (deciduous)
to pass through it while reducing solar gain (i.e., heat energy passing vegetation (see Figures 4.45
through the glass). Solar-control glazing needs to be combined with to 4.47 and Figure 4.7 and
some of the other strategies, as it will not be suffcient on its own.
Note 4.03).
Internal solar control (shading)
This is very effective for allowing users to control internal light levels
but is not as effective at reducing solar gain, as the solar energy is only
intercepted within the thermal envelope, and it depends on users.
Ensure that internal devices (such as roller or Venetian blinds) are
suffciently robust for the building use, and work with the proposed
ventilation approach.
4.50 NOTE
External shading Benefts of MVHR

This can reduce summer solar gain by 60–90% and helps to keep • Heat is recovered from
buildings cool. The principle is simple – direct sunlight hits an external ventilation.
shading device and is partly refected and partly absorbed by the • Acoustic problems from
material, and therefore is not incident on the glazing. At the same time,
outdoor noise may be
refected light from the sky and from the ground is still incident on the
avoided.
glazing, providing daylight to the interior without the same levels of solar
• Good air quality can be
gain that direct sunlight carries. The design of external shading is related
to the solar angles. In Northern Europe typically south-facing glazing maintained internally
(north-facing in the southern hemisphere) requires horizontal shading, (in some buildings, such
and east-/west-facing glazing requires vertical shading or a combination as schools, air quality is
of vertical and horizontal. In climates with greater levels of solar gain, monitored in teaching
› see Figures shading screens may be required to fully shade glazing. › spaces and ventilation
4.45 and 4.46 rates can be adjusted as
and Note 4.49 Variable (movable) external shading
required).
This can be highly effective for providing visual comfort, as daylight,
sunlight, views and privacy can be controlled and adapted. User- • Unpleasant draughts
controlled systems such as sliding screens or awnings can be adapted by caused by natural
building users to suit their solar needs and sometimes provide additional ventilation in winter can be
› see Figure security. › They can also be electronically controlled, and while they can avoided.
4.45 be highly effective at optimising daylight and solar gain, they must be • Required ventilation
considered as part of a whole life-cycle approach as they are often high rates for good IAQ can be
in embodied and operational carbon (in addition to built and operational maintained regardless of
fnancial costs) – see Figure 4.47.
wind conditions, building
orientation and room
proportions.
• Thermal mass and summer
night purging can be
optimised without relying
on natural ventilation.
206
Mechanical ventilation Figure 4.47 Gard Meisingseth

There are many situations and factors that might make mechanical Rognes illustrate how plants
and trees can be used for
ventilation the best option for a climate emergency design:
solar shading on the southern
sometimes, mechanical ventilation is needed for certain room types to facades of their project, placed
ensure the removal of stale air, fumes and dust, and to provide a good in between the facade to also
supply of fresh air. Moreover, sometimes opening windows for natural create views towards nature in a
› see Note 4.16 ventilation can create noise problems. › In addition to these reasons, highly dense urban context.
mechanical ventilation may also be used with the primary purpose
of reducing winter space-heating energy demand through heat
4.51 PRACTICE
recovery. This is known as mechanical ventilation with heat recovery
› see Glossary (MVHR).› It is the most reliable way to effciently control good year- Mixed-mode ventilation
round background ventilation to ensure good IAQ, which affects and building management
› see page 160 health and wellbeing. › system
and Chapter 3, In a mixed-mode system,
Section 3.2.3 MVHR
the building management
The principle of MVHR is that rather than expelling stale, warm air system (BMS; the computer
directly to the outside, the air frst passes through a heat exchanger that monitors and controls
that recovers a good deal of the heat energy and uses this to warm up the building systems) will be
fresh, incoming air. This pre-warmed air is then supplied into rooms informed by sensors when
in the building. Combining MVHR with high levels of insulation and windows or doors are opened,
airtightness can lead to buildings with very low heating demands, and and can reduce mechanical
it is a fundamental principle of low-energy building standards such as ventilation rates accordingly. In
› see Chapter 2, Passivhaus. › Other benefts are listed in Note 4.50. some buildings, the BMS will
Table 2.6 and alert occupants to open or shut
Note 4.18 Mixed-mode ventilation windows or doors and uses
Often MVHR will be combined with natural ventilation to maximise weather forecasts and external
the benefts of both systems, known as mixed-mode ventilation. It and internal air temperatures
is well evidenced that building occupants like to be able to control to both learn how the building
their environment by opening or closing windows or ventilation performs and also to prepare
panels. In different weather and use conditions, natural or mechanical the building for the next day
ventilation might be the best option. Mixed-mode ventilation (see Figure 4.48).
207
combines both systems in a carefully coordinated approach. The 4.52 EXAMPLES

best way to explain a mixed-mode system is often through a series
of environmental sections that demonstrate how the systems work Inspirational examples of
together for typical conditions – winter day, winter night, summer day, comfort and wellbeing
› see Note 4.51 summer night. › architecture
and Figure 4.48 • C.F. Møller – The Heart in
Earth tubes Ikast, Denmark
Earth tubes use the high thermal mass and stable temperature • dRMM – Kingsdale School,
of below-surface soil. This is not to be confused with geothermal London, UK
systems that utilise the higher temperatures at a considerable depth • Haworth Tompkins
below ground. In an earth-tube system, concrete pipes are laid below – Everyman Theatre,
ground at depths of around 2 m. The pipes are large (1.5–2 m diameter) Liverpool, UK
and long (50–100 m). The earthworks required to lay the pipes are • Ho Khue Architects – The
considerable and may not be viable on sites without large external Modern Village Offce, Son
Tra, Vietnam
grounds. Fresh air is drawn through the pipes mechanically, and feeds
• HTA Architects –
into a mechanical or mixed-mode ventilation system. In winter heat
CarbonLight Home,
from the ground pre-warms the incoming air, and in summer the
Kettering, UK
ground absorbs heat from the incoming air and cools it. The benefts
of earth tubes are a reduction in winter heating energy demands and,
perhaps more importantly for a warming climate, a very low-energy
208
source of cool air in summer to help combat overheating. Remember

to factor in the amount of concrete used for earth tubes when
› see Section 4.6 considering your project’s material carbon footprint. ›
Local cooling
The approaches described so far should enable you to design buildings
for a cold and temperate climate with a good level of confdence that
they will not require air-conditioning to avoid overheating. Energy
modelling will greatly assist in this (see Chapter 5). The operational
carbon of such systems should always be included in whole life-cycle
› see Section 4.6.4 analysis ›; the carbon cost of air-conditioning is high and should
generally be avoided. However, for specifc room functions cooling
may be required. Typical examples would be large lecture theatres,
server rooms, and medical or scientifc facilities. It is better to design
in comfort cooling for these rooms than have rooms that overheat and
Figure 4.48 Nikola Yanev
› see Glossary are not ft for purpose ›, or alternatively ensure that cooling can easily
demonstrated a night-time
be added later if required due to a warming climate. These systems purge ventilation strategy
can be run on renewable energy (Theme 5), and require a specialist across the summer and winter
building services engineer to design them. months.
209
TABLE 4.17 THEME 7: KEY RECOMMENDATIONS – TESTING AND DEVELOPING HEALTH

AND WELLBEING
□ Designs stairs for everyday use – easily visible, accessible and comfortable, with
incentives such as views to entice people to use them.
PHYSICAL □ Ensure that the circulation which promotes the most activity is the most attractive to
WELLBEING use.
□ Consider where functions are placed to encourage movement (e.g., bathrooms away
from desks) and create incentives such as views or nice spatial qualities.
□ Create spaces for informal social interaction, such as well-placed benches, tables or
seating nooks.
SOCIAL □ Create unprogrammed space that allows the users to engage with it how they wish.
WELLBEING Remember, unprogrammed does not mean forgotten or empty, leftover space.
□ Consider developing functions that allow for social engagement, such as playgrounds
or community gardens.
ADAPTABLE
AND FLEXIBLE
□ Provide spaces that can be adapted and controlled to meet the comfort needs of the
users and future challenges (e.g., operable windows).
SPACES
□ Use only non-toxic materials and construction techniques.

IAQ
□ Create good ventilation and airfow, especially for bathrooms, kitchens and laundries
(e.g., natural, mechanical and hybrid systems).
□ Design the spaces to perform well for their function, and facilitate good ventilation.
□ Consider the DFs needed for the different functions of each room, and ensure you
have the right windows to provide this.
DAYLIGHT □ Ensure you have adequate daylight penetration, especially in deep rooms. Use higher
windows to achieve this – as a rule of thumb, light will penetrate around two times
the window height.
SUNLIGHT
□ Design for allowing at least 25% of probable sunlight hours to enter the room across
the year and at least 5% of probable hours in winter.
VIEWS
□ Ensure that there are adequate views from your building for visual comfort.
□ Consider views into your project carefully, ensuring necessary privacy for users.
□ Be aware of both the external ambient noise levels and the required internal
background noise levels.
□ Consider construction thickness for adequate acoustic insulation and internal cavities.
As a guide, allow 300 mm wall thickness for partitions between noise-sensitive rooms
and 150 mm for more normal noise separation.
□ The main ways of providing acoustic absorption are as below, and Figure 4.44.
□ Consider the building occupants and their clothing for effective absorption of
sound energy. However, design for cases when there are fewer people in a room.
NOISE □ Consider using carpet as an effective sound-energy absorber. Ensure you use one
made from natural materials.
□ Attach simple acoustic panels to walls, and for more complex systems use timber
slats to cover cavity and acoustic insulation. The latter system is suffciently robust
to be used at foor level and the timber slats provide a high-quality fnish.
□ Consider using acoustic panels ftted to the ceiling or acoustic ceiling systems for
› see Figure 4.13 ceiling absorption. ›
□ Consider using hanging absorption (also known as acoustic baffes) suspended
from the sofft with wires. Note that baffes come in a variety of colours and
shapes, and work particularly well below an exposed concrete or CLT sofft.
210
□ Use trees, especially deciduous trees, to create external shading in the summer
months and allow light in the winter.
□ Use internal solar control to allow users to control internal light levels, but consider
other external controls to reduce solar gain.
SOLAR
□ Use exterior solar shading to reduce solar gains. As a rule of thumb for Northern
Europe, south-facing buildings (north-facing in the southern hemisphere) should use
CONTROL
horizontal shading, east/west vertical or combination shading.
□ Consider how shading devices can create shadows and add to the atmosphere or
delight of your building.
□ Consider using operable external shading such as louvres to allow users to control the
indoor environment.
□ Combine MVHR with high levels of insulation and airtightness to create buildings
with very low heating needs. MVHR can also be useful for air fltering and reducing
outdoor noise.
MECHANICAL
VENTILATION □ Consider mixed-mode ventilation to allow operable windows while also having the
beneft of MVHR.
□ If your ground/site conditions allow it, consider using earth tubes and stable ground
temperatures to preheat and cool incoming air.
4.8 PERFORMANCE
Sustainable architecture is def ined by its long-term perspective
– the process does not f inish with the end of your design, or
construction. It also includes the building’s maintenance, servicing
during use (i.e., checking it all works) and disassembly, reuse or
recycling of its elements as the end-of-life scenario.
Building a project typically unfolds in several stages, which include
designing (i.e., concept, detail, planning permission, preparing
construction information), planning of the construction (i.e.,
competitive costing, purchasing materials) and then construction of
› see Figure 4.27 the design. › Often excluded is performance evaluation (i.e., checking
that what was built actually works). However, this is fundamental for
sustainable architecture.
Achieving a design for the climate emergency in your design proposal
means nothing if it is not achieved once your project is built and users
move in. After all, the climate crisis is real, and paper CO2 savings
will do nothing to avert it. This is also the case for all of the other
restorative aims you set out. Performance evaluations help to create
more holistic and accountable buildings that meet or exceed the
goals set out in your design vision.
You should visit (and revisit) your project once it is in use to check if it
works – technically, spatially, materially, and for the diverse range of users
you designed your project for and with. This requires post-occupancy
› see Glossary evaluation (POE) and building performance evaluation (BPE) ›, for ease
referred to here as ‘performance evaluation’. You are unlikely to be
› see Chapter 1,
Section 1.4.8, page able to do that in your student project, as it probably won’t be built,
56 and Note 2.29 unless you are working on a live project. ›
211
Figure 4.49 Example of a

‘performance risk plan’, which
can be used as a template for
How likely
Potential is it to occur? Implemented understanding and refecting
Implications Solution
identified risk (likely, unlikely) strategy
on the potential risks within
your own project.
unknown wind unclear if wind likely; wind speeds try to measure alternative
speeds energy as proposed in urban areas are windspeed on site strategy
will be feasible often not high for a short proposed
enough to make duration; propose
wind energy alternative
feasible renewable energy;
have back up plan,
and plan for both
However, there are still things that are important for you to undertake 4.53 EXAMPLES
as part of your project’s design. This section focuses on these actions,
and it includes the setting of specifc targets, and how you might Inspirational examples of
› see Table 4.18 validate these (linking to Chapter 5). › It also means the mapping of well-performing architecture
risks related to your project’s design goals into a ‘performance risk • AART – Home for Life,
register’, and refecting on how to reduce these risks. As an extension Lystrup, Denmark
to your democratic design plan, you can map key stakeholders and • Hassan Fathy – New Baris
collaborators who are crucial to meeting your climate emergency School, Egypt
› see Chapter 3, goals. › And fnally, the creation of user, maintenance, and • Leth & Gori – Brick House,
Theme 8 disassembly and reuse manuals is important. These actions are Nyborg, Denmark
described further below. • Mole Architects – Orwell
Housing Living Wall, Bury St
4.8.1 Target setting Edmunds, UK
It is necessary to set clear, usually quantifable, targets for performance
– Tinggården, Herfølge,
help to test and validate your design to develop it further. Targets Denmark
create clear benchmarks (i.e., standards or goals) against which to
evaluate your interim (and fnal) design proposal. In a live project, or in
practice, these same targets can also be used to evaluate your project
once it is built and in use.
TABLE 4.18 SETTING PERFORMANCE TARGETS
You can set performance targets in different ways, for example based on any of the following:
Rules of thumb and key recommendations

You can use the tables at the end of each section and elsewhere to help you set performance targets (e.g.,
your project can aim for 5% daylight factor in all spaces; or for spaces to be no deeper than 10 m; or the use
of 50% reused materials in your project, while 80% can be reused at the end of life).
Different certifcation and assessment tools

Some of these tools were set out in Chapter 2, Table 2.11 (e.g., design to Passivhaus standard, LEED
Platinum or Living Building Challenge).
Exceeding current regulations, standards or guidance

If using regulations and standards as performance targets, ideally you would exceed them (e.g., you can
aim for your project to do better by 50% than the minimum criteria for energy use, U-values, material
reclamation, daylight provision or green space).
212
4.8.2 Performance risk plan 4.54 PRACTICE

The more accurate your information during the exploration process
Specialist skills
(Step 1), the more informed your project defnition and decision-
In practice there is normally
making process (Steps 2 and 3) and the testing of your design
a large design team for
approaches (Step 4), and the lower the risk that your project might not
every project with a range
perform as intended.
of specialist skills and
However, you do not always have access to all the information needed knowledge. In a student
to make certain decisions (e.g., you cannot visit the site or you can project, however, you need
visit only in one season; you cannot obtain information about the to make many decisions that
availability of materials for reuse; your engagement with the local would normally be made by
community is limited; or future predicted climate data is not available). other design team members
or be informed by design
Therefore, you will need to make assumptions in your design, which team advice. It is important
creates potential ‘risks’ to the success of your project (i.e., will it work for you to have an awareness
in reality?). A ‘performance risk plan’ is where you try to understand, of the wider design team
refect and manage some of these risks by mapping these ‘risk areas’ specialist knowledge and to
of your project, as recommended in Table 1.10. The intention is to map use this to inform decisions,
potential risks revealed during the design process at different stages but remember that in
and refect on how you could minimise impact. Focus on what missing practice you would never
information might jeopardise your design ambitions being met. be expected to possess the
full knowledge of other
Risks to the success of your project are related to people’s satisfaction
disciplines. Rules of thumb
(their needs, expectations, perception), spatial performance (use
are often useful to help you
of spaces, adaptability and fexibility of use over time), material
make decisions that would
performance (weathering, aesthetics and technical performance,
otherwise require specialist
especially when using innovative materials), and system and building
knowledge or skills. A number
performance (energy use, heating, cooling and ventilation systems,
of these were introduced in
renewable energy). They are often also overlapping and related (e.g., this chapter.
use of space also depends on people’s needs). A worked example is
mapped in Figure 4.49.
To illustrate, missing information in your contextual research may 4.55 PRACTICE
increase the risk to your project’s performance. You could propose a
micro-wind turbine on the site to meet 100% of your project’s energy User manual in practice
needs, but you have no access to the site’s wind speeds and do not In practice, a user manual
know if this is feasible. If the wind speeds are too low, the energy should explain to building
needs might not be met through renewables and it would increase users how to:
carbon emissions (made worse by the material, energy and carbon • maximise the use of
used in the construction of the turbine itself). daylight to reduce artifcial
lighting
4.8.3 Key stakeholders and collaborators • optimise ventilation, heating
and cooling systems (e.g.,
Architecture is not created by a single individual. It relies on co-
natural and mechanical
creation with other experts, some of whom are the local community.
ventilation, shading
Different areas of expertise are required due to the complexity and
elements)
integrated nature of climate emergency design, and ensuring that it
• optimise electrical
works in reality. But as an architect you are not expected to possess installations (e.g., lighting
all of this expertise. Drawing on others’ expertise through close, equal sensors)
and open-minded collaboration means we are more likely to get • adapt spaces (e.g., illustrate
› see Note 4.54 things right. › After all, we cannot afford to get it wrong. adaptability scenarios for
Collaborative design development with the local community usually users, different spatial
› see Chapter 3, creates more satisfed users. › This might in turn positively infuence layouts, furnishings, easy to
Theme 8 the project’s long-term performance, use and maintenance. alter or remove structures)
(see Chapter 3, Theme 1).
213
Identifying key collaborators for a successful project 4.56 NOTE

While working with other felds of expertise is limited in architecture
school, you should still acknowledge and identify who the key Creating manuals in support
stakeholders and key collaborators might be for your project to be of your design
successful, from the client users to ecologists, engineers, suppliers and Manuals can help you
so on. Simply list who they are, as set out in Chapter 3, Theme 8, and investigate, understand and
develop your own design
see Table 4.20.
approaches in more detail. A
4.8.4. User, maintenance, disassembly and reuse guides use manual should include
future adaptability scenarios,
Your project does not fnish once it is built. There are three main and a maintenance manual
manuals to consider: a user manual, a maintenance manual and a consists of entries specifying
› see Notes 4.56 disassembly and reuse guide for the user and client. › A live project alterations of a constructed
and 4.57 and might give you this opportunity, but you can also do this as part of building to keep track of
Table 4.19
your design. all changes. The climate
emergency requires that
a disassembly and reuse
manual is prepared to ensure
preservative disassembly and
TABLE 4.19 USER, MAINTENANCE, DISASSEMBLY
the future reuse of elements.
AND REUSE GUIDES
These often are separate
User (or operation) manual manuals, as users and clients
This manual describes how the building should be used in the most may not be the same. Focus
effcient way (and how it can be altered), explaining passive and active on the manual that best helps
› see Notes systems or other environmental solutions and control. › your design development and
4.56 and 4.57 is aligned with your project
Maintenance manual defnition and focus.
This will provide information about life cycles of building elements, and
the required frequency of servicing and repair. It can include research
information on the longevity of materials and elements, and their
durability in everyday use or when facing adverse weather conditions. The
manual will help to keep a building in the optimal technical and aesthetic
› see Notes state, supporting its long-term performance. ›
4.56 and 4.57
Disassembly and reuse manual
This guide describes the structure of the building, and its layers,
› see Chapter elements, materials and reversible details. › In the manual, provide
3, Theme 1 and step-by-step instructions for its disassembly to preserve elements in the
Figure 4.38 4.57 PRACTICE
best technical condition. Moreover, refect on and propose future reuse
scenarios for building elements and materials. If possibilities to reuse
Maintenance manual in
elements are limited, consider recycling scenarios. Material passports can
› see Chapters be part of this. ›
practice
3 and 5, Figure In practice, a maintenance
31 and Note 5.12 manual should include the
following information:
• maintenance of fooring and
fnishes
• information on cleaning
with non-toxic and
sustainable cleaning agents
• maintenance of sanitary
systems to minimise water
consumption
• maintenance of vegetation
• annual inspection of active
systems.
214

TESTING AND DEVELOPING PERFORMANCE
Have you undertaken (or considered undertaking) the following?

□ Set clear targets for performance to help you to test and validate your design
to develop it further. Set targets:
TARGET SETTING □ using rules of thumb and key recommendations
□ using different certifcation and assessment tools, some of which were
set out in Chapter 2, Table 2.11
□ exceeding current regulations, standards or guidance.
PERFORMANCE RISK
□ Create and map potential ‘risk areas’ of your project – see Table 1.10 and
Figure 4.49 and 1.30. Focus on what missing information might jeopardise
REGISTER
your design ambitions and how you could minimise any impact from that.
STAKEHOLDERS AND
□ Identify and simply list key (hypothetical) stakeholders to collaborate and co-
› see also COLLABORATORS
develop your project with throughout the design process to ensure success ›
Chapter 3, (see Table 1.10 and Note 3.26).
Theme 8
USER, MAINTENANCE,
□ Consider creating a user manual, maintenance manual, and disassembly
and reuse guide. Use annotated drawings instead of hefty written
DISASSEMBLY AND
documents (see Table 4.19).
REUSE GUIDES
□ Consider including future scenarios for use and also reuse options.
4.9 SUMMARY
The in-depth development of your design is a stage where you
address previously chosen strategies and develop them in more detail,
testing and developing architectural approaches and design solutions.
This chapter showed that you as an architect are key to the creation of
a sustainable built environment. The natural environment, energy and
CO2 pollution, people’s health and wellbeing, community agency and
resilience are all infuenced by the early and detailed design decisions
you make. If the basics are not right from the start, other experts in
the design team will have an uphill struggle to reduce the impact of
your design on the environment, society and the climate.
To help get the basics right, we provided lots of guidance and
recommendations in this chapter. While they may seem a little
overwhelming at frst, each of the key recommendation checklists is
there to help you systematically test and develop your design. You are
not expected to cover all themes equally. Depending on your year of
study, you might only tackle a few of the themes at all stages of the
› see Chapter 0, design, or more. Your teachers will also be able to guide you in this. ›
Section 0.2.11 It is also important to highlight that as a student there are limitations
in terms of how much you can achieve in a single student project, and
learning is the overall aim. Remember that the projects you might
admire for their response to the climate emergency will have been
developed by a range of specialists over months or years.
In the next chapter a range of tools and methods to help you test and
validate your ideas and communicate them to your peers and tutors
are presented.
215
CHAPTER 5
VALIDATING AND
COMMUNICATING
YOUR APPROACH
(STEPS 4 AND 5)
5.1 INTRODUCTION 217

5.2 TOOLS FOR FORMING 217
AND COMMUNICATING CONCEPTS
5.3 DIAGRAMMING YOUR CONTEXTUAL 223
DATA (SITE ANALYSIS)
5.3.1 Tools for working with users or personas 227
5.4 VALIDATION AND FEEDBACK 228

5.4.1 Using site and building scale 228
drawings for validation
5.4.2 Using digital and physical models 232
for validation
5.4.3 Validation through rules of thumb, 236
design guides and checklists
5.4.4 Validation through energy models 237
5.4.5 Validation through environmental 238
software simulations
5.4.6 Validating the design in depth through 246
details
5.5 SUMMARY – DELIGHT IN THE DESIGN 260
DOI: 10.4324/9781003297246-6
VALIDATING AND COMMUNICATING YOUR APPROACH
5.1 INTRODUCTION 5.01 NOTE
This closing chapter shows how you can validate and communicate Live projects and validation
(Steps 4 and 5 of the design process, i.e., ‘testing’ and ‘feedback’) your Validation can also come from
climate emergency design concept and project. gaining feedback at different
stages from local stakeholders
Your design decisions should be based on knowledge and the best
and by monitoring the
available evidence, but we cannot claim our proposed designs are
use, performance and user
sustainable without evaluating if this is the case. While we cannot
satisfaction after the project
know for certain whether our designs work until they are built and
is built. This may be possible
used, we can do our best at the design stage to ‘validate’ our designs. if you are involved in a live
Validation means testing and checking if your project meets the project (see Chapter 3,
sustainability goals set out in earlier steps (Step 4). Validation can be Note 3.27).
done through sketches, drawings, physical models, simple rules of
thumb and numerics, digital models and environmental software, and
therefore connects directly to ‘feedback processes’ (Step 5). Indeed,
validation at different stages of the design gives you feedback on your
project, helping you refne and improve it through the iterations, as
well as gaining useful feedback from your peers and teachers through
clear communication of your ideas and approaches. Undertaking
validation and gaining feedback mean little unless you also
critically reflect on what the results and feedback mean, and how
this should inform your iterative design development.
Without clear and explicit communication of your concept and how you
integrated climate emergency themes in your project, you cannot gain
feedback and properly evaluate your work. Doing justice to your own
work is a key skill to learn from Year 1, which means not hiding aspects
of your work, and not assuming your approach is obvious to everyone.
Make sure that your climate emergency concept and approaches are
clearly stated and communicated in your project work in visual ways.
Gaining this skill is of huge beneft to help you win design competitions,
and in practice when working with other stakeholders, including
planners, funders, the client and the local community.
The following section showcases a selection of student work as case
studies of how students have validated their climate emergency
concepts and approaches in different ways, and how they explicitly
communicated their concepts and climate emergency designs.
5.2 TOOLS FOR FORMING AND

COMMUNICATING CONCEPTS 5.02 NOTE
It is important to visually demonstrate to your tutors and peers (and,
Evaluation of climate
in real life, to the users and the client) how your ideas developed along emergency approaches
the way. Accordingly, the tools for initiating and communicating your Teachers should ensure
concept during and at the end of the design process are similar, as constructive alignment.
it is about sharing your iterative design process at intervals. Yet too This means that climate
often students only share and communicate heavily edited work, emergency responses
limiting the opportunity for others to understand the justifcation should be explicitly part of
of the decision-making process. Communicating your concept and the learning outcomes and
design and decision-making process clearly and concisely at the fnal clearly assessed at the end
assessment is critical for the overall comprehension of your project. throughout the course.
217
Mapping, modelling and other graphic representation techniques 5.03 NOTE

help to communicate the contextual site conditions and your
proposed conceptual alternative to your user group, fellow students, Using diagrams to synthesise
tutors and examiners. In a live project, this would also include the and communicate your ideas
clients, consultants and other stakeholders. You can use multiple tools Diagrams are often abstract
to express your ideas, and these may be produced by hand or digitally, and geometric shapes which
abstract diagrams or more detailed plans, elevations or sections. show different relationships
Additionally, you can combine a series of tools to communicate with within spatial areas of your
different people. For example, a user or client may not be familiar project or on the site. They
with reading a plan, so more abstract diagrams might be a better help you to synthesise
method of communication. At the same time, a consultant or tutor the key ideas or points
for yourself, and others. A
may prefer the complexity of conventional drawings. Remember that
‘parti’ is a type of diagram
while your concept must be understandable and well communicated,
(often a quick sketch or 3D
the communication and feedback process will enable you to better
model) commonly used to
understand the design problem and should help you develop a
understand or develop the
restorative and creative design.
programme or layout of a
Table 5.1 summarises some tools and ideas that might help you form, project (see Figures 5.1 to 5.5).
develop and communicate your work.
TABLE 5.1 KEY RECOMMENDATIONS: COMMUNICATION TOOLS AND IDEAS –

GETTING STARTED
Synthesise
To get started, break down the information you collected in Step 1 into points or topics that have meaning
for you (whether that is from your site analysis, research, narrative, the brief or climate emergency
responses).
SWOT analysis
Understand which aspects have the most relevance and meaning for your project, as well as their
limitations and opportunities. A SWOT analysis (evaluation of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and
› see Chapter 1, threats) can help you refect on the site and contextual research as well as your own design options. ›
Section 1.5.1 and
Figure 1.30 Diagrams
Diagrams are a good way to understand the challenges and requirements of a project. Through exploration
› see Note 5.03 of the needs, you may be able to use diagrams or ‘parti’ › to form and/or communicate your work (e.g.,
› see Figures 5.1 concept, values, goals and climate emergency approach). ›
to 5.5
Sketching
Sketching your concepts, whether general abstract forms of your project or tiny detailed elements of
design, will help to articulate your thought process and inspire your concept and the development of your
› see Figure 5.4 ideas. It is also a creative way to show your progress. ›
Make models
Creating simple plan drawings or morphology (massing) models of your site can help you to understand
and experiment with volumes and the location of space. It can also help you simplify and refect on your
› see Note 5.04 concept in your design decision-making. ›
and Figure 5.5
› see Glossary Use precedents ›
In your research (Step 1, Chapter 1) and concept development (Step 2, Chapter 2), you have probably
discovered design problems for which you will need to fnd solutions. Studying precedents and how they
solved design issues can inspire your own process. Just remember to critically assess the chosen examples,
as some solutions may not be transferable between different contexts – especially climatic or cultural.
218
Figure 5.1 Cressy Lopez and

Christie Tan used diagrams
to communicate and test an
evolving rainwater strategy
on site.
5.04 NOTE
Using conceptual and

morphology models and
drawings
Morphology models and
drawings explore massing
within the site, space,
structure, views, landscape
and climate conditions
such as orientation, sun
paths and wind directions.
Similar to morphology
models, conceptual models
can be used to explore the
building’s connection to the
site or topography, spatial
importance (private versus
public), circulation, project,
construction, outer facades
(placement of solid versus
transparent elements) and
materials. Models can be
physical or digital (2D or 3D).
Figure 5.2 Sophie Mayer

and Mimi Barr used a hand-
drawn section to develop
environmental principles for
their building.
219
Figure 5.3 Mapping and

research of different concerns
related to people and
community by Peer Tue
Näthke. This mapping shows
the relationship between
tourism and depopulation
within the town of the student’s
site, indicating the direct
relationship between the two as
inspiration for their project.
220
Figure 5.4 Emma Koch used

an early-stage sketch section
to develop water and energy
concepts.
1 2 3
4 5 6
Figure 5.5 David Westervik used

different modes of working:
1. conceptual collage; 2. digital
axo; 3. Visualisation; 4. model for
facade light studies; 5. site model
(analogue +CNC); 6. building
model; 7. facade model (3D
print); 8. detail model – hands-on
7 8
material investigations.
221
Figure 5.6 Mapping illustration

by Sofa Weidner illustrating
the overlapping information
present on a specifc site.
Specifcally, potential fooding,
topography, infrastructure,
prevailing wind directions and
different land use.
222
5.3 DIAGRAMMING YOUR CONTEXTUAL 5.05 NOTE

Using site diagrams for
How you create your maps and diagrams during your site analysis can analysis
vary depending on the information you want to show. For example, Be careful not to oversimplify
you may wish to layer all your information on one map, or create a site diagrams and reduce
series of smaller representations of the site conditions. the information; instead add
different layers of information
In either instance, you usually start with a base map that provides and detail (including
all the necessary information to layer additional details over. This experiential) to uncover
will help you to understand your context as a holistic system. It is relationships you might
recommended to layer multiple characteristics on top of each other otherwise miss.
to reveal different relationships and correlations between the various
factors – this process will reveal patterns that you would otherwise not
› see Chapter 1, see. › For example, when combining a wind and vegetation map, you
Section 1.5 may realise that the trees are smaller where there are strong winds.
As you will have a large amount of collected information, it is
important to choose the best way to present the information you want
to show; illustrating what holds signifcance helps you move forward
in the design process. Think of visual material that helps your design
process (e.g., a section to explore a specifc site or design aspect). You
will fnd that this same material is also ideal to communicate your
ideas and progress to others to gain feedback.
Figure 5.7 Monty Dobney

used a series of foor plans
to communicate the key
environmental strategies.
223
224
Figure 5.8 Monty Dobney

used a hand-drawn aerial site
view and site photographs
to test and explain key
environmental issues on site.
225
Figure 5.9 Cecilie Elmholdt

Smidt combined key site
and building principles in an
analytical drawing of an existing
Danish vernacular to explore
how traditional designs can
inspire current sustainable
approaches.
226
5.3.1 Tools for working with users or personas

When working with real stakeholders and communities in your
project, you can collect the necessary information using sketches,
clipboards, sticky notes, recordings of activities, moods and opinions,
impressionistic drawings, notes and photos. When developing the
project in more detail with different stakeholders, you can improve
communication by using organising diagrams, scheme design
drawings, sketches, working models (e.g., co-modelling), layouts,
development drawings, on-site site models or prototypes of details
and spaces (e.g., full-size modelling, movable elements, strings and
› see Chapter 3, pegs). You also need to think and prepare carefully for your role. ›
Notes 3.26
and 3.27 If you are fortunate enough to have access to real stakeholders on
your site, you can document their stories, needs and expectations and
use these stories as part of your site’s contextual data. In the absence
of access to real end users, you can develop potential users and their
profles, i.e., characters or personas, through contextual research and
› see Chapter 2, the development of your design brief. ›
Table 2.1
Both users and personas can help form your narrative. They help
you develop your concept and test your design approaches. You can
humanise your design and create a storifed approach by developing
your project through scenarios of use (e.g., a sequence of spaces
showing how different users or personas might enter and move
through spaces). You can also use this to communicate your project to
› see Figure 5.7 others, and take them through the space. ›
and Figure 1.24
TABLE 5.2 KEY RECOMMENDATIONS: COMMUNICATION

TOOLS AND IDEAS – DIAGRAMMING YOUR CONTEXTUAL
Site analysis
Add additional layers of information to base maps that provide all of the
necessary information to reveal different relationships; do not reduce
› see Note 5.05 information too much at this stage. › Map site visits by documenting
your observations and experiences in various media such as notes,
maps, photos, sketches, audio recordings, etc. For communication of
your contextual data after site analysis, focus on illustrating what holds
signifcance for you.
Tools for working with users or personas

Use sketches, clipboards, sticky notes, recordings of activities, moods,
photos, etc. to document users’ and stakeholders’ stories and needs as
part of your site’s contextual data.
In the absence of access to real end users you can propose characters
› see Chapter 2, or personas based on contextual research and your design brief to help
Table 2.1 you develop your narrative and project. › Create a storifed approach by
› see Chapter 1, developing scenarios of use. › In communication, ensure your drawings
Figure 1.24 are also inclusive – i.e., that they show diverse users (e.g., young, old,
from different ethnicities) and activities in your drawings.
227
5.4 VALIDATION AND FEEDBACK

The previous chapters provided detailed guidance and key
recommendations for developing your design strategies and design in
more depth. This section looks at a range of methods and approaches
to test and validate your designs.
5.4.1 Using site and building scale drawings for

validation
Drawings are an important part of the architectural design process to
develop the design, test ideas spatially and visually, communicate your
ideas with student peers and tutors, and also to validate your design
Figure 5.10 Jialin Pan
– i.e., to test if it meets the needs of users and the climate emergency.
tested and communicated
Themes 1, 2, 3 and 4 (future and global responsibility, infrastructure, a combination of aspects of
environment, passive resilience) can be usefully validated through the climate emergency in a
drawings – for example existing and future food risk, life-cycle design sectional perspective.
228
strategies, mapping proposed infrastructure and connections, solar

path diagrams, and shadows on site and from your proposal. Section
drawings and sectional perspectives can be effective at both testing
and communicating the performance of the design, for example
ventilation, overshadowing, solar access, connections to outside, scale,
atmosphere and delight, materials, insulation layers and use (activities).
Often combining several aspects in one drawing, especially in a
sectional perspective, helps to show how different design aspects
work together, while also communicating many aspects in one
rich drawing. Sections and sectional perspectives are useful to
communicate spatial qualities. External and internal building
elevations should test and communicate materials, refections, light
and shadow, window openings and roof overhangs, and also the
scale, activities, use, how your design is placed in the context of its
› see Figures landscape and how it is connected to different infrastructure. ›
5.10 to 5.12 and
Table 5.3
TABLE 5.3 KEY RECOMMENDATIONS – USING SITE AND BUILDING SCALE DRAWINGS
Site plans
Always add the north point and orient north up the page so it is easy to imagine the path of the sun
› see Chapter 3, moving clockwise around the drawing. Does your proposal meet the recommendations in terms of
Table 3.5 orientation and solar access? › Drawing in shadows can be helpful, or you might wish to do this in a
› see Table 5.6 software package. ›
and Table 5.7
Building plans
Show a north arrow and possibly draw the sun path for midwinter (22 December in the northern
hemisphere), midsummer (22 June in the northern hemisphere) and the equinoxes (22 March/September).
Do windows face in the optimum directions? Are east and west facades protected from low sun angles?
Sections
Sections can validate and communicate the sun angles, shadows, daylight, ventilation paths, spatial and
material qualities, and interaction between the building and surroundings. A site section that shows rough
context should validate and communicate connections to surroundings, links to different (green, blue,
transport and social) infrastructure, etc. In a building section, the envelope can be clearly read along with
the structure, insulation and airtightness at a scale of 1:50 or 1:20. Adding drawn people to a section shows
scale but can also suggest users’ comfort levels.
Building elevations
Both external and internal elevations can test and communicate aspects such as materials, refections,
light and shadow, window openings and their reveals, roof overhangs, activities and use, but also how your
design proposal is placed in its surrounding context and scale, its landscape and connections to different
infrastructure. Usually, you do not need to render the entire elevation – a sample (small section) is often
suffcient to test and communicate a sense of the material and other qualities.
Sectional perspectives
These can combine many of the above aspects in one single drawing, and you can use them to validate and
› see Figure 5.10 communicate spatial, atmospheric and material qualities, related to Theme 9 (delight). ›
229
Figure 5.11 Anna White built a

detailed site model using both
hand-made and 3D-printed
elements, and photographed
this on a heliodon to test solar
access and shadow patterns
throughout the year. She also
used her model to investigate
the intervention in the urban
fabric.
230
Figure 5.12 Anna White used

a hybrid of physical and digital
models and drawings to test
and develop shading and
ventilation strategies.
231
5.4.2 Using digital and physical models for validation 5.06 NOTE
Physical models can be used effectively to validate, iteratively
Using 3D renders for daylight
develop and communicate the climate emergency aspects of
simulation
your design. This can include spatial and material investigations,
Once you have even a simple
atmosphere, scale and testing whether the proposal works in the
digital model it is easy to
surrounding context and landscape. It can also include wind fow (if
output rendered views of the
there is access to a wind tunnel), and daylight and sunlight studies
interior and exterior. Most
(if there is access to an artifcial sky with light meters, and a heliodon, 3D software offers shaded or
respectively). Alternatively, these environmental studies can be rendered outputs that give
undertaken in a less scientifc manner – for example, a lamp can be a good impression of how
used to investigate sunlight, and a simple fan and cotton wool or spaces will look under natural
› see Figures sand to investigate wind patterns. › light. Renders will be accurate
1.29 and 5.19
Physical models range from quick study models that ft on your desk in terms of the position of the
to 5.25
to large, fnished presentation models. Physical study models are sun in the sky for a defned
moment in the year, and the
quicker and more useful, as they can be used effectively to test and
materials and geometry of
communicate your climate emergency design. Time-consuming
the model (see Table 5.7).
presentation models are rarely useful for validating and improving
the design as they are a ‘fnished’ piece, meaning you must ‘fx’
your design much earlier and stop iterations. We argue that study
models should be recognised and even prioritised over ‘f inished’
models as useful communication tools in a student project. In
that case, the ‘fnal model’ is simply the latest study model at the
time the course ends and is likely to be more refned compared to
previous study models due to the design having undergone additional
iterations.
Like physical models, digital models can be used to validate similar
climate emergency design aspects, but scale is not as easily evaluated.
The investment in making digital models may also discourage you
from making iterations, especially at the early stages of the design,
and sometimes designs get fxed sooner than they should. The use
of hybrid methods to develop the design can be highly effective. For
example, 3D digital terrain models are often freely available for many
sites,2 and can also be used to make physical 3D site models. Finally,
virtual reality (VR) models take a long time to construct and require
specialist knowledge and equipment; however, the immersion in the
space they provide is especially useful to test the spatial experience,
› see Note 5.04 atmosphere, views and connection to outside. › Note that digital
› see Note 5.06 renders are often not accurate for daylight validation. ›
TABLE 5.4 KEY RECOMMENDATIONS – VALIDATION THROUGH DIGITAL

AND PHYSICAL MODELS
Physical and digital models can validate, develop and communicate many of the climate emergency
themes, including daylight and sunlight studies, and spatial qualities. Choose a suitable (and time-effcient)
model for the aspect being investigated. You may have particular skills or access to facilities that make
one mode easier for you, but don’t shy away from learning new skills that could beneft you in your future
education or career. Prioritise physical quick study models over fnal physical presentation models, as they
help you test and develop your design, and get interim feedback.
The use of VR models is time-intensive but they support testing of the experience of the space and its
surroundings, and especially its visual qualities.
232
Figure 5.13 Thomas Wakelam

and Richard Rothwell used
a digital model iteratively
to develop the design. For
each iteration solar radiation
simulation was conducted to
test the changes.
Figure 5.14 Christopher

Scaplehorn used a physical
model of the roof structure and
skylight to test daylight levels in
an artifcial sky.
233
Figure 5.15 Thomas

Cunningham and Tobias
Mackrill used 3D digital models
to test and communicate the
assembly of materials in the
envelope.
234
Figure 5.16 3D scans of spaces

within a home created by Tale
Nixon using images taken from
their phone and 3D zephyr.
235
5.4.3 Validation through rules of thumb, Figure 5.17 Karolina

Kaminskaite used software to
design guides and checklists
simulate the wind fow around
In each chapter key recommendation checklists outline important her site at different times of the
aspects of the 10 themes to consider at that stage of the design process. year.
You can use these checklists to validate your decision-making towards a
holistic design by systematically going through them at different stages
of your design process (and in some cases going back to them when your
design – or the information you have obtained – has changed). You can
also use these checklists to evaluate if your design (or that of others, or an
existing case study) meets key aspects of the climate emergency design
themes, and therefore how holistic it is. The checklists will help you to
identify any neglected aspects and improve in these areas.
Similarly to the checklists, other rules of thumb and design guidance
help you to develop your design as well as evaluate it against these
key criteria at different stages. You can use them to compare different
design approaches and options to help you in decision-making.
You can use national building regulations and different sustainable
architecture approaches (e.g., Passivhaus and nZEB, as well as sustainable
design standards such as BREEAM, LEED, DGNB, the Living Building
› see Chapter 2, Challenge (LBC) and the WELL Building Standard). › They will all help you
Table 2.11 to make sustainable design decisions, and you can test and evaluate your
design against them throughout the design process.
TABLE 5.5. KEY RECOMMENDATIONS – VALIDATION THROUGH RULES OF THUMB,

DESIGN GUIDES AND CHECKLISTS
General
Use the key recommendation checklists and rules of thumb provided in this book, or others (e.g., design
approaches, standards, regulations) to guide you through the important climate emergency aspects and
to validate and evaluate your own design.
Digital tools
Some online tools can help you select materials in the initial design stages, and in later stages can help you
to evaluate your selected materials and investigate substitutions to reduce the environmental impact. You
can undertake a life-cycle assessment (LCA; e.g., the BRE’s ‘Green guide to specifcation’,3 the Construction
Material Pyramid,4 One Click LCA5) to evaluate some of the environmental impacts of materials. Architects
› see Figures Hawkins\Brown6 developed H\B:ERT as an embodied carbon plugin for Revit, and FCBS CARBON was
5.19 and 5.20 developed by Feilden Clegg Bradley.7 ›
236
5.4.4 Validation through energy models 5.07 PRACTICE

For some readers, software validation may be new and daunting.
Energy models in practice
Several programs exist to validate your design with advanced daylight
Remember that in practice,
studies, solar analysis, wind-fow analysis, predicted energy use,
there are other experts
potential energy production from renewables, and embodied energy
involved in the project, and as
and embodied carbon of materials. More advanced energy modelling
an architect you don’t need
tools enable you to check the robustness of your design in future to do everything. However,
climates; if your local future climate data is not available, you can add it. having knowledge and
Often this software is compatible with 3D digital models, as plugins to, ability means you can do the
for example, SketchUp, Revit or Rhino, or the output can be exported modelling yourself, or have
as a drawing fle to the environmental software. To export drawing the confdence to query
fles, you usually need to follow certain drawing conventions and tidy others about the assumptions
them up before converting fles for export. The software you use will used and the results.
depend on access (some are free, some are licensed), purpose of use
(e.g., validation at the end, or as part of the design process to compare
› see Figure 5.30 options), and your skills, time and learning goals. ›
More advanced environmental software simulations are used at
later stages, as they enable more detailed design inputs. Often
› see Note 5.09 they are dynamic models. › Typically these tools require advanced 5.08 NOTE
building modelling skills and building physics understanding. In
addition to energy modelling, they usually also include validation of Understanding outputs
climate, daylight and artifcial light, solar shading, comfort, airfow, Software outputs are only
heating, cooling, ventilation systems, renewable energy and life-cycle as useful and reliable as
› see Table 5.6 modelling. › More accurate predictions are possible, if inputs are based the inputs you make. If you
on the proposed specifcation and use of the building, rather than make mistakes and wrong
uninformed design assumptions.8 assumptions at the start, your
model will give inaccurate
results. Any design decisions
based on these will also be
wrong. Take your time to
check inputs. If you do not
understand an input, gain
suffcient information and
advice before proceeding
(especially with more
advanced energy and
building physics models). Be
critical of outputs, and check
that they make sense. You
can show them to tutors to
gain feedback.
Figure 5.18 Christopher Pate

and Thomas Donoghue used
a mobile phone app to take
acoustic readings on site, and
communicated this with colour-
coded site overlays.
237
TABLE 5.6. KEY RECOMMENDATIONS – VALIDATION 5.09 NOTE

THROUGH ENERGY MODELS
Dynamic versus steady-state
General energy models
Select software for the intended purpose, time and skills you have
A steady-state model is the
available. Remember that you can use other tools for validation too, such
simulation of energy use
as rules of thumb, physical models and so on.
based on stable conditions
Quick environmental software simulations over a month or year, and
These are useful during the design process – for example, a rough is therefore less able to
SketchUp massing model can show solar access and shading, and can accurately model thermal
be exported to other software such as Revit. designPH is a SketchUp mass effects, overheating or
plugin and gives an initial prediction for building energy use. This can
impact from different user
be exported to PHPP (Passivhaus Planning Package) for the more
behaviours, etc. Software
› see Chapter 2, advanced inputs to design or retroft to the Passivhaus standard ›.
Table 2.6 such as the international
Revit has built-in energy simulation tools that avoid the need to export
the model into other software. PHPP (Passivhaus Planning
Package), and UK regulatory
More advanced environmental software simulations models such as Standard
At later stages, more advanced models can enable more detailed Assessment Procedure (SAP)
validation, but these require advanced knowledge. Your model is only as
and Simplifed Building
good as the inputs you make. If in doubt, or you do not understand, ask
Energy Model (SBEM) are
for more information from tutors or experts. There is plenty of guidance
steady-state examples. A
› see Note 5.08 and tutorials available online for specifc software. ›
• Revit has DesignBuilder, Sefaira and Integrated Environmental dynamic model on the other
Solutions (IES) as plugins for environmental and energy performance hand simulates energy use
simulation. For embodied carbon, HBERT9 is a free embodied carbon with changing internal and
› see Figures plugin for Revit. › Sefaira is also a plugin for SketchUp10. Rhino external conditions such as
5.19 and 5.20 plugins11 allow the validation of daylight, glare, artifcial light, thermal user behaviour, seasonal
bridging (with Honeybee); solar radiation, shadow, renewables changes or night cooling.
(with Ladybug); heat island studies (with Dragonfy) and advanced Dynamic simulation software
energy modelling, airfow, and indoor and outdoor comfort (with
includes IESVE, IDA ICE and
EnergyPlus).
EnergyPlus.
• IESVE12 is used for detailed energy simulation and may be used
to show adherence to building regulations in the UK and other
countries. It is also available as a plugin for Revit and is building
› see Chapter 2, information modelling (BIM) and LEED compatible. ›
Table 2.11
• IDA ICE13 is used for compliance with building regulations in several
of the countries in the Nordic region. It is also LEED and BREEAM
› see Chapter 2, compatible. ›
Table 2.11
5.4.5 Validation through

environmental software simulations
› see Chapter 4, Many energy models › also enable the modelling of daylight, sunlight
Section 4.4 and and shadows, solar radiation, wind fow and soundscapes (acoustics).
Table 5.6
Using these tools helps you understand the existing site conditions
as well as the impact of your proposed design intervention, and the
advantages and disadvantages of different options.
Remember, however, that undertaking these simulations means little
unless you also critically refect on what the results mean – i.e., how
this should inform your design decision-making and infuence your
next design iterations. For example, solar studies might suggest you
break up your proposed building mass or create lower buildings.
Table 5.7 sets out key descriptions and recommendations with
student examples in Figures 5.21 to 5.30.
238
TABLE 5.7. KEY RECOMMENDATIONS – VALIDATION 5.10 NOTE

THROUGH ENVIRONMENTAL SOFTWARE SIMULATIONS
Validating the effectiveness
Shadows and sunlight of shading
Simulation of the path of the sun around a site and the corresponding As we design for a climate
shadows is one of the most simple and yet important validation tools emergency, shading to
› see Chapters 3 you should use, as it is fundamental to many design decisions. › Any glazing becomes ever more
and 4, Theme 4 3D modelling software allows a location to be set and shadows to be
critical to avoid overheating,
simulated (see Figures 5.31 to 5.33).
now and in the future (see
Chapters 3 and 4, Theme 4).
Solar radiation levels
Solar radiation and shadow
As the sun moves around your site and building you can test to see how
simulations are a very
much energy from the sun is incident on different parts of both site
and building. This is useful for you to understand if outdoor areas are effective method to test and
overshadowed, to test if glazing is receiving high levels of solar energy, to improve shading design.
test how effective shading is, and to see which parts of the building are best Solar radiation studies
› see Note 5.10 suited to locating solar panels (see Figures 5.21 to 5.25). › show how much energy
from the sun is incident on
Air movement glazing throughout the year
As architects we are generally interested in the fow of air around our or season. Simple shadow
sites and also within the buildings we design. The fow of air is quite a studies can be carried out
complex science, and you would not be expected to accurately simulate at different times of the day
this aspect. You can however use the wind rose of annual wind data on and year to test how much
your site to obtain an awareness of the most prevalent and strongest
direct sunshine would still
wind directions, as in Figure 5.26. Some simple software tools (e.g.,
be incident on the glazing.
Rhino) give an approximation of the wind fow on sites, and these can
Physical models can also
be useful to identify problem areas with high wind speeds (see Table 5.6
and Figure 5.17). be helpful.
Daylight simulation
Daylight is an important aspect in occupant health and wellbeing, and is
also an aspect that you can have a big infuence over through your design
– it is up to you how you design your windows and shading and therefore
the quality of daylight inside. Daylight is also relatively easy and accurate
to both communicate and validate using digital models, though be
› see Note 5.06 careful when using digital renders. › Free daylight tools include the VELUX
and Figure 5.27 Daylight Visualizer. The following aspects of daylight can be simulated to
help you validate the quality of daylight in your design:
› see Chapter • Daylight factor (DF) is a fairly easy method for communicating and
4, Theme 4, validating your design, usually shown as a plan view of the DF on the
Section 4.7.5 foor or working plane, or as an interior perspective view. › 5.11 PRACTICE
• Illuminance simulations give a snapshot in time of an interior space
Environmental modelling
under specifc sky conditions, and are therefore best done as a
› see Figures sample across the year and with the same sky type. › in practice
5.29 and 5.30 In architectural practice the
• Climate-based daylight modelling (CBDM) is a fairly complex
validation method, but is generally considered the most accurate as design of solar shading may
it uses real sky data to predict the daylight levels in a room based on be carried out in conjunction
› see Note 5.11 location and orientation. › with energy and comfort
and Figure 5.30 simulations, which are often
Acoustics conducted by specialists
Software simulation of acoustic performance is quite complex, and in the design team. Some
is probably beyond the scope of most architectural students. As an architectural practices believe
alternative it is quite easy to take acoustic readings on site, ideally at that architects should be able
different times of the day or year, using a sound meter or even a mobile to carry out these simulations
phone app. Once plotted on a site drawing these give a good indication
as part of the design process,
› see Figure 5.18 of the acoustic issues on a site or within an existing building. › We can
and are investing in software
› see Chapter 4, also use our own senses for a personal perception of acoustic issues. ›
Section 4.7.5 and training.
239
Figure 5.19 Screengrab from

the H\B:ERT tool developed by
Hawkins\Brown Architects.1
Figure 5.20 H\B:ERT tool

developed by Hawkins\Brown
Architects used to compare the
embodied carbon of external
wall build ups.
240
Figure 5.21 Giska Kamase, Sara

Al-Sawi and Rujirej Janusan
used Design PH and PHPP to
test energy consumption and
overheating frequency in their
project.
Figure 5.22 Alice Howland

used digital simulation to test
external shading levels on site.
241
Figure 5.23 Daylight

analysis using Ladybug and
Grasshopper to calculate what
types of vegetation and green
roofs could be viable based
on the level of daylight by Isak
Dysthe Sønderland.
Figure 5.24 Karolina

Kaminskaite used a
combination of solar radiation
and shadow simulations to
iteratively test and improve
shading design.
242
Figure 5.25 Jaimie Claydon

used both digital and physical
models to test the effectiveness
of shading.

combined wind-rose data, wind
simulations and rules of thumb
to develop wind-fow strategies
on site.
243
Figure 5.27 Zhangxiufu

Wu used digital renders to
iteratively test the daylight
qualities as the design evolved,
and to test and communicate
the daylight qualities in the
design.
Figure 5.28 Emma Seaton

used detailed illuminance
simulations to test the impact
of clear skies across the year on
a key interior space.
244
Figure 5.29 Holly Wilkinson

combined an interior render
with an illuminance study to
test daylight qualities.
Figure 5.30 Jennie Daoud,

Mohnish Chandnani, Rayan
Babiker and Zhoufan Chen used
CBDM to accurately validate
daylight levels. See Note 5.11.
245
5.4.6 Validating the design in depth through details 5.12 NOTE

Drawings and (digital and physical) models are useful to investigate
Design for disassembly (DfD)
your design in more depth and interrogate it by working out details.
The climate emergency
These can be technical details such as how the window sits in the wall
requires that a disassembly
or how solar shading is attached, or to study landscape thresholds or
and reuse manual is prepared
material junctions. Most of these drawings are useful when zooming
to ensure there is suffcient
in at 1:50 or larger, including even 1:1 drawings and models, often of
information and guidance for
components. However, you can also investigate atmosphere, facade the future reuse of elements
fnishes and material selections effectively by drawing a part of the (see Chapter 3, Note 3.08
facade or plan. Similarly, for detailed models you don’t need to make and 3.10 and Figure 5.31).
the entire structure or facade, but a section will be swifter to test and In addition, use relevant
will enable you to try different iterations in your design development, details, exploded axonometric
while still being useful to communicate with and obtain feedback drawings, component
from others. drawings, storyboards or
animations to describe the
Material, structural and constructional aspects, alongside assembly and
(dis)assembly process.
design for disassembly aspects, are useful to explore through exploded
axonometric drawings. Moreover, material passports and user and
› see Note 5.12 maintenance manuals can complement these kinds of drawings. ›
Construction drawings, which are a graphical representation of what
is to be built, are rarely used in student projects, but may be needed
in some live projects. They can also be useful to show aspects of
assembly and disassembly of components.
Key recommendations are set out in Table 5.8 and illustrated by
Figures 5.31 to 5.42.
5.13 PRACTICE
The type of construction

drawings to get a project
built in practice
In practice, you will likely be
involved in the preparation or
coordination of many types
of construction drawings,
including architectural,
structural, mechanical and
electrical, furniture and
equipment, fre strategy,
and specialist contractor
drawings. These drawings are
produced collaboratively with
the design team, and in a BIM
environment the drawings
are extracted from the
single model and not drawn
as 2D lines. Increasingly,
disassembly drawings are
also required (see Note 5.12).
246
TABLE 5.8 KEY RECOMMENDATIONS – VALIDATING THE DESIGN IN DEPTH THROUGH DETAILS
Technical detail investigations

These can validate and communicate important aspects of your project, such as where the insulation or
airtightness layers are located, how cladding is fxed, the design of a window reveal, how to avoid thermal
bridges, or to work out a structure. Suffcient annotation is required, with technical information such as
the depth of materials and their thermal performance – for example, k-values of elements or the U-value
› see Figures of the entire build-up. ›
5.32 to 5.42
Sectional drawings and models
To avoid time-consuming digital or physical models or drawings of a full building design, it is more
effective to only draw or model a section of the design, for example a slice through the envelope. Not only
is this quicker but it can also be clearer to communicate the key ideas you are exploring. Ensure that you
› see Figures clearly highlight which part of your project you are exploring in more detail. ›
5.21 to 5.24 and
Figures 5.35 to Exploded axonometric drawings
5.42 These are three-dimensional drawings that show different layers of the building and its components,
and they can be particularly useful to explore, for example, phasing of works or construction. They can
also be sectional and help you investigate and communicate the connections and relationship between
elements, as well as scale (if you include people), and material, spatial and atmospheric quality. This type
› see Note 5.12 of drawing can be particularly useful to create DFD drawings (Theme 1). › Keep the background simple, as
› see Figures the drawing itself already has many components. Make sure you annotate components or sequences. ›
5.35 to 5.38
Design for disassembly and material passports – see Note 5.12 and Chapter 3, Note 3.08 and 3.10 and
Figure 5.31.
Construction drawings
These drawings differ from technical details in that they are made for construction and can be digital or
hand-drawn. While we draw in CAD at 1:1 to the millimetre, on-site construction is not that accurate. You
may include an assembly manual, which will show in more detail how innovative and reclaimed building
elements are put together, how they can be disassembled and what maintenance is needed to ensure
› see Note 5.12 long life of the components. ›
and Figures 5.32
to 5.42 Temporal aspects
These can be investigated in drawings and models, and include the investigation of how spaces change
over time, whether daily, weekly, monthly, seasonal or over years. These can also be a strong conceptual
› see Figures driver, and they relate closely to Theme 1. ›
5.43 to 5.45
Precedents
These are case studies or design solutions that can be used to represent an atmosphere, material,
approach or idea that you are inspired by. They can help you to swiftly communicate similar ideas and the
kind of approach that fts your design concept.
247
Figure 5.31 Natalie Krieg

created a material passport
for rammed earth to
explore material properties,
construction and end-of-life
processes.
248
Figure 5.32 Oliver Millet used a

series of hand-drawn details at
1:5 and 1:10 scales to develop the
envelope design.
249

used hand drawings to develop
a glu-lam structure that
promoted stack ventilation.
Figure 5.34 Thomas

Cunningham and Tobias
Mackrill used hand-drawn
details to explore improvements
to the existing building
envelope.
250
FABHALL CLADDING / STRUCTURAL ASSEMBLY

Conceptually the building roof form, as a folded, rigid timber skin, reinterprets previous industrial sawtooth roofs, and acts
timber structure supports a rigid timber ‘hat’, with a secondary line of glazing supports, and timber shading/cladding panels,
01 - Primary glulam timber columns and beams
03 - Glazing
04 - Secondary timber glazing supports
located on the outside of the glazing to limit solar heat energy entering the building
06 - Reinforced concrete foundations for robotic gantry (see detail D)
07 - Reinforced concrete pad foundations with steel connections to timber columns
08 - Structural stair assembly
09 - Prototype cladding: to be replaced by students and researchers as per ongoing R+D within building
10 - Zone for framing supports to timber cladding/shading
11 - Fiberglass roof
12 - Plywood sheathing
13 - 2 layers of 100mm insulation with battens and cross-battens
15 - Downpipe concealed in gaps between shading 05
16 - Roof opening for roof light
17 - Existing masonry wall 02
18 - Indicative digital fabrication of roof panels for adjacent visitor building
10
11
12
13
14
16
01
05 15
02
03
08
04 17
04
06
07
18
09
03
Figure 5.35 Cameron Shackley

used a detailed 3D digital model
to test and develop a glu-lam
structure and envelope.
251
Figure 5.36 Josephine Dorling

combined 3D printing and
hand making to create a section
model to test foating ideas.
252
Figure 5.37 Josephine Dorling

used an exploded 3D sectional
model to explain and test the
design.
253
Figure 5.38 (above) Rasmus

Gregor Jørgensen illustrated
the design for disassembly
modular construction systems
used for their housing project,
indicating how reused materials
can be used within the modular
system to create personalised
facades (right).
Figure 5.39 (left) Models at

1:20 scale and a performative
prototype at 1:2 scale of a
section of the facade by Peer
Tue Näthke. The prototype is
made of wood and thermo-
polycarbonate and is used
to test the manipulability
of certain materials and
construction techniques.
254
Figure 5.40 Bradley Sumner

combined technical details
with rendered views to develop
an envelope with design for
disassembly, passive ventilation
and a concealed services zone.
255
Figure 5.41 Ariya Vetchapho

investigated bamboo joints for
foating structures through hand
drawings (see also Figure 0.6).
Figure 5.42 Analysis of

the upper foor of a Nordic
vernacular building, specifcally
the qualities of a thatched roof,
by Stine Brochmann Jørgensen.
256
Figure 5.43 Marleen Stokkeby

explored the changes over
time of a rose-oil factory, where
roses are part of a vertical
garden structure. As sea levels
rise (in pink), the rose growing
retreats to the upper foors,
until eventually the structure is
abandoned, leaving rose stems
as memory.
Figure 5.44 Conceptual collage

indicating how to coexist with
and embrace a changing
landscape in future sea-level-
rise scenarios by Karla Citlali
Steninge Hernandez.
257
Figure 5.45 Olivia Hellman

represented the design
throughout the day and year.
Figure 5.46 Designing for non-

humans – bird towers in Oslo by
Kristian Knorr Jensen.
258
Figure 5.47 Alex Dormon and

Sam Milward demonstrated
their material strategy through
hand drawings.
259
5.5 SUMMARY – DELIGHT IN THE DESIGN

Many of the examples shared throughout this book have illustrated
how one drawing can combine many elements, which is necessary
to understand interdependencies between the climate emergency
design themes. What is more, these complex documents enable you
› see Figures to design inspiring architecture that promotes delight. ›
5.48 to 5.53
Often it is only in ‘fnal presentation’ drawings that students
communicate how the spaces they created will be experienced by
different people and the community. However, it is important to
remember that all climate emergency design themes contribute
to the overall experience and aesthetics of the designed building.
Daylight, materiality, thermal, acoustic and visual comfort create the
atmosphere of a space. This is why, beyond detailed calculations, these
aspects should always be considered in relation to their ability to give
delight. Sometimes students focus primarily on external aspects of
‘what the building looks like’. While the external aesthetics matter,
buildings are rarely delivered in the way they were conceived or laid
out in drawings.
In an urban setting we almost never see the full facade of a building: in
reality, we see the context and urban activities as part of the building’s
setting and as users we move in and around the interior. Exploring
and communicating the delight and atmosphere of what it might
really be like in the given context is crucial. Think about the viewpoint
and feelings of the user, and of internal and ‘in between’ spaces.
Think about everyday life – about rainy winter mornings as much as
the sunny summer afternoons that we so often see in architectural
photographs and renders. Think about what the investigations are
that you should be doing to explore your holistic climate emergency
design, and the drawings and models and other materials that will
best help you to explore, validate and communicate.
260
Figure 5.48 Designing for all

senses – rethinking the shower
by Christian Simon Reese
Reinholdt Andersen
Figure 5.49 Visual

representation of a library
entrance and common space
by Sara Sadeghian Pedersen.
261
Figure 5.50 (above) Interior

perspectives of the housing
entrance (left) and the two-
storey fruit-growing areas
(right) by Takahiro Minamino.
The spaces provide delight
and social infrastructure for
residents, supporting the
health and wellbeing of the
community.
Figure 5.51 (left) Exterior

view by Takahiro Minamino
of a food-growing courtyard
with communal allotments to
bring local residents and the
wider community together,
creating opportunities for
active architecture and social
infrastructure in support of
health and wellbeing.
262
Figure 5.52 Joona Lukka

and Ville Pääkkönen showed
how greenery and social
infrastructure for the local
community can be part of
affordable, low-energy housing
design in Helsinki.
Figure 5.53 (next page)

Mirjami Myllymäki designed
a community kitchen in
Paris, created from reclaimed
materials and designed for
disassembly while incorporating
biodiversity, without
compromising the atmosphere
or the creation of delightful
spaces for the local community.
263
264
AFTERWORD
The complexity of the climate emergency and subsequent climate

change mitigation efforts require complex responses from all
sectors of society, including architecture and the building industry.
The climate is responsible for the manifestation of weather, water,
food, health, population densities and species diversity. All of these
elements are under threat from our own exploitative and consuming
practices, thereby threatening our very own quality of life and
existence, and life as we know it.
Our design and building practices must change. With all of the
technology, tools and knowledge available, there is no longer room
for excuses not to act. As architects, we require an honest refection
on our current negative contributions to global issues, and an
understanding of the complexity of the problem and the dynamic
systems which are involved in transforming a climate emergency
design concept into meaningful architecture.
Set against the design process, this book unfolded these key issues,
so that you, as a student of architecture, together with your peers and
teachers, can undertake this urgently needed transformation of our
current design practices, values and outputs. We used 10 key climate
emergency themes and a fve-step design process (explore, defne,
imagine, test and feedback) as a way through these complex issues.
The key is to create an integrated, holistic architectural design that has
the following overarching values at its heart:
• adapting to a changing climate and anticipating future changes
• ensuring your designs do not exacerbate the crisis further
(mitigation)
• aiming for a positive and restorative design impact
• improving climate justice locally and globally.
This book is a start to help you achieve this. It requires determination,
conviction and optimism for you to be part of the solution. It requires
more, not less, creative thinking. We hope you are inspired and
more confdent to create this change with others for a better, more
sustainable tomorrow.
We look forward to seeing how you will do this, and we welcome you
sharing your progress, ideas and designs on www.arch4change.com.
Sofe, Liz, Aidan and Ula

Tampere, Aarhus and Sheffeld
265
ANNEX I
TECHNICAL INSULATION DATA TABLE

Below you can fnd a list of insulation materials and their k-values, and
the required thickness for a well-insulated wall, roof or foor for a cold
climate. Different building types will have slightly different insulation
requirements, but the fgures below are broadly appropriate for your
design project in architecture school.
GROUND-
ELEMENT WALLS ROOF BEARING
FLOOR 1
TARGET U-VALUE2
0.13–0.15 0.10–0.12 0.08–0.10
(W/M2.K)
k-value of
Indicative insulation thickness required by product
insulation (W/mK)
GLASS WOOL 0.044 300 mm 400 mm 250 mm
MINERAL WOOL 3
0.038 270 mm 340 mm 250 mm
SHEEP’ S WOOL4 0.038 270 mm 340 mm 250 mm
CELULLOSE
0.039 270 mm 340 mm 250 mm
(RECYCLED PAPER)
FOAM GLASS 0.036 260 mm 330 mm 230 mm
CORK 0.036 260 mm 330 mm 230 mm
WOOD WOOL SLABS 0.038 270 mm 340 mm 250 mm
XPS (EXTRUDED
0.036 260 mm 330 mm 230 mm
POLYSTYRENE)
PIR5
0.020 140 mm 160 mm 130 mm
(POLYISOCYANURATE)
Typical insulation requirements for most building types.
266
ANNEX II
WORKED EXAMPLE OF U-VALUE CALCULATION1

U-value = 1
Rtotal
To estimate the U-value of this construction, we frst need to estimate the

total thermal resistance, i.e. the total R-value. R total = RSi + R1 + R2 + … + RSe
and R1 = thickness (m)
k-value (W/mK)
Let’s estimate the U-value of a solid brick wall, without insulation. The
thermal conductivity (k-value) of a solid brick wall is 0.84 W/mK with a
thickness of 210 mm (0.21 m). It also has 10 mm (0.01 m) internal plaster
with a k-value of 0.79 W/mK. There are also internal and external surface
resistances (RSi and RSe) to take into account, which are the thin layers of
air at the surface of the material. RSi = 0.13 m2K/W and RSe = 0.04 m2K/W.
Given the above, we then obtain:
R1 = 0.21 m/0.84 W/mK = 0.25 m2K/W (for the brick wall)
R2 = 0.01 m/0.79 W/mK = 0.013 m2K/W (for the internal plaster layer)
Rtotal = RSi + R1 + R2 + … + RSe so R total = 0.13 + 0.25 + 0.013 + 0.04 = 0.43 m2K/W
U-value = 1
= 2.3 W/m2K
0.43
To show the effect of insulation, we can now add 150 mm (0.15 m)

EPS insulation to this wall (EPS k-value is 0.035 W/mK): so REPS is 0.15
m/0.035 W/mK = 4.29 m2K/W
So, R total = 0.13 + 0.25 + 0.013 + 4.29 + 0.04 = 4.72 m2K/W and hence
the U-value is 0.21 W/m2K.
Note the following:
• 210 mm solid brick walls are not very good insulators.
• The addition of 150 mm insulation gives an estimated U-value
about 10 times better than the uninsulated wall.
• Internal and external surface resistances (RSi and RSe) are
theoretical values estimated under specifc conditions. In reality,
their actual values are not constant: they change continuously as
the conditions on either side of the element change.
• Manufacturers’ thermal performance data is measured in
laboratories under specifc conditions. Real buildings are exposed
to real environmental conditions such as solar gain, wind and rain.
Thus the actual R- and U-values of real fabric build-ups fuctuate
depending on the weather conditions and orientation of the
building, and may differ from those stated by manufacturers or
assumed in calculations.
267
GLOSSARY
3R strategy (reduce/reuse/recycle) – for Azimuth – the angular measurement, Biodegradable materials – materials
defnition see Chapter 2, Table 2.7. usually of the sun, measured clockwise which are capable of being
from the north point of the horizon decomposed by bacteria or living
to the point where the horizon would organisms. See Chapter 4, Table 4.12.
intersect a vertical plane going Biogenic materials – materials or
Active architecture – for defnition see through the sun and the observer. products that absorb more carbon
Chapter 2, Table 2.8.
dioxide than they release – they store
Adaptable architecture – for defnition carbon and lower the concentration
see Chapter 1, Section 1.4.7, and see of CO2 in the atmosphere. Also called
Table 2.2. The in-built ability to adapt Background ventilation – continuous carbon sink materials or materials
and adjust to change for different uses ventilation at a low rate to remove that sequester carbon. See Chapter 4,
and users, allowing different spatial pollutants and humidity from spaces Table 4.12.
and functional confgurations without while also supplying fresh outdoor
air into the building.5 For reliable Building performance monitoring
signifcant disruption.
year-round background ventilation, and evaluation (BPE) – BPE is
(Adaptive) reuse (transformation) – for more comprehensive than POE,
mechanical ventilation with heat
defnition see Chapter 2, Table 2.7. and is undertaken at any point in
recovery (MVHR) is usually used. See
Airtightness – acceptable standards of air Chapter 4, Section 4.4.4 and Chapter a project’s cycle, but preferably
infltration (m3/m2hr or air changes per 4, Section 4.7.5. throughout design, construction
hour). See Chapter 4, Section 4.4.5. and building operation. It involves
Benchmarks – standards, parameters observations and qualitative feedback
Albedo – the percentage of solar radiation or targets which you can use at the from occupants relating to comfort,
refected by a surface, using a scale of design stage against which to map functionality and wellbeing, alongside
0–1. As a rule of thumb, the lower the aspirations and targets, e.g., about energy consumption and indoor
percentage the darker, and the higher density of development, or a target for environmental quality data. The
the percentage the lighter. That is, embodied energy and energy in use, evaluation of a project’s resource
the closer to 1 (or 100%), the better the or water use. Often benchmarks are consumption, including embodied
surface is at refecting the incident based on regulations and the actual carbon, material impacts, climate-
radiation and keeping surfaces cool.1 performance of several monitored change resilience and life-cycle costs
Altitude (or height) – a distance buildings. In architecture practice, are also increasingly considered.9
measurement in the vertical direction once a building is built and in use, the
often used in relation to solar paths. actual building’s performance can be
It is measured between a reference compared to the initial benchmarks
datum (distance above sea level) and a set to see if the aspirations were met Carbon sink – see Biogenic materials.
point or object.2 (and if not, to investigate why not).6
Carrying capacity – a term that describes
Anticipatory (proactive) adaptation – Bodystorming – a method of researching the maximum population load that
‘Adaptation that takes place before through the use of one’s own body the environment can sustain (to
actual climate change impacts occur. to physically experience a situation in provide food, water or resources).
Such adaptation is a preemptive order to gain insight and form ideas.
This may be used to get a better Charrette – an intense public meeting or
measure to prevent or to minimise
understanding of a user group, an workshop to solve a design problem or
potential climate change impacts. It
experience or a situation. plan the design development.
weighs up the vulnerability of natural
and (hu)man-made systems as well as Biophilia/Biophilic design – for Circular materials – see Chapter 2, Table
the costs and benefts of action versus defnition see Chapter 2, Table 2.8. 2.7 and Note 2.23.
inaction’3 Column-slab or column-beam-slab
Bioremediation (also called
Aspect – refers to the number of different phytoremediation) – a biological structures – superstructure where
directions in which windows face – e.g., process that uses plants, algae and the load of the slab is transferred to
single aspect means in one direction, microorganisms to reduce and break columns or walls through the slab
and dual or double aspect means down the pollutants (usually in-situ) or through beams, and into the
the windows face in two different and can be used to remove pollutants foundations.
directions. from the site over several weeks or Conceptual design – this can have
Autonomous (spontaneous) months.7 Bioremediation is considered two meanings, with one being the
adaptation – ‘Adaptation that does a technology that also preserves early stages of a design process in
not constitute a conscious response biodiversity and protects human health which initial ideas are created. Within
to climatic stimuli but is triggered by while restoring the ecosystem at low architecture, the second defnition can
ecological changes in natural systems cost.8 See Chapter 3, Section 3.2.4, often refer to designs which are based
and by market or welfare changes in page 138 and Table 3.6. on a conceptual idea rather than a
human systems.’4 contextual foundation. In sustainable
architecture, concepts should be
268
268
grounded in contextual research, water, or parks and trees. This process, includes air quality, but also access to
referred to as contextual design where heat is turned into a liquid daylight and views (visual comfort),
concepts. See Chapter 1, Section 1.2.1, which removes latent heat from the auditory comfort, olfactory (smell)
Note 1.01 and 1.03. surface, is also used in cooling systems. comfort and thermal comfort. It also
Contextualism, contextual design or can include spatial comfort (e.g.,
place-based design – this takes whether there is easy access and
into account the multi-layered suffcient space).10
environment where the design project Fit for purpose – this means that a Insulation – a material that has excellent
is located and uses it as the foundation building, material or space is good thermal resistance to heat fow and
of a design process. This may include enough for its intended use and the slows down the heat fow between
a variety of issues and perspectives users, now and in the future. inside and outside. It helps to maintain
such as social, environmental and Footprint (carbon, energy, ecological, thermal comfort and protects against
architectural matters. See Chapter 1, etc.) – this expresses the negative cold and heat transfer.
Section 1.2.1. impact an individual or a population or Integrated design – see Chapter 0,
Cradle-to-cradle materials – renewable a building has in terms of energy use, Section 0.3 – this is the integration of
or recyclable materials that can be carbon pollution and other ecological all sustainability aspects (i.e., the 10
upcycled in continuous biological impacts (waste production, water, etc.). climate emergency design themes) at
and technical production loops all the stages of the design process as
which eliminate waste. See Chapter a unifed whole.
4, Table 4.12. Iterative design or (design) iterations –
Genius loci – defned as the spirit of
Cross-ventilation – see Chapter 4, place or the particular atmosphere for defnition see Chapter 0, Note 0.08
Table 4.4. of a certain place. See also Chapter 1, and Chapter 4, Section 4.2.
Section 1.2.1. Interstitial condensation – this typically
Geopolitics – the power relationships occurs when internal warm and moist
across and between geographic air condenses against a cold surface
Democratic architecture – for defnition within a construction build-up when it
see Chapter 2, Table 2.9. regions.
permeates through the building fabric
Design for disassembly (DfD), design Green-, grey- and brownf ields – see
to the outside. If the temperature
for deconstruction – for defnition Chapter 1, Section 1.3.1.
drops suffciently when the air moves
see Chapter 2, Table 2.2 and Chapter 4, Ground-source heat pump (GSHP) – a through the construction, the dew
Table 4.12. heating or cooling system for buildings point may be reached within the fabric
Diurnal temperature variation – the that transfers heat to or from the and condensation will occur, i.e., liquid
difference in temperature between ground and into or from the building. water forms within the fabric. This can
the daily high and low temperatures; See Chapter 4, Section 4.5.2 and damage the fabric and cause health
usually refers to the difference Tables 4.8 and 4.9. and wellbeing issues.11
between day and night temperatures.
Dual aspect – see Aspect. Hurricane, typhoon, tornado, cyclone –
hurricanes, typhoons and cyclones are
Latitude – the angle measured from
the same, and are strong storms that
the centre of the Earth to the Earth’s
form over water; hurricanes happen
surface in a plane perpendicular to the
Embodied carbon – the carbon footprint in the Atlantic Ocean, typhoons in
equator. Latitude ranges from 0° at
of material, calculated as multiplied the Northwest Pacifc and cyclones in
the equator to 90° (north or south) at
embodied energy by the carbon the South Pacifc and Indian oceans.
the poles. Lines of latitude run east–
intensity of the fuel used in production A tornado is smaller in size and is a
west in circles parallel to the equator.
and construction, expressed in kgCO2/ strong wind that forms over land,
kg. See Chapter 4, Section 4.5.3 typically characterised by a twisting Life-cycle assessment (LCA) – a
and 4.6. funnel-shaped cloud. methodology to evaluate products’,
materials’ and buildings’ environmental
Embodied energy – the energy used
impacts at all stages of their life cycle.
to produce materials and construct
See Chapter 4, Section 4.6.4.
the building; all the energy resources
spent in the extraction, manufacture, Inclusive design (user-centred design) Life-cycle cost (LCC) analysis – a
transportation and assembly, – for defnition see Chapter 2, Table 2.9. methodology to assess the fnancial
expressed in MJ/kg. See Chapter 4, Indoor air quality (IAQ) – this refers implications of material, product or
Sections 4.5.3 and 4.6.2. to the air quality inside, affecting building performance at all stages of
the health and comfort of building their life cycle. See Chapter 4, Section
Environmental remediation – this
occupants. See Chapter 4, Section 4.6.4.
deals with the removal of pollution or
contaminants from soil, groundwater, 4.7.4 and Note 4.44 for common Linear metabolism/Linear system
sediment or surface water. Remedial indoor air pollutants. – this refers to a resources-in, waste-
action is generally subject to Indoor environmental quality (IEQ) out process. This often means that
regulatory requirements. – most simply described as the resources fow through a city or
conditions inside the building; this building in a successive process
Evaporative cooling – this is most
refers to the quality of a building’s without concern for what happens
suitable in a hot-dry climate, where a
environment in relation to the during and at the end of their life. This
reduction in temperature results from
occupants’ health and wellbeing. It is opposite to a circular metabolism.
the evaporation of water over a body of
269
26 9
Living Building Challenge – see Chapter Participatory design – an inclusive design Potable water – water that is suitable and
2, Table 2.11. process that includes all actors affected safe to drink.
Low-impact materials – building by a development in the decision- Precedent studies or precedent
materials with reduced environmental making. See Chapter 2, Table 2.9. research – the study of other
impact, e.g. natural or reclaimed Passive design strategies – these make examples or projects to support one’s
materials. See Chapter 4, Table 4.12. use of the free resources based on own design process either in school or
Low-carbon materials – for defnition see the climate of a place. The strategies in a professional setting, by referencing
Chapter 4, Table 4.12. include natural daylight and ventilation, or reinterpreting and learning from
night cooling, use of thermal mass, etc. other projects in a new way.
Low embodied-energy materials – for See Chapter 3, Note 3.15.
defnition see Chapter 4, Table 4.12. Purge ventilation – this involves the
Passivhaus/Passive House – for rapid ventilation of rooms or spaces
defnition see Chapter 2, Table 2.6. at a relatively high rate to dilute
Patterns of use – the things people do in pollutants and/or water vapour or to
Material banks – repositories or stockpiles a space, including what, where, when remove excess heat.17 See Chapter 4,
of valuable materials that might be and for how long. The sum of these Section 4.4.4.
recovered.12 See Chapter 2, Table 2.2. activities over a period of time forms
Mechanical ventilation with heat the patterns of use for an urban area.
recovery (MVHR) – a continuous, Permaculture – this uses whole-systems Reactive adaptation – ‘Adaptation that
year-round mechanical ventilation thinking to design and maintain takes place after impacts of climate
method that extracts stale and humid agriculturally productive ecosystems change: for instance when new
air and recovers some of this expelled through certain design principles. building regulations follow a severe
heat when providing fresh, fltered air. It aims to integrate landscape and bushfre event.’ 18
This minimises heat loss and supports people, providing food, energy and
health and wellbeing. See Chapter 4, shelter in a sustainable way.13 Recyclable materials – materials able to
Section 4.4.4 and Chapter 4, Section be recycled, broken down and made
Permeable surfaces – porous surfaces into new products. See Chapter 4,
4.7.5. that enable the surface run-off Section 4.6.2.
Mitigation – the action of reducing the and soakaway of precipitation
severity, seriousness or painfulness while allowing it to infltrate soil, Recycling – means any recovery operation
of something – in this case, climate replenishing the water levels in the by which waste materials are
change. ground. reprocessed into products, materials
or substances, whether for original
Pile foundations – a series of columns or other purposes. See Chapter 4,
inserted into the ground to transmit Section 4.6.2.
loads to lower soil levels.
Natural materials – for defnition see Regenerate/Regenerative design – see
Chapter 4, Table 4.12. Planned adaptation – ‘Adaptation that Restorative design.
is the result of a deliberate policy
Natural ventilation – the use of wind and Renewable materials – natural materials
decision, based on an awareness that
temperature differences to create air that can be easily replenished. See
conditions have changed or are about
movement to bring fresh air inside, Chapter 4, Section 4.6.2, Table 4.12.
to change and that action is required
and to expel hot, humid and stale Restorative design, positive impact,
to return to maintain or achieve a
air. During wintertime this leads to regenerative design – often in
desired state.’ 14
signifcant heat loss and discomfort, sustainable architecture we talk of
unless background ventilation is Pluvial and fluvial flooding – fuvial
fooding is fooding from rivers, lakes ‘minimising negative impact’ and
provided with MVHR. See Chapter 4, using resources so as to ‘sustain’ future
Section 4.4.4. or streams (i.e., when they overfow
their banks onto the surrounding use. We need to go beyond this, and
Night cooling – this refers to night-time aim for a positive and restorative
land). Unlike fuvial fooding, pluvial
natural ventilation, especially to expel design impact. As a fundamental
fooding – which is fooding caused by
excess heat and cool the building. See basis, your design project must
rainfall (cloudburst) – can occur almost
Chapter 4, Table 4.4. strive to create a positive impact
anywhere, especially in areas with
Nudge architecture – architecture that depressions in the topography and on the environment by restoring
encourages different behaviour (e.g., fow paths on the surface, and where negative consequences not only of
taking the stairs, cycling, accessing the there are few permeable surfaces.15 the development itself, but of wider
outdoors). See Chapter 2, Table 2.8. societal and climatic effects and
Positive impact – see Restorative design. climate injustices. It uses whole-
Post-occupancy evaluation (POE) – systems thinking and integrates the
the process of obtaining feedback needs of both human and non-
Off-gassing – the release of toxic fumes on a building’s performance in use; humans. See also Chapter 1, Note 1.02
from some materials and furniture, includes both quantitative and and Chapter 2, Table 2.8.
often VOCs (e.g., formaldehyde), qualitative information such as Retrof itting – a process of modifying
affecting health and wellbeing energy monitoring; studies of indoor structures, systems or amenities of an
and contributing to sick building environmental quality, comfort and existing building to improve its use
syndrome. See Chapter 4, Section building design; surveys or interviews and performance, usually referred to
4.7.4 and Note 4.44. with building occupants and/or for the energy-effcient upgrade of the
facilities managers; and building walk- fabric. See Chapter 4, Section 4.6 and
throughs.16 Chapter 2, Table 2.2.
270
GLOSSARY
Retention basin – an artifcial pond to Sixth mass extinction – often referred humidity, air velocity (draughts),
collect water, preventing fooding and to as the Holocene or Anthropocene temperature of surrounding surfaces
stormwater run-off. extinction. It refers to the large-scale (radiant temperature) and each
Reclaimed, renewable, biodegradable permanent biodiversity loss and individual’s metabolic rate and
and reusable materials – for degradation as a result of human clothing. Thermal discomfort can lead
defnition see Chapter 4, Section activity during the current epoch. to thermal stress (e.g., exposure to
4.6.2, Table 4.12. Soft Landings – see Chapter 2, Table 2.11. extreme hot or cold temperatures),
particularly in older people. See
Reuse – the redistribution of the building, Social inf rastructure – this supports Chapter 4, Section 4.7.
element or material to use it in its individuals and communities to get
current state, reuse it for its original together in formal or informal ways, Thermal mass – a material’s capacity
purpose, or to adapt or process it for a increasing wellbeing. It underpins to store heat. The thermal capacity
new use. See Chapter 4, Section 4.6 livable cities that consider the depends on material density; it
and Chapter 2, Table 2.2. community’s needs and supports balances the temperatures in the
the connection of people through building as it absorbs heat from the
Reversible systems and reversible sun slowly, stores it and gradually
connections – reuse systems for the design of formal functions (e.g.,
libraries, schools, community and releases it during the night. As a rule
existing buildings (i.e., they can be of thumb, the denser the material,
taken apart or ‘reversed’), and new health centres) and informal spaces
that create opportunities to meet the better its thermal capacity. It is
connections and joints should be used often within colder and hot-dry
designed this way. See Chapter 3, in different seasons (e.g., benches
in parks and courtyard gardens, climates to moderate day and night
Table 3.2 and Chapter 4, Table 4.14. temperatures as well as to avoid
walkways wide enough to stop and
Reversible quarries – disused mining linger and say hello to neighbours, and summer overheating.23 See Chapter 4,
quarries that are redeveloped through so on.)20 See Theme 8. Section 4.4 and 4.7.5.
ecological restoration for human use. Trombe wall – a thermal mass wall,
Specif ic heat capacity – the quantity of
RIBA Sustainable Outcomes Guide and heat required to raise the temperature usually around 150–300 mm thick,
RIBA 2030 Climate Challenge – see of one gram of a substance by 1°C. placed behind south-facing glazing
Chapter 0, Note 0.04 and Chapter 2, The units of specifc heat are usually (north-facing in the southern
Table 2.11. calories or joules per gram per degree hemisphere), which has shutters to
Rules of thumb – rough and simplifed Celsius.21 prevent excessive night-time heat loss.
estimates of practical or scientifc Its wall area should not exceed 20% of
Spolia – repurposed building material the foor area it heats. It stores daytime
knowledge. In the early design stages, or decorative sculpture for the new
rules of thumb are good to help inform solar gain and releases it back at night
construction. when residents can beneft most from
quick design decisions and test ideas
and solutions. Strategic brief ing – part of an ongoing the heat. However, it can exacerbate
process to defne the client›s summertime overheating, unless
requirements, including user needs, summer solar shading is provided. In
when and how the building and its winter, cooler air from the room enters
Sense of place – in architecture, this spaces may be used, maintenance at the bottom, and air heated in the
is about the unique identity and practices, environmental impacts, the Trombe wall is pushed into the room
characteristics of a place that create client’s vision and so on.22 at the top. When the vents are closed
meaning for the people who use it.19 Substructure – for defnition see Chapter at night the wall heats the living space
4, Section 4.5.3 and 4.6.5 and Table by radiation. Adding exterior insulating
Shelterbelt – a windbreak with planting
4.11. shutters to the glazing prevents the
to provide shelter from the wind.
heat gained from escaping to the
(e.g., a barrier of trees and shrubs that Superstructure – for defnition see
outside at nighttime. In summer the
provides protection from wind and Chapter 4, Section 4.5.3 and 4.6.5 and
Trombe wall should be complemented
storms). Table 4.11.
with shading devices to avoid the heat
Sick building syndrome (SBS) – various Systems thinking – the process of a entering the building. See Note 4.10.
symptoms that occur in the occupants holistic understanding of how systems
Tipping point – a threshold that when
of a building. There are different infuence one another and interrelate,
exceeded can lead to irreversible
causes for SBS, including substandard and how they work overtime as part of
changes in the ecosystem (e.g.,
materials, maintenance and assembly a larger system.
biodiversity loss, loss of forest, new
processes; poor ventilation and indoor
CO2 concentration records leading
air quality (IAQ); CO2 build-up from
to increased average and extreme
occupants’ breathing; mould and
temperatures, ice caps melting, etc.).
contaminants from material out- Technocentric or high-tech solutions
gassing, volatile organic compounds – emphasising and promoting the
(VOCs) from materials, paints, carpets, importance or value of technology in Upcycling – a process of transforming
adhesives, etc.; industrial chemicals the belief it is the solution. waste for reuse and adding value. See
from cleaning and offce machinery; Thermal comfort – an individual’s Chapter 4, Section 4.6.2, Table 4.12.
and – especially for homes – indoor perception of satisfaction with the Urban breaks – unbuilt spaces and breaks
temperatures below 18°C. thermal environment, usually whether in built fabric that provide sunlight into
Single aspect – see Aspect. it is (too) hot or (too) cold. Thermal buildings or spaces behind, improve
comfort is affected by a combination ventilation and reduce pollution. See
of factors such as air temperature, Chapter 3, Table 3.5.
2711
27
Urban heat island (UHI) effect – Wall-slab system – a construction where

urban areas that have a different the wall element and the slab form a
local climate than the surrounding tunnel-like system that is repeated to
areas, manifested in lower humidity, form a larger structural whole.
increased air pollution, lower wind Waste stream – the complete fow of
speeds and higher temperatures by up material waste from dismantling,
to 7°C. It is caused by heat generated maintenance and repairs. See Chapter
in urban environments (from people 3, Note 3.01.
and activities) that is trapped by
urban structures and their form and WELL Building Standard – see Chapter
exacerbated by the lack of green 2, Table 2.11.
spaces.24, 25 Wind-tunnel effect – this happens
Urban mining – systematic reuse of when wind encounters a building or
anthropogenic materials present in group of buildings in such a way that
urban environments. See Chapter 1, it changes direction and velocity. For
Section 1.4.6. example, near high-rise buildings,
pedestrians will feel uncomfortably
Urban metabolism – a concept in which high wind gusts at the street level due
the biological notion is used for the to this phenomenon.
workings of the city, referring to the
internal processes by which living Whole life-cycle costing – see Chapter
organisms maintain a continuous 4, Section 4.6.4 and Note 4.42.
exchange of matter and energy with
their environment to enable operation,
growth and reproduction.26
Zero-energy and zero-carbon (also
nearly zero-energy building (nZEB),
zero net-energy building (ZNEB),
Value engineering – the identifcation net-zero carbon) – for defnition see
of more cost-effective alternative Chapter 2, Table 2.6 and Chapter 4,
solutions. To ensure that there is no Section 4.5.1.
loss of project values in this process, it
is important that all stakeholders, such
as clients, engineers and end users,
all agree and ‘buy into’ the project’s
concept, and the project values. Doing
so means that when changes need to
be made at later stages (e.g., to reduce
costs), the key project values and vision
will remain intact.
Vernacular architecture – a type of
contextual construction or building
that uses local materials and
craftsmanship. It is takes into account
the culture, climate and resources of
the area where it is located and is often
designed and constructed without
architects. See Chapter 2, Table 2.7.
Visual comfort – this includes satisfaction
with lighting conditions for different
activities, specifcally the amount,
distribution and colour temperature of
light as well as the absence of glare.27
See Chapter 4, Section 4.7.5.
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) –
these include a variety of chemicals,
some of which may have short- and
long-term adverse health effects.
Concentrations of many VOCs are
consistently higher (by up to 10 times)
indoors than outdoors.28 See Chapter
4, Section 4.7.4.
272
27 2
FURTHER READING
Chapter 0 Chapter 2 Chapter 4

Brian Edwards, Rough Guide to Simon Guy and Graham Farmer, Rosa Urbano Gutiérrez and Laura de la
Sustainability: A Design Primer, 2014, ‘Reinterpreting sustainable Plaza Hidalgo, Elements of Sustainable
RIBA Publishing architecture: the place of technology’, Architecture, 2019, Routledge
Mark Maslin, Climate Change: A Very Short The Journal of Architectural FCRBE, ‘Facilitating the circulation of
Introduction, 2014, Oxford University Education, 2001 reclaimed building elements in
Press Eric Klinenberg, Palaces for the People: northwestern Europe’
Naomi Klein, This Changes Everything: How Social Infrastructure Can Help LETI, ‘Embodied carbon primer’, 2020
Capitalism vs. The Climate, 2014, Fight Inequality, Polarization, and the
Simon & Schuster Decline of Civic Life, 2019, Penguin Sofe Pelsmakers, The Environmental
Books Design Pocketbook (2nd edition), 2015,
RIBA 2030 Climate Challenge, architecture. RIBA Publishing
com/-/media/fles/Climate-action/ Julia Watson, Lo-TEK: Design by Radical
RIBA-2030-Climate-Challenge.pdf Indigenism, 2019, Taschen Judit Kimpian, Hattie Hartman and Sofe
Pelsmakers, Energy, People, Buildings:
Sofe Pelsmakers and Nick Newman, Phillip James Tabb and A. Senem Deviren, Making Sustainable Architecture
Design Studio Volume 1: Everything The Greening of Architecture: A Critical Work, 2021, RIBA Publishing
Needs to Change: Architecture and History and Survey of Contemporary
the Climate Emergency, 2021, RIBA Sustainable Architecture and Urban
Publishing Design, 2013, Ashgate
Huw Heywood, 101 Rules of Thumb for
Chapter 1 Sustainable Buildings and Cities, 2015,
RIBA Publishing
Vivienne Brophy and J. Owen Lewis,
A Green Vitruvius: Principles and
Practice of Sustainable Architectural Chapter 3
Design, 2012, Routledge Nick Baker and Koen Steemers, Healthy
Ian L. McHarg, The Essential Ian McHarg: Homes: Designing with Light and Air
Writings on Design and Nature, 2006, for Sustainability and Wellbeing, 2019,
Island Press RIBA Publishing
Torben Dahl, Climate and Architecture, Jan Gehl, Life Between Buildings, 2011,
2008, Routledge Island Press
James A. LaGro Jr., Site Analysis: Informing Hugh Barton, et al., ‘Healthy urban
Context–Sensitive and Sustainable Site planning in practice: experience of
Planning and Design, 2013, Wiley European cities’, 2013, WHO, euro.who.
Simon Swaffeld, et al., Landscape int/__data/assets/pdf_fle/0003/98400/
Analysis: Investigating the Potentials E82657.pdf
of Space and Place, 2017, Routledge Fred London, Healthy Placemaking:
Wellbeing Through Urban Design,
2020, RIBA Publishing
Huw Heywood, 101 Rules of Thumb for
Low Energy Architecture, 2021, RIBA
Publishing
273
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276
INDEX
Page numbers in italic indicate fgures Brettstapel 181 contextual design 17, 19, 270
and in bold indicate tables. brownfelds 22, 22 contextual research/site analysis 12, 17–20, 28
building elevations 229, 229 adaptable and active architecture 51, 52
building fabric 166–171, 167, 171 air quality 49, 49, 52
3R (reduce, reuse, recycle) strategy 90, 192 airtightness 169, 170–171, 171 blue infrastructure 35, 36–38, 37, 39
15-minute city approach 78, 122, 122, 123 embodied carbon 178–180, 178, 179, built culture 53, 54, 57
180, 181, 182–183, 240, 270 climate/microclimate 40–41, 40, 41, 43
A insulation 166–170, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171 communicating 64, 64, 223, 223, 224–
moisture management 170, 171, 171 225, 227, 227
acoustic comfort 163, 203–204, 204, 210
thermal bridges 167, 169–170, 169, 170 data-collecting tools 25
see also noise
thermal bypass 170 data types 24
acoustic simulations 237, 239
weather protection 166, 171 delight 28, 58, 58, 59, 59
active architecture 51, 52, 92, 93, 139, 140 democratic processes 56, 57
building form 131–132, 132, 133, 135
Active House standard 87 demographics 53, 53, 57
building performance monitoring and
adaptability 75, 114, 115, 115, 116, 119, 194, 195, design concept and 62–64, 64, 68,
evaluation (BPE) 100, 211, 268
195, 196 69, 70
building plans 229
adaptable and fexible spaces 198, 210 desktop studies 25
built culture 53, 54, 57
adaptable architecture 51, 52, 268 energy and carbon dioxide 28, 43–44,
adaptive reuse 90, 192–193, 192, 196 C 44, 45, 46
air quality/pollution 49, 49, 52, 136–137, 137, environment 28, 35–38, 35, 37, 39
140, 198–199, 210 carbon dioxide see energy and carbon future and global responsibility 27–29,
airtightness 169, 170–171, 171, 268 dioxide 28, 29, 30, 31
albedo 42, 269 carbon, embodied 178–180, 178, 179, 180, geology and soil 35, 36, 39
anticipatory (proactive) adaptation 78, 268 181, 182–183, 240, 269 green infrastructure 35, 38, 39
aspect 128–129, 132–133, 133, 268 carbon footprint health and wellbeing 28, 49–51, 49,
attenuated ventilation panels 163, 163 operational 173, 174, 179 50, 52
autonomous buildings 84 whole-life 178–180, 178, 179, 180, 181, infrastructure 28, 31–34, 32, 33, 34
autonomous (spontaneous) adaptation 182–183 key stakeholders 61, 61
78, 268 carbon sink materials see biogenic live projects 56, 57
axonometric drawings, exploded 117, 246, materials materials 28, 43, 44, 46–48, 46, 47, 48
247, 253 carrying capacity 18, 268 methods and techniques 24–26, 25
circular construction 71, 72, 180, 180, 192– noise 49, 50–51, 52
B 193, 192, 196 passive resilience 28, 40–42, 40, 41, 43
see also design for disassembly (DfD) people and community 28, 52–56, 53,
background ventilation 160, 161, 164, 207,
circular materials 88–89, 90 55, 57
268
climate-based daylight modelling (CBDM) performance 28, 60–61, 60, 61, 61
battery electrical storage 178
239, 245 risk areas 60, 61
benchmarks 173, 268
climate emergency design themes 3–8 site selection 21–23, 22, 23
bioclimatic architecture 81, 83
how to use 8, 9 site visits 26, 26
see also tropical architecture
climate justice 36, 109–110, 110 social infrastructure 53, 54, 57
biodegradable materials 89, 187, 268
climate/microclimate 40–41, 40, 41, 43, solar orientation 40, 41, 42, 43, 61
biodiversity see green infrastructure
127–128, 134 SWOT analysis 63–64, 63
biogenic materials 178–179, 187, 268
climatic design 19–20, 20 synthesising research 63–64, 63, 64, 218
biomimicry 81
climatic regions 21 topography 35, 36, 39
bionic architecture 103
co-design 96, 141–142 wind 40, 41, 42, 43, 61, 62
biophilia/biophilic design 93, 139, 139, 140
combined heat and power (CHP) 175, 177 continuous productive urban landscapes
bioremediation 138, 140, 156, 268
communicating (CPULs) 78
bioshelters 84
contextual research/site analysis 64, convertibility 115, 115
blue infrastructure
64, 223, 223, 224–225, 226, 227, 227 cradle-to-cradle (C2C) approach 75, 180
contextual research 35, 36–38, 37, 39
design concept 68, 217–218, 218, 219, cradle-to-cradle materials 90, 187, 269
design strategies 124–125, 125, 126, 126
220, 221, 222 critical regionalism 99
greywater recycling 80, 154, 155, 155, 156
tools for working with users or cross-laminated timber (CLT) 181, 183
rainwater harvesting 80, 86, 154, 155, 156
personas 227, 227 cross-ventilation 133, 133, 161, 161, 164
sustainable urban drainage systems
community heating 175, 176
(SuDS) 125, 153, 154, 154, 155
conceptual design 19, 268–269 D
testing and developing 153–155, 154,
see also design concept
155, 156 data-collecting tools 25
conceptual models 219
BREEAM (Building Research data types 24
concrete 179, 181, 183, 189, 189
Establishment Environmental daylight 132–133, 135
construction drawings 246, 247
Assessment Method) 103, 236
277
27 7
daylight factor (DF) 199, 200, 201, 239 see also life-cycle design strategies; environmental software simulations 236,
daylight simulations 239, 242, 244, 245 passive design strategies; testing 237, 237, 238, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242,
for health and wellbeing 199–201, 199, and developing design 243, 244, 245
200, 201, 210 desktop studies 25 EU 2030 climate and energy goals 66
see also sunlight diagrams 218, 219 exploded axonometric drawings 117, 246,
defnition, project see design concept direct solar gain 157, 157 247, 253
delight 3, 7–8, 260 disassembly see design for disassembly exploration phase see contextual research/
contextual research 28, 58, 58, 59, 59 (DfD) site analysis
design concept 71, 97–98, 97, 98, 99 disassembly and reuse manuals 214, 214,
design strategies 144, 144 215 F
democratic architecture 96 district heating 175, 176
facades, green 150, 152
democratic processes 56, 57, 96, 141–142, downcycled materials 187, 188
fauna see green infrastructure
142, 143 durability/robustness 75, 112–115, 112, 113, 119
feedback 13, 149, 217
demographics 53, 53, 57
E see also validation
densities, sustainable 120–122, 121, 123
fve-step iterative design process 10, 11–14,
design brief 67, 68, 69
earth tubes 161, 208–209 14, 15, 149
design concept 12, 66–70, 66, 69, 71, 105
Earthships 84 fexibility strategies 75, 114, 115, 115, 116, 119,
brief and narrative 67, 68, 69
eco-aesthetic approach 99 194, 195, 195, 196
communicating 68, 217–218, 218, 219,
eco-tech architecture 81 fooding 36–38, 37, 124–125, 125, 126, 126, 270
220, 221, 222
ecological design 81 fora see green infrastructure
contextual research and 62–64, 64, 68,
embodied carbon 178–180, 178, 179, 180, 181, footprint 269
69, 70
182–183, 240, 269 see also carbon footprint
delight 71, 97–98, 97, 98, 99
embodied energy 269 form factor 131–132, 132, 133, 135
energy and carbon dioxide 71, 85–86,
see also low-embodied-energy/low- fungal mycelium biomaterials 188, 188, 189
85, 86, 87
carbon materials future and global responsibility 3, 4
environment 71, 79–80, 79, 80, 81
energy and carbon dioxide 3, 6 climate and spatial justice 36, 109–110,
future and global responsibility 71,
battery storage 178 110
72–74, 73, 74, 75
contextual research 28, 43–44, 44, 45, contextual research 27–29, 28, 29, 30, 31
health and wellbeing 71, 91–92, 91, 92,
46 design concept 71, 72–74, 73, 74, 75
93
design concept 71, 85–86, 85, 86, 87 see also life-cycle design strategies
infrastructure 71, 76–77, 76, 77, 78
embodied carbon 178–180, 178, 179,
materials 71, 88–89, 88, 89, 90
180, 181, 182–183, 240, 269 G
passive resilience 71, 82–83, 82, 83, 84
energy systems 43, 44, 46, 172, 173, 174,
people and community 71, 94–95, 94, genius loci 19, 269
174, 175, 176–177, 177
95, 96 geology and soil 35, 36, 39, 156
geothermal energy 44, 173
performance 71, 100, 101, 102, 103 soil contamination 138, 140, 156
heat pumps 44, 172, 175, 176–177
design for disassembly (DfD) 75, 116, 117, geothermal energy 44, 173
operational carbon footprint 173, 174,
118, 119, 194, 195, 246, 254 glu-lam 181, 183
179
design strategies 13, 107–108 green infrastructure
operational energy use 173, 179
15-minute city approach 78, 122, 122, biophilic design 93, 139, 139, 140
renewable energies 43, 44, 46, 172, 173,
123 contextual research 35, 38, 39
174, 174, 175, 176–177, 177
active architecture 51, 52, 92, 93, 139, design strategies 123–124, 124, 126, 139,
solar energy 43, 174, 174, 175, 176
140 139
whole-life carbon footprint 178–180,
air pollution and 136–137, 137, 140 green corridors 150
178, 179, 180, 181, 182–183
biophilic design 93, 139, 139, 140 green facades 150, 152
wind energy 43, 44, 175, 176, 177
bioremediation 138, 140, 156, 268 green roofs 150, 151–152, 152, 242
zero-carbon buildings 87, 172–173, 176
blue infrastructure 124–125, 125, 126, 126 testing and developing 150–152, 150,
energy models 236, 237, 237, 238, 238, 239,
climate and spatial justice 36, 109–110, 151, 152, 153
240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245
110 trees 40, 83, 150, 151, 151, 153
energy-plus house 87
for delight 144, 144 greenfelds 22, 22
engineered timber products 181, 183
democratic processes 141–142, 142, 143 greyfelds 22, 22
environment 3, 5
environmental quality 136–138, 137, greywater recycling 80, 154, 155, 155, 156
contextual research 28, 35–38, 35, 37,
139, 140
39
green infrastructure 123–124, 124, 126, H
design concept 71, 79–80, 79, 80, 81
139, 139
see also blue infrastructure; geology health and wellbeing 3, 6–7
inclusive design 96, 141–142, 143
and soil; green infrastructure; acoustic comfort 163, 203–204, 204,
noise reduction 138, 140, 163, 203–204,
topography 210
204, 210
environmental quality active architecture 51, 52, 92, 93, 139,
for people and community 141–143,
air quality/pollution 49, 49, 52, 136–137, 140
142, 143
137, 140, 198–199, 210 adaptable and fexible spaces 198, 210
for physical wellbeing 93, 139, 140
indoor 49, 91, 92, 198–199, 210, 269 adaptable architecture 51, 52, 268
for planetary health and wellbeing
noise 49, 50–51, 52, 138, 140, 163, 203– air quality and 49, 49, 52, 136–137, 137,
136, 140
204, 204, 210 140, 198–199, 210
social infrastructure 142–143, 143
soil contamination 138, 140, 156 biophilic design 93, 139, 139, 140
soil contamination and 138, 140
connection to nature 93, 139, 139, 140
sustainable densities 120–122, 121, 123
278
INDEX
contextual research 28, 49–51, 49, 50, fexibility/adaptability 75, 114, 115, 115, mixed-mode ventilation 162, 207–208
52 116, 119, 194, 195, 195, 196 moisture management 170, 171, 171
daylight 199–201, 199, 200, 201, 210 reuse/retroft 75, 90, 110, 111–112, 111, 118 morphology models 218, 219
design concept 71, 91–92, 91, 92, 93 live projects 56, 57, 96, 141 mycelium biomaterials 188, 188, 189
design strategies 136–139, 137, 139, 140 Living Building Challenge (LBC) 103, 236
noise and 49, 50–51, 52, 138, 140, 163, low-embodied-energy/low-carbon N
203–204, 204, 210 materials 43, 44, 46, 48, 187
national energy supply networks 175, 176
physical 51, 92, 93, 139, 140, 197, 210 low-impact materials 185, 187, 270
National Park Cities 78
planetary 136, 140
M natural light see daylight; sunlight
social 197–198, 210
natural materials 185, 186–189, 187, 188,
soil contamination and 138, 140
maintenance manuals 214, 214, 215 189, 191
sunlight 202, 210
manuals natural ventilation 132–133, 133, 135, 160, 161,
views 202, 202, 210
disassembly and reuse 214, 214, 215 161, 162, 163, 163, 164–165, 208–209, 270
visual comfort 199–202, 199, 200, 201,
maintenance 214, 214, 215 nature see green infrastructure
202, 210, 272
user 213, 214, 214, 215 nearly zero-energy building (nZEB) 87, 236
see also thermal comfort
material passports 116, 246, 248 net-positive design 87
healthy materials 90, 187
materials 3, 6 night cooling 161, 164, 208–209, 270
heat pumps 44, 172, 175, 176–177
adaptive reuse 90, 192–193, 192, 196 noise
heliodon analysis 230, 232
biodegradable 89, 187, 268 acoustic simulations 237, 239
high-tech solutions 100, 103, 271
biogenic 178–179, 187, 268 reduction strategies 138, 140, 163,
holistic sustainable architecture 2
buildings as sources of 47, 47, 48 203–204, 204, 210
hydrology see blue infrastructure
circular 88–89, 90 site analysis 49, 50–51, 52
hygroscopic materials 171
concrete 179, 181, 183, 189, 189 nudge architecture 93, 270
I contextual research 28, 43, 44, 46–48,
46, 47, 48 O
illuminance simulations 239, 244, 245 cradle-to-cradle 90, 187, 270
off-grid architecture 84
imagine phase see design strategies design concept 71, 88–89, 88, 89, 90
openable windows 163
inclusive design 96, 141–142, 143 downcycled 187, 188
operational carbon footprint 173, 174, 179
indirect solar gain 157, 157 embodied carbon 178–180, 178, 179,
indoor air quality (IAQ) 49, 52, 198–199, 210, 180, 181, 182–183, 240, 269
organi-tech approach 99
269 engineered timber products 181, 183
organic architecture 99
indoor environmental quality (IEQ) 49, 91, fexibility/adaptability 194, 195, 195, 196
orientation 40, 41, 42, 43, 61, 128–129, 128,
92, 198–199, 210, 269 fungal mycelium biomaterials 188,
129, 130, 134
infrastructure 3, 4 188, 189
overheating prevention 130–131, 135
contextual research 28, 31–34, 32, 33, 34 healthy 90, 187
design concept 71, 76–77, 76, 77, 78 hygroscopic 171
P
design strategies 120–125, 121, 122, 123, insulation 166–170, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171,
124, 125, 126, 126 266, 269 participatory design 96, 141–142, 270
see also blue infrastructure; green k-values 168, 266 passive design strategies 5, 127–133,
infrastructure; social infrastructure life-cycle assessment (LCA) 193–194, 134–135
insulation 166–170, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 193, 196, 269 building form 131–132, 132, 133, 135
266, 269 life-cycle costing (LCC) 193–194, 193, climate/microclimate 40–41, 40, 41, 43,
integrated design 10, 67, 67, 107, 269 196, 269 127–128, 128, 134
isolated solar gain 157, 157 local 48, 48 conceptual design 71, 82–83, 82, 83, 84
iterative design 10, 11–14, 14, 15, 149 low-embodied-energy/low-carbon 43, natural light 132–133, 135
44, 46, 48, 187 natural ventilation 132–133, 133, 135,
K low-impact 185, 187, 270 160, 161, 161, 162, 163, 163, 164–165,
natural 185, 186–189, 187, 188, 189, 191 208–209, 270
k-values 168, 266
reclaimed 89, 187, 190 night cooling 161, 164, 208–209, 270
key stakeholders and collaborators 61, 61,
recyclable 187, 270 openable windows 163
213–214, 215
recycled 187, 188, 189–190, 190, 191 overheating prevention 130–131, 135
renewable 89, 185, 186–189, 187, 188, passive cooling 157–158, 158, 165,
L
189, 191, 270 208–209
LEED (Leadership in Energy and reusable 89, 90, 187 passive heating 157, 157, 164
Environmental Design) 103, 236 reuse of 47, 47, 73, 90, 187, 188, 189–190, solar orientation 40, 41, 42, 43, 61,
life-cycle assessment (LCA) 193–194, 193, 190, 191 128–129, 128, 129, 130, 134
196, 269 sustainable material selection 184–190, thermal mass 42, 127, 157, 157, 158–160,
life-cycle costing (LCC) 193–194, 193, 196, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190–191, 190 159, 164, 271
269 sustainable timber 48 unheated spaces 129, 130
life-cycle design strategies 72–74, 73, 74, thermal resistance 168, 267 ventilation panels 163, 163
75, 110–116, 118–119 U-values 168, 267 wind patterns 40, 41, 42, 43
design for disassembly (DfD) 75, 116, upcycled 187 see also building fabric
117, 118, 119, 194, 195, 246, 254 mechanical ventilation with heat recovery passive resilience 3, 5
durability/robustness 75, 112–115, 112, (MVHR) 160, 206, 207–208, 211, 270 contextual research 28, 40–42, 40, 41, 43
113, 119 microclimate 40–41, 40, 41, 43, 127–128, 134 design concept 71, 82–83, 82, 83, 84
279
27 9
see also passive design strategies renewable energies 43, 44, 46, 172, 173, 174, structural insulated panels (SIPs) 181, 183
passive solar architecture 83, 84 174, 175, 176–177, 177 substructure 179, 182
see also solar orientation renewable materials 89, 185, 186–189, 187, sunlight
Passivhaus 87, 166, 236 188, 189, 191, 271 for health and wellbeing 202, 210
people and community 3, 7 responsible design 75 solar energy 43, 174, 174, 175, 176
built culture 53, 54, 57 restorative/regenerative design 17–18, 93, solar gain 128, 128, 130, 134, 151, 157,
contextual research 28, 52–56, 53, 55, 270 157, 161
57 retroftting 75, 110, 111–112, 111, 118, 270 solar radiation simulations 61, 239, 242
democratic processes 56, 57, 96, reusable materials 89, 90, 187 see also daylight; solar orientation;
141–142, 142, 143 reuse strategies 75, 90, 111–112, 111, 118, 271 solar shading
demographics 53, 53, 57 reused materials 47, 47, 73, 90, 187, 188, superstructure 179, 181, 182–183
design concept 71, 94–95, 94, 95, 96 189–190, 190, 191 sustainable construction process 184, 184
design strategies 141–143, 142, 143 reversible connections 119, 194, 196, 271 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 3,
inclusive design 96, 141–142, 143 RIBA 2030 Climate Challenge 4, 103 75
live projects 56, 57, 96, 141 RIBA Plan of Work 11, 11 sustainable urban drainage systems
participatory design 96, 141–142, 271 RIBA Sustainable Outcomes 4, 103 (SuDS) 125, 153, 154, 154, 155
social infrastructure 53, 54, 57, 142–143, risk areas 60, 61 SWOT analysis 63–64, 63, 148, 218
143, 271 mitigation measures 61 systems thinking 2, 77, 271
performance 3, 8 performance risk plan 60, 61, 212, 213, 215
building performance monitoring and robustness/durability 75, 112–115, 112, 113, 119 T
evaluation (BPE) 100, 211, 268 roofs, green 150, 151–152, 152, 242
target setting 212, 212, 215
contextual research 28, 60–61, 60, 61, 61 rules of thumb 212, 236, 236, 243, 271
technical detail investigations 247
design concept 71, 100, 101, 102, 103
S technocentric solutions 78, 100, 103, 271
disassembly and reuse manuals 214,
testing and developing design 12, 13,
214, 215
section drawings 219, 229, 229, 246, 247 147–149, 149
key stakeholders and collaborators 61,
section models 246, 247, 253 acoustic comfort 163, 203–204, 204,
61, 213–214, 215
sectional perspectives 228, 229, 229 210
maintenance manuals 214, 214, 215
self-sustaining architecture 84 adaptable and fexible spaces 198, 210
performance risk plan 60, 61, 212, 213,
shading see solar shading adaptive reuse 192–193, 192, 196
215
shadow simulations 239, 242 airtightness 169, 170–171, 171
post-occupancy evaluation (POE) 60,
shelterbelts 151, 272 blue infrastructure 153–155, 154, 155, 156
100, 211, 270
sick building syndrome (SBS) 90, 186, 271 building fabric 166–171, 167, 168, 169,
single-sided ventilation 161, 161, 164 170, 171
testing and developing 211–214, 212,
site analysis see contextual research/site daylight 199–201, 199, 200, 201, 210
212, 214, 215
analysis disassembly and reuse manuals 214,
user manuals 213, 214, 214, 215
site plans 229 214, 215
permaculture 78, 270
site selection 21–23, 22, 23 earth tubes 161, 208–209
permeable surfaces 124, 125, 126, 270
site visits 26, 26 embodied carbon 178–180, 178, 179,
physical health and wellbeing 51, 92, 93,
sketching 218, 221 180, 181, 182–183, 240
139, 140, 197, 210
smart cities 78 energy systems 172, 174, 174, 175,
phytoremediation see bioremediation
social infrastructure 53, 54, 57, 142–143, 176–177, 177
place-based design 19, 99, 269
143, 271 fexibility/adaptability 194, 195, 195, 196
planetary health and wellbeing 136, 140
social wellbeing 197–198, 210 geology and soil 156
planned adaptation 78, 270
Soft Landings 103 green infrastructure 150–152, 150, 151,
plus-energy house 87
soil and geology 35, 36, 39, 156 152, 153
pollution see environmental quality
soil contamination 138, 140, 156 heat pumps 44, 172, 175, 176–177
post-occupancy evaluation (POE) 60, 100,
solar control 205, 205, 206, 207, 211 indoor air quality (IAQ) 198–199, 210
211, 270
see also solar shading insulation 166–170, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171
potable water 153, 154, 270
solar energy 43, 174, 174, 175, 176 key stakeholders and collaborators
precedent research 94, 218, 247, 270
solar gain 128, 128, 130, 134, 151, 157, 157, 161 213–214, 215
project defnition see design concept
see also solar shading life-cycle assessment (LCA) 193–194,
purge ventilation 161, 164, 208–209, 270
solar orientation 40, 41, 42, 43, 61, 128–129, 193, 196, 269
R 128, 129, 130, 134 life-cycle costing (LCC) 193–194, 193,
solar radiation simulations 61, 239, 242 196, 269
R-values 168, 267 solar shading 40, 86, 102, 131, 135, 205, 205, maintenance manuals 214, 214, 215
rainwater harvesting 80, 86, 154, 155, 156 206, 211 material selection 184–190, 185, 186,
rammed-earth walls 168, 181, 183 modelling effectiveness of 239, 241, 187, 188, 189, 190–191, 190
reactive adaptation 78, 270 242, 243 mechanical ventilation with heat
reclaimed materials 89, 187, 190 trees and vegetation 83, 151, 151, 206, 207 recovery (MVHR) 160, 206, 207–
recyclable materials 187, 270 solid-mass superstructure 181, 183 208, 211
recycled materials 187, 188, 189–190, 190, 191 spatial justice 109–110, 110 mixed-mode ventilation 162, 207–208
regenerative design see restorative/ specifc heat capacity 42 moisture management 170, 171, 171
regenerative design sponge city approach 78 natural and renewable materials 185,
regionalism 99 stack ventilation 161, 161, 165 186–189, 187, 188, 189, 191
straw-bale walls 181, 183
280
INDEX
natural ventilation 160, 161, 161, 162, 163, topography 35, 36, 39, 127, 156 wind fow simulations 61, 62, 236, 239, 243
163, 164–165, 208–209 transformability 115, 115 wind patterns 40, 41, 42, 43
noise reduction 163, 203–204, 204, 210 trees 40, 83, 150, 151, 151, 153 wind-tunnel effect 42, 61, 272
openable windows 163 Trombe walls 157, 157, 272 windows, openable 163
operational carbon footprint 173, 174, tropical architecture 84
179 see also bioclimatic architecture Z
U zero-carbon buildings 87, 172–173, 176
passive cooling 157–158, 158, 165,
zero net energy building (ZNEB) 87
208–209
U-values 168, 267
passive heating 157, 157, 164
UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
performance 211–214, 212, 212, 214, 215
3, 75
physical wellbeing 197, 210
unheated spaces 129, 130
renewable energies 172, 173, 174, 174,
upcycling 187, 271
175, 176–177, 177
urban breaks 134, 271
reused and recycled materials 187, 188,
urban climate adaptation 78
189–190, 190, 191
urban farming 78
social wellbeing 197–198, 210
urban heat island (UHI) effect 42, 127, 130,
solar control 205, 205, 206, 207, 211
272
substructure 179, 182
urban metabolism 77, 272
sunlight 202, 210
urban mining 47, 47, 272
superstructure 179, 181, 182–183
user-centred design 96, 141–142, 143
user manuals 213, 214, 214, 215
thermal bridges 167, 169–170, 169, 170
thermal bypass 170
V
thermal mass 157, 157, 158–160, 159, 164
topography 156 validation 217
user manuals 213, 214, 214, 215 in depth through details 246, 247, 248,
ventilation panels 163, 163 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256,
views 202, 202, 210 257, 258, 259
visual comfort 199–202, 199, 200, 201, using digital and physical models 230,
202, 210 231, 232, 232, 233, 234, 235, 243, 244
weather protection 166, 171 using energy models/environmental
whole-life carbon footprint 178–180, software simulations 236, 237, 237,
178, 179, 180, 181, 182–183 238, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243,
whole-life costing (WLC) 193–194, 193 244, 245
zero-carbon buildings 172–173, 176 using rules of thumb, design guides
see also validation and checklists 236, 236, 243
thermal bridges 167, 169–170, 169, 170 using site and building scale drawings
thermal bypass 170 228–229, 228, 229
thermal comfort 204–209, 271 vapour-open and vapour-closed envelopes
earth tubes 161, 208–209 170, 171
mechanical ventilation with heat vegetation see green infrastructure
recovery (MVHR) 160, 206, 207– ventilation
208, 211, 270 mechanical 160, 206, 207–208, 211, 270
mixed-mode ventilation 162, 207–208 mixed-mode 162, 207–208
natural ventilation 132–133, 133, 135, natural 132–133, 133, 135, 160, 161, 161,
160, 161, 161, 162, 163, 163, 164–165, 162, 163, 163, 164–165, 208–209, 270
208–209, 270 ventilation panels 163, 163
night cooling 161, 164, 208–209, 270 vernacular architecture 19, 83, 90, 272
openable windows 163 vertical gardens 150, 152
overheating prevention 130–131, 135 views 202, 202, 210
passive cooling 157–158, 158, 165, visual comfort 199–202, 199, 200, 201, 202,
208–209 210, 272
passive heating 157, 157, 164 volatile organic compounds (VOCs) 198,
solar control 205, 205, 206, 207, 211 272
thermal mass and 157, 157, 158–160,
159, 164 W
ventilation panels 163, 163
water see blue infrastructure
thermal mass 42, 127, 157, 157, 158–160,
weather protection 166, 171
159, 164, 271
WELL Building Standard 103, 236
thermal resistance 168, 267
whole-life carbon footprint 178–180, 178,
timber 185, 186, 187, 189
179, 180, 181, 182–183
engineered timber products 181, 183
whole-life costing (WLC) 193–194, 193
sustainable 48
wildlife see green infrastructure
timber frame 181, 183
wind energy 43, 44, 175, 176, 177
tipping points 136, 272
281
IMAGE CREDITS
Unless indicated below, all images are 3.15, 4.7, 4.8, 4.9, 4.10, 4.12, 4.21, 4.22, 4.23, 5.25 Jaimie Claydon © The University of
copyright of Sofe Pelsmakers, Elizabeth 4.41, 4.45 Sofe Pelsmakers adapted from Sheffeld; Figure 5.27 Zhangxiufu Wu
Donovan, Aidan Hoggard and Urszula Environmental Design Pocketbook (2015); © The University of Sheffeld; Figure
Kozminska. Figure 3.20 and 5.43 Marleen Stokkeby; 5.28 Emma Seaton © The University of
Figure 3.28 Johanna Lynn © The University Sheffeld; Figure 5.29 Holly Wilkinson ©
Figure 0.6 and 5.41 Ariya Vetchapho; Figure of Sheffeld; Figure 4.4 Elvira Lehostaieva; The University of Sheffeld; Figure 5.30
1.1 Villads Birch Hastrup and Siv Ravnsbæk; Figures 4.15, 5.26 and 5.33 William Kreibich Jennie Daoud, Mohnish Chandnani,
Figure 1.5 and 5.31 Natalie Krieg; Figure © The University of Sheffeld; Figure Rayan Babiker and Zhoufan Chen © The
1.6, 1.10, 2.18 and 5.6 Sofa Weidner; Figure 4.18 Thomas Cran © The University of University of Sheffeld; Figure 5.32 Oliver
1.7 China Chapman and Thomas Parker Sheffeld; Figure 4.39 Søren Nielsen; Millet © The University of Sheffeld; Figure
© The University of Sheffeld; Figure 1.12 Figure 4.47 Gard Meisingseth Rognes; 5.35 Cameron Shackley © The University of
Odin Olesen; Figure 1.14 Peer Tue Näthke Figure 4.48 Nikola Yanev © The University Sheffeld; Figures 5.36 and 5.37 Josephine
and Karoline Frederikke Hyveled-Nielsen; of Sheffeld; Figure 5.1 Cressy Lopez and Dorling © The University of Sheffeld;
Figure 1.16 and 5.44 Karla Citlali Steninge Christie Tan © The University of Sheffeld; Figure 5.38 Rasmus Gregor Jørgensen;
Hernandez; Figure 1.18 Robyn Davis Figure 5.2 Sophie Mayer and Mimi Barr Figure 5.40 Bradley Sumner © The
and Paddy McElroy © The University of © The University of Sheffeld; Figure 5.3 University of Sheffeld; Figure 5.42 Stine
Sheffeld; Figure 1.20 and 4.37 Annika and 5.39 Peer Tue Näthke; Figure 5.4 Brochmann Jørgensen; Figure 5.46 Kristian
Lyon; Figure 1.22, 2.12 and 5.16 Tale Nixon; Emma Koch © The University of Sheffeld; Knorr Jensen; Figure 5.47 Alex Dormon
Figure 1.24 and 5.53 Mirjami Myllymäki; Figure 5.5 David Westervik; Figures 5.7 and Sam Milward © The University of
Figure 1.26 and 4.30 Melissa Bacher; and 5.8 Monty Dobney © The University Sheffeld; Figure 5.48 Christian Simon
Figure 1.28 Jieun Bae; Figure 1.29 and 3.22 of Sheffeld; Figure 5.9 Cecilie Elmholdt Reese Reinholdt Andersen; Figure 5.49
Anyana Zimmermann; Figure 1.30 Essi Smidt; Figure 5.10 Jialin Pan © The Sara Sadeghian Pedersen; Figure 5.50 and
Nisonen; Figure 2.3 Stephen Fisher © The University of Sheffeld; Figures 5.11 and 5.12 5.51 Takahiro Minamino; Figure 5.52 Joona
University of Sheffeld; Figures 2.6, 3.9 Anna White © The University of Sheffeld; Lukka and Ville Pääkkönen.
and 5.22 Alice Howland © The University Figure 5.13 Thomas Wakelam and Richard
of Sheffeld; Figure 2.7 and 3.6 Hugo Rothwell © The University of Sheffeld;
Shackleton; Figures 2.10 and 5.45 Olivia Figure 5.14 Christopher Scaplehorn © The
Hellman © The University of Sheffeld; University of Sheffeld; Figures 5.15 and
Figure 2.14 William Capps © The University 5.34 Thomas Cunningham and Tobias
of Sheffeld; Figures 2.16, 4.19 and 4.20 Mackrill © The University of Sheffeld;
Samuel Letchford © The University of Figures 5.17 and 5.24 Karolina Kaminskaite
Sheffeld; Figure 2.20 Emilie Wu; Figure © The University of Sheffeld; Figure 5.18
2.22 Anni Jäntti, Martti Peuransalo, Sofa Christopher Pate and Thomas Donoghue
Korte; Figure 2.24 Anna Vang Toksvig; © The University of Sheffeld Figure 5.19
Figure 2.26 Alexander Throm; Figure 3.3 and 5.20 Hawkins Brown Architects; Figure
Phuong Uyen Nguyen; Figure 3.5 Marlene 5.21 Giska Kamase, Sara Al-Sawi and Rujirej
Hindsted; Figure 3.11 Emma Skelander; Janusan © The University of Sheffeld;
Figure 3.13 Asger Brix Pedersen; Figure Figure 5.23 Isak Dysthe Sønderland; Figure
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Designing For The Climate Emergency

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© RIBA Publishing, 2022

Published by RIBA Publishing, 66 Portland Place, London, W1B 1AD

ISBN 978 1 85946 964 4

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Commissioning Editor: Alex White

Assistant Editor: Scarlet Furness

Production: Sarah-Louise Deazley

Designed and typeset by Sara Miranda Icaza

Printed and bound by Short Run Press, Exeter

[Any other information can go here]

Sof ie Pelsmakers (she/her) is an environmental architect, educator

Elizabeth Donovan (she/her) is an educator, researcher and architect

Aidan Hoggard (he/him) is an architect and educator with a focus on

Ula Kozminska (she/her) is an architect, researcher and educator with

This book builds on many before it, and on years of teaching,

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Sixth

fooding. A rise of 4°C or more is likely to seriously affect global food

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK

This book guides you as an architecture student to create truly

• adapting to a changing climate

step-changes towards eventual architecture practice. Given the design

STRUCTURE OF THE BOOK

The book is structured as follows:

• Chapter 0 explains what holistic, sustainable architecture is and

• Chapter 3 focuses on key design recommendations to help your

GLOBAL CASE STUDIES

0.1 HOLISTIC SUSTAINABLE ARCHITECTURE 0.01 NOTE

0.2 10 CLIMATE EMERGENCY DESIGN THEMES 0.02 PRACTICE

Figure 0.2 The 10 climate

Following is a summary of the 10 climate emergency themes used 0.04 NOTE

UN SDGs: 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15

0.2.3 Theme 3: Environment

UN SDGs: 1, 6, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15

0.2.4 Theme 4: Passive resilience

UN SDGs: 1, 3, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13

0.2.5 Theme 5: Energy and CO2

UN SDGs: 7, 9, 11, 12, 13

0.2.6 Theme 6: Materials

UN SDGs: 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16

0.2.7 Theme 7: Health and wellbeing

Design principles include:

UN SDGs: 2, 3, 10, 11, 15

0.2.8 Theme 8: People and community

UN SDGs: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 10, 11, 16, 17

0.2.9 Theme 9: Delight

0.2.11 How to use the 10 climate emergency

TABLE 0.1 HOW TO USE THE 10 CLIMATE EMERGENCY 0.06 PRACTICE

0.3 INTEGRATED DESIGN 0.07 PRACTICE

Figure 0.4 The fve-step

0.4 THE FIVE-STEP ITERATIVE 0.08 NOTE

RIBA Plan of Work

The RIBA Plan of Work has

eight stages and guides the

stage of project conception to

This book’s fve-step design

process maps to the RIBA

Plan of Work, as shown in

RIBA PLAN OF WORK

› see Chapter 1 0.4.1 Step 1 – explore › 0.10 NOTE

› see Chapters 0.4.3 Step 3 – imagine › 0.12 NOTE

RIBA PLAN TECHNICAL MANUFACTURING

› see Chapter 5 0.4.5 Step 5 – feedback ›