3.

Characterization of Natural
Fracture Systems
Characterization of Natural Fracture Systems

• Classification of Fractures

- Laboratory Rock Mechanics Classification

- Geologic Classification

• Fault-Related Fractures

• Fold-Related Fractures

• Regional Fractures

• Stylolite-Associated Fractures

• Diagenetic Fractures (Contractional)

 Classification of Fractures
A genetic classification of fractures is absolutely essential, because
our ability to predict in the subsurface with little known data, the
presence, distribution, and intensity of natural fractures is directly
related to our understanding of fracture genesis.

A genetic classification involves a combined geological/rock

mechanics approach to the problem. Natural fracture patterns are
therefore interpreted in light of laboratory-derived fracture patterns
and in terms of postulated paleo-stress fields and strain
distributions at the time of fracturing
There are two basic assumptions in a genetic fracture
classification:

• Natural fracture patterns depict the local state of stress at the

time of fracturing.

• Subsurface rocks fracture in a manner qualitatively similar to

equivalent rocks in laboratory tests performed at analogous
environmental conditions.
 Laboratory Rock Mechanics
Classification of Fractures

Three fracture types are observed to form a consistent and

predictable angles to the three principal stress directions during
laboratory compression, extension, and tensile tests.

All fractures must conform to one of these basic fracture types:

• Shear Fractures

• Extension Fractures

• Tension Fractures
Orientation of Extension and Shear Fractures
Relative to Principal Stress Directions
Vertical Partially-
Partially-Filled Extension Fracture
in Mesaverde Core, Rulison Field
Regional Extension Fracture Network
Shear Fractures in a Limestone Outcrop
Faults are Large Scale Shear Fractures
 Geologic Classification of Fractures
A genetic classification scheme for natural fracture systems
permits separation of complicated fracture systems into
superimposed components of different origins and include:

• Fault-Related Fractures

• Fold-Related Fractures

• Regional Fractures (Joints)

• Stylolite-Associated Fractures

• Diagenetic Fractures (Contractional)

 Fault--Related Fracture Systems
Fault
Fault planes are, by definition, planes of shear. Several studies
have shown that the majority of fractures associated with faults
are:

• Shear fractures parallel to the fault

• Shear fractures conjugate to the fault

• Extension fractures bisecting the acute angle between the

two shear directions.
Fault and Related Fractures
 Fractures Associated with Fault

D
U A A’
N A ANTITHETIC BONITA
U D A’ FAULT FAULT
UD

D SLICKENSIDE
U
100 m
SHEAR
FRACTURE
D
U 0 1 2 3 4 5

km
EXTENSION
100 m FRACTURE
 Faulted--Related Fracture Systems
Faulted
These three orientations correspond to the three potential fracture
directions that occur during laboratory fracture experiments, and
are developed relative to the local state of stress causing the fault.
The fault is a result of the same stress field that caused the
fractures.

This observation leads to the following conclusions.

• If you know the fault strike, dip, and sense shear you
automatically know orientations of the associated fractures.

• If the fracture fabric associated with the fault is known, the

strike, type, and one of the two dips is known for the fault.
 Orientations of Fault Related Fractures

 1 FOR FAULT ATTITUDE OF FAULT

MEASURED IN FIELD
THEORETICAL POSITION
OF FAULT CONJUGATE

1
In analyzing fractures associated with faulting there are several
obvious but important considerations. These includes:

• If the fault changes dip with depth fractures will change

orientation with depth. This also applies for changes in fault
strike.

• Early formed fractures will change orientation with any later

rotations of the fault.

• The fracture set that parallels the active fault is not always
the best developed. The conjugate shear fractures which
are best developed may change over short distances along
and/or away from the fault.

• A region that has undergone more than one period of

faulting, where the faults are of distinctly different types, will
have fractures associated with each fault.
If the Fault Changes Dip with Depth Fractures will
Change Orientation with Depth.
Same Rule Applies for Changes in Fault Strike
Fractures Associated With Faulting

1
Regional
Fracture

 1

1

 1 (Rotated)
Intensity of fracturing associated with faulting and the
relative width of the fractured zone appears to be a
function of:

• Lithology

• Distance from the fault plane

• Amount of displacement along the fault

• Total strain in the rock mass

• Depth of burial

• Possibly type of fault

Which of these parameters will dominate varies from fault to fault.

 Fault Process Zone

Gouge Zone has intense

cataclasis and usually very
low permeability.
Slip Surface
Gouge Zone (less than a meter)
Effective Process Zone (less than one hundred meters)
Fracture Effective Process Zone is
Frequency highly fractured with fracture
intensity and permeability
decreasing from the fault.

Distance from Fault

Examples of Localized
Fracture Intensity
Near Faults
Histograms of Fracture Development Along Three
Traverses into the Uncompahgre Fault, Colorado

FRACTURES PER METER

0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48
2.7

6.3

9.6 TRAVERSE 1
METERS FROM FAULT CONTACT

13.7

19.6

0 6 12 18 24 30 36

2.3

5.7
TRAVERSE 2
9.0

15.3

0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42
0.7
FRACTURE LENGTH
4.3 < 35 cm
35 - 200 cm
9.3 > 200 cm
TRAVERSE 3
15.6
Overthrust Fault in Nevada
Fault Surface and Gouge Zone of
Overthrust Fault in Nevada
 Fault Process Zone

Gouge Zone has intense

cataclasis and usually very
low permeability.
Slip Surface
Gouge Zone (less than a meter)
Effective Process Zone (less than one hundred meters)
Fracture Effective Process Zone is
Frequency highly fractured with fracture
intensity and permeability
decreasing from the fault.

Distance from Fault

 Idealized Model of Fault Zone

Decreasing Permeability
Fault

Decreasing Fracture Intensity - Porosity

Distance from Fault Not to Scale or Dimensions

 DEFORMATION IN GOUGE ZONE

 The gouge zone is very complex and has its own internal
deformation morphology.

 Fractures occurring within the gouge zone reflect complex and

changing stress and strain states inherent in the gouge
zone (mylonite zone) itself.

 Permeability of zone will depend on deformation morphology.

Gouge Zone of Overthrust Fault in Nevada
Mylonite Zone in Fractured Dolomite
Austria
 Microfaults – Deformation Bands
in Porous Sandstone

Porous sandstones are often deformed via microfaults or

deformation bands.

The inner zone of a microfault contains fractured and crushed

grains and has negligible porosity.

The outer zone, including the termination region, represents a

zone of deformation of pores and cementing material.

Deformation bands can evolve from a single band to a zone of

deformation bands or slip surface with larger shear
displacement.
Cataclastic Microfault Zones
in Sandstone Core
Microfaults – Deformation Bands
in Porous Sandstone
Series of block diagrams, showing sequential development from a
single band slip surface.
(a) Single deformation band.
(b) Two inosculating bands.
(c) A zone of deformation bands.
(d) Slip surface has developed on left-hand edge zone.
Idealized deformation band in porous sandstone. Inner zone contains
fractured and crushed grains and has negligible porosity. Outer zone,
including the termination region, represents a zone of deformation of pores
and cementing material. As a result, pores become smaller and some
feldspar grains are fractured there.
Microfaults in Wingate Sandstone
Faulted Drape Fold in Wingate Sandstone at
the Colorado National Monument
Microfault Intensity Map of Faulted Structure
Austin Chalk Trend
Texas
Austin Chalk in Southeast Texas
Porosity
Matrix = 2 – 5%
Fracture = 0.05 – 0.1%

Permeability
Matrix = 0.00001 – 0.0001 md
Fracture = 3 – 10 md

Average Reservoir Thickness = 160 m

Fault Orientations = 35° - 45°

Fracture Orientations = 42° ± 11°
Dip = 80° - 90°

Porosity Cutoff = 3%
Fault Systems in Austin Chalk
Conceptual Model of Natural Fracture System in
Austin Chalk with Vertical Wellbore
 Conceptual Model of Natural Fracture System in
Austin Chalk and Optimum Orientation of Horizontal Well
 Shear Zone with Mylonite and
Fractured Cataclastic Dolomite, Austria
Fractured Catalcastic Dolomite
Austria
 Generalized Model of Shear Zone

Fractured Dolomite

Increasing Fracture Intensity, Porosity & Permeability

Fractured
Cataclastic
Dolomite

Intense Cataclasis with Abrasion, Crushing, and Rotation

Mylonite of Fractured Cataclasitc Dolomite Matrix Blocks
Loss of Porosity & Major Permeability Reduction

Fractured
Cataclastic
Dolomite

Localized Shear Deformation

Fractured Dolomite

Not to Scale or Dimension

Generalized Fractured Dolomite Reservoir Flow Model

Shear Zones

Normal Fault Wellbore

Not to Scale or Dimensions

 Fault Length - Frequency Plot from
3D Seismic of the Lisburne Field, Alaska
Ekofisk Fault Model Development