1 INTRODUCTION TO

COMMUNICATION

Topics to be discussed

1. The Communication Process

2. Perspective of Communication
3. Classification of Communication
4. Communication Models
5. Principles of Effective Communication
6. Ethics of Communication

THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Communication is the transmission of an idea or feeling so that the sender and

receiver share the same understanding.

What are the most common ways we communicate?

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 - The communication process involves multiple parts and stages, each of which
offers potential barriers to successful communication. These are:

A. Source

- is an individual, group or organization who initiates the communication.

- the source is initially responsible for the success of the message.
- the sender‘s credibility is of great importance as well.
- people will more likely reject a message if the sender is proven to be unreliable.
- the message will only be as good and valid as its source.
- in order to be a good source, you need to be clear about the message you are
sending.

B. Message

- is the information being transmitted from the sender to the

receiver through symbols which can take on numerous forms such
as languages, words or gestures.
- without the message there is no cause for communicating.
- for messages to be accurately understood and positively received,
the C‘s in communication may be followed:

The C’s in Communication

1. Courtesy. Usage of polite words and tone means one respects the
receiver of the message. Courtesy can be demonstrated through:
- using positive words instead of negative;
- being considerate of the feelings of the receiver;
- selecting gender-free terms; and

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 - responding promptly to important messages.
2. Clarity. It may involve correct word usage, grammar, pronunciation,
sentence construction and delivery.
- messages which are unclear oftentimes do not achieve their
desired effect.
3. Conciseness. It is ―saying what needs to be said in as few words as
possible‖.
- Lengthy messages can result in information overload and overwhelm
listeners/readers of the messages.
- Avoid flowery language which normally includes unnecessary words.
- Remember that the goal is to communicate and not to impress the
listeners/readers with our lengthy discourse.
4. Concreteness. This refers to being specific.
- to demonstrate concreteness, providing examples whenever necessary
makes a message more comprehensible.
5. Completeness. To avoid ambiguity, messages should not leave out
important details that a receiver expects to know such as answers to what,
who, when, where, why and how questions.

C. Encoding
- Encoding is putting thought or information into words, signs or symbols.
- This allows the message to be conveyed to the receiver.
- In order to encode the message properly, you have to think about what the
other person will need in order to understand or decode the message
 Are you sharing all the information that is necessary to get the full
picture?
 Are you using the best form of sending it in order to ensure the best
chance of the message being properly received?
 Are there language differences between you and the other party that
could cause miscommunication?
- To encode a message properly, you have to know who your audience is.
- You need to have an understanding of what they know and what they need
to know in order to send a complete message.
- You need to use language they will understand and a context that is
familiar.

D. Channel

- It is the medium used to transmit the message.

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 - The type of message you have will help determine the channel that you
should use.
- The choice of a channel, however, may depend on the availability,
practicality, and its impact in the receiver.
- For example, if immediate feedback is necessary, oral communication
channels are more effective because any uncertainties can be cleared up on
the spot.
- In communicating with our loved ones abroad, using our smart phones,
tablets or computers are deemed practical and convenient.
- It includes face-to-face conversations, telephone calls, video conferences
and written communication like e-mails and memoranda.

E. Decoding
- It is when the receiver interprets the message and gives it meaning from
his/her perspective.
- The communication skills required to decode a message successfully
include the ability to read and comprehend, listen actively, or ask clarifying
questions when needed.
- If the person you are attempting to communicate with seems to be lacking
the skills needed to decode your message, you will either:
 Resend the message in a different way; or
 Assist them in understanding it by supplying clarifying information.
F. Receiver
- it is the individual/s to whom the message is directed.
- The extent to which this person comprehends the message will depend on
factors such as:
 How much the individual knows about the topic; and
 The relationship and trust that exists between sender and receiver.
- Receivers of messages must have good listening and comprehension skills.
- Also, the receiver‘s prejudice and individual experiences could possibly
affect one‘s receptiveness towards the message.

G. Feedback

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 - It is the response given to the sender from the receiver.
- It allows the sender to determine if the message was received and how
accurately it was received.
- It lets you gauge how successful you were at communicating.
- It also offers a chance to adjust your communication process for the
future.
- Through feedback, you can learn what worked well and what didn‘t so that
you can be even more efficient the next time you communicate with that
person or the next time you need to communicate similar message.
Noise

- It is anything that disrupts the communication process.

- It can occur during any stage of the communication process.

KINDS OF NOISE

1. Physiological noise

- it is a distraction caused by hunger, fatigue, headaches, medication and

other factors that affect how we feel and think.

2. Physical noise

- it is the interference in our environments, such as noises made by others,

overly dim or bright lights, spam and pop-up ads, extreme temperatures, and
crowded conditions.

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 3. Psychological noise

- It refers to qualities in us that affect how we communicate and interpret

others.
- For instance, if you are preoccupied with a problem, you may be
inattentive at a team meeting or at the classroom.

4. Semantic noise

- It exists when words themselves are not mutually understood.

- Authors sometimes create semantic noise by using jargon or unnecessarily
technical language."
The diagram below shows the different major elements of communication as well as the
flow of communication process:

CONTEXT

• The context is the situation in which you are communicating.

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 • It involves the environment that you are in, and that in which your audience is in,
the culture of your organization, and elements such as the relationship between
you and your audience.
• i.e. your communication process will not look the same when you are
communicating with your boss as it will when you are communicating with a
friend.
• The context helps determine the tone and style of your communication.

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 PERSPECTIVES IN COMMUNICATION

 We all come to each communication exchange with our own ‗filter‘ through which
we see the world, the person we are communicating with, and the situation or
topic we are communicating about.
 These filters mean that we don‘t always start with the same perspective as the
person we are communicating with.

1. VISUAL PERCEPTION

What do you see when you look at the picture?

A young woman or an old crone?

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  Filters can be visual.
 Both of the perspectives represented in the young and old woman are valid-
they are simply two different ways of seeing the same thing.
 We cannot decide that one does not exist just because we don‘t see it.
 We have to recognize that there is more than one way to see any situation we
encounter.
2. Language

 The same words can have very different meaning depending on how we
interpret them.
 Example: A woman without her man is nothing.
 Sounds pretty bad at first glance but if you add punctuation or change the
word emphasis, the meaning changes.
 A woman. Without her, man is nothing.
 Although we think our meaning may be clear when we use specific words in a
certain order, we can‘t always be certain that the other person will read or
hear them in that way.

3. Other Factors Affecting Our Perspective

 There are a multitude of factors that can affect our perspective, thereby
affecting how we communicate with another person which include the
following:

3.1. Past Experiences

 Sometimes our past experiences influence our future communications.
 For example, when your team responded positively to the sales tactics you
put in place, those similar tactics can certainly be successful again.
 It‘s when our negative past experiences stifle our communication or alter
our full potential for communicating that we need to be aware.

Examples:

Past Experience:
Your boss has reacted negatively when you have discussed this topic in
the past.
Resulting Effect on Communication:
You hesitate to discuss the topic even when it is necessary for your
work.
Past Experience:

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 Your co-worker has forgotten important information multiple times in
the past.
Resulting Effect on Communication:
You assume he or she will forget the information this time and so you
overload him or her with reminders.

Past Experience:
Your boss ignored your idea in the last meeting.
Resulting Effect on Communication:
You didn‘t bring up another idea that could have made an impact.
Past Experience:
The last twenty customers rejected your product.
Resulting Effect on Communication:
You fail to offer the product to the 21st customer and beyond, some of
whom may have wanted the product.
Past Experience:
Your subordinate was disagreeable the last time you asked him to work
overtime.
Resulting Effect on Communication:
You don‘t ask him this time, though he would have agreed.

3.2. Feelings

 There are two ways in which your feelings can influence your
communication with another person:
1. The way that you feel on a given day.
2. How you feel about a specific person.

3.3. Environment

 All of us communicate differently in different environments.

 Do you speak to your teachers the same way that you do to your
friends and classmates?
 In the workplace, do you talk to your subordinates the same way
when your boss is there as you do when he/she is not there?
 As you go through the day, notice how where you are, what is
going on, and who else is present may be impacting the way that
you communicate.

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 CLASSIFICATIONS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication may be classified according to:

1. Communication Mode
2. Context
3. Purpose and Style

Types of Communication According to Mode

1. Verbal Communication
- It refers to an interaction in which words are used to relay a message.
- When you engage in a verbal communication, you need to consider the
following factors:
 Appropriateness
 Brevity
 Clarity
 Ethics
 Vividness

2. Non-Verbal Communication
- It refers to an interaction where behavior is used to convey and represent
meaning.
- All kinds of human responses that are not expressed in words are
classified as non-verbal communication.
- The largest part of the message that we are sending to others is made up of
non-verbal information. It is composed of our body language and our tone of
voice.

Tone of the Voice

 The tone of the voice we use is responsible for about 35-40 percent of the
message we are sending.

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  Tone involves the volume you use, the level and type of emotion that you
communicate and the emphasis that you place on the words that you choose.
Body Language

 Over half of the message that we are sending to others is non-verbal. This means
that we receive more than half of what a person is communicating through the
subconscious messages they are sending with the body language.
 Examples of body language include:
o facial expressions
o the way we are standing or sitting
o any swaying or other movements
o gestures with their arms or hands
o eye contact (or lack thereof)
o breathing rate
o swallowing or coughing
o blushing
o fidgeting
Why do you need to master non-verbal communication?

- Mastery of nonverbal communication is important for several reasons:

1. It enhances and emphasizes the message of your speech, thus making it
more meaningful, truthful, and relevant.
2. It can communicate feelings, attitudes, and perceptions without you
saying a word.
3. It can sustain the attention of listeners and keep them engaged in the
speech
4. It gives the audience a preview to the type of speaker you are.
5. It makes you appear more dynamic and animated in your delivery.
6. It serves as a channel to release tension and nervousness.
7. It helps make your speech more dramatic.
8. It can build a connection with listeners.
9. It makes you a credible speaker.
10. It helps you vary your speaking style and avoid a monotonous delivery.

3. Visual Communication
- is the type of communication that uses visuals to convey information and/or
messages.
- Some examples are signs, symbols, imagery, maps, graphs, charts,
diagrams, photos, drawing or illustrations, and even various forms of
electronic communication.
- Some examples of electronic communications symbols or images are the emojis,
emoticons, and animations among others to convey the writer‘s emotions or
clarify the intent of the message sender.

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 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION ACCORDING TO CONTEXT

1. Intrapersonal Communication
- This refers to communication that centers on one person where the speaker acts
both as the sender and the receiver of the message.
- The message is made up of your thoughts and
feelings. The channel is your brain, which processes what you are thinking and
feeling. There is feedback in the sense that as you talk to yourself, you discard
certain ideas and replace them with others (Hybels & Weaver, 2012).
2. Interpersonal Communication
- This refers to communication between and among people and establishes a
personal relationship between and among them.
- the source who encodes is different from the recipient who decodes.

TYPES OF INTERPERSONAL CONTEXT

1. Dyad Communication – communication that occurs between two people.

2. Small Group – This refers to communication that involves at least three but
not more than twelve people engaging in a face-to-face interaction to achieve a
desired goal.
3. Public – This type refers to communication that requires you to deliver or send
the message before or in front of a group.
4. Mass Communication – This refers to communication that takes place
through television, radio, newspapers, magazines, books, billboards, internet,
and other types of media.
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

- It is a communication between or among people having different linguistic,

religious, ethnic, social, and professional backgrounds.
- Still, others look at intercultural communication as
communication that is influenced by different ethnicities, religions, and sexual
orientations.
- Individuals having different orientations communicate and interpret messages
differently.
- Examples:
1. In the 1970s, an aftershave product was advertised for men in the Middle
East, and the ad showed a photo of a man and his dog. The product
dramatically failed in Islamic countries, where dogs are considered
unclean.

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 2. A golf ball manufacturing company sold their products in packs of four
for easy purchase in Japan. But the items sold in “fours” became
unpopular because the word “four” sounds like the word “death” in
Japanese.
- Simply put, “intercultural communication is the sending and receiving
of messages across languages and cultures.”
- Sometimes, intercultural communication can flow smoothly and become very
interesting for a cross-cultural group.
- However, things may not go as planned when communication is disrupted by
cultural collisions.
- For Example:
1. Nodding means ―yes‖ in the Indian subcontinent, Iran, most of Europe,
Latin America, and North America. However, in Greece, Lebanon, Syria,
Palestine, Turkey, Macedonia, Bulgaria, and Albania, nodding indicates
disagreement.
2. Contact cultures and non-contact cultures provide a good example of
cultural differences in communicating. In contact cultures such as
Southern Europe and the Middle East, people tend to stand closer to each
other, touch during a conversation, and maintain eye contact longer. On
the other hand, in non-contact cultures such as Northern Europe and
Japan, there is a greater distance between communicators— little to no
touch and less eye contact.
3. . Australians consider eye contact as important in assessing the sincerity of
a person while for Indians, looking straight into the eyes of a person while
talking is inappropriate. (This does not mean, however, that they are
dishonest or insincere)
4. Indians interpret the waving of hands from side to side as no or go away
while it means hello among Westerners.
5. Filipinos twitch their lips to refer to something or someone. When seen by
other cultures, such facial expressions may be taken to mean as
―seduction.‖
- It is important then not to be judgmental or to rush into interpretations as
cultures vary enormously.
The Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity

 The Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS) offers a structure

that explores how people experience cultural differences. According to Bennett
(2004), it has six stages. These are the following:

Stage 1: Denial. The individual does not recognize cultural differences.

An individual in the denial stage might be heard saying:

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 ―All cities are the same; they all have tall buildings, fast food chains, and coffee
shops.‖

Stage 2: Defense. The individual starts to recognize cultural differences and is

intimidated by them, resulting in either a superior view on own culture or an
unjustified high regard for the new one

An individual in the defense stage might be heard saying:

―This culture does not view life the way we do; our culture is certainly better.‖
―Their ways are better than my own; I wish I were one of them.‖

Stage 3: Minimization. Although individuals see cultural differences, they

bank more on the universality of ideas rather than on cultural differences.

An individual in the minimization stage might be heard saying:

―Once we see through the cultural differences, we really are just the same!‖

Stage 4: Acceptance. The individual begins to appreciate important cultural

differences in behaviors and eventually in values.

An individual in the acceptance stage might be heard saying:

―These people and I have different values and experiences, and I think we can
learn from one another.‖

Stage 5: Adaptation. The individual is very open to world views when

accepting new perspectives.

An individual in the adaptation stage might be heard saying:

―To address our issue, I have to adjust my approach to consider both my own and
my counterpart‘s background.‖

Stage 6: Integration. Individuals start to go beyond their own cultures and see
themselves and their actions based on multifarious cultural viewpoints.

An individual in the integration stage might be heard saying:

―I can look at things from the perspective of various cultures.‖

Characteristics of Competent Intercultural Communicators

1. flexibility and the ability to tolerate high levels of uncertainty

2. reflectiveness or mindfulness

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 3. open-mindedness
4. Sensitivity
5. Adaptability
6. Politeness

 Note that in addition to culture, other elements such as gender, age, social
status, and religion must also be taken into consideration when
communicating with others. Refrain from showing bias when talking to someone
by following the tips below.
1. Avoid stereotypes, i.e., generalizations about a certain group.

2. Challenge gender norms; avoid using ―he‖ and ―man‖ to refer to a general
group of people. To remedy this, you may use plural pronouns or rewrite a
sentence to avoid using pronouns. The use of his/her is also acceptable.

3. Do not talk down on younger people and the elderly.

4. Be sensitive to the religious practices of others.

5. Be polite at all times; do not belittle people you perceive to be on a lower

social class than you.

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 COMMUNICATION MODELS

Communication is classified into three groups:

• Linear
• Interactive
• Transactional

Linear Model

- The linear model views

communication as a one-way
or linear process in which the
speaker speaks and the listener
listens
- It implies that speakers only speak and never listen. It also implies that listeners
listen and never speak or send messages.
- Here information is transmitted from sender to receiver via a channel without
the sender receiving any feedback.
- Example: Talking to a person and that person is ignoring you.

Interactive Model

- The interactive model views communication as a two-way process in which the

receiver or listener provides feedback to the sender or speaker.
- Both the speaker and the listener take turns to speak and listen to each other.
- This also indicates that the speaker and listener communicate better if they have
common fields of experience, or fields which overlap

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Transactional Model

- This model indicates that communicators can both send and receive messages
simultaneously.
- It shows that communication is a dynamic process which changes over time.

DIFFERENT KINDS OF COMMUNICATION MODELS

1. Aristotle’s Model

- In this model, the speaker is very important. Without the speaker, there will be
no speech produced.
- The speaker should adjust his/her messages according to their audience and
the occasion to achieve a particular effect.

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 2. The Laswell Formula

- Developed in 1948 by Harold Dwight Laswell.

- The process may be analyzed through the content sent, the medium used, as well
as the effect on the recipient of the message.

Advantages of Laswell Model:

a. It is easy and simple.
b. It suits almost all types of communication

Disadvantages of Laswell Model:

a. Feedback and noise are not mentioned.
b. Model is linear.

3. Mathematical Model of Communication (Shannon & Weaver Theory)

- Developed by Claude Elwood Shannon and Warren Weaver in 1949.

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 - It was originally conceptualized for the functioning of the radio and television
serving as a model for technical communication and later adopted in the field of
communication.

4. Berlo’s SMCR Model

- The speaker must have communication skills, right attitude towards the audience
and the subject, and adequate knowledge on the topic on hand as well as the
social system and culture that he/she is in including values, beliefs and practices.
- For example. One may have a PhD on a topic but without the skill to
communicate what he knows and the right attitude to do so, he may not
communicate effectively.
- Moreover, when this same person delivers the message to a person with
different social or cultural background, he may not receive the message
well.
- The same elements must also be possessed by the receiver.

 Content – refers to the message one transmits and includes the choice of words.
 Elements – to help transmit the message, one may use gestures, facial
expressions, and movements.
 Treatment – transmitting the message may also depend on how the source
treats it i.e. important, urgent, formal, casual, etc.
 The structure of the message or the arrangement of parts or flow of the message
and the expression that goes with it.
 Code shows how the message is sent: language(verbal) with accompanying
gesture (non-verbal)

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 EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

- Effective communication is the communication which produces intended or

desired result‖
- Effective Communication is a two-way process – sending the right message and
to the right person.

FEATURES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Active Listening Eye Contact

Posture

Simple Language

Questioning Skills

General Principles of Effective Communication

1. Know your purpose in communicating

- While you may have more than one purpose, there is still a more dominant
reason why you communicate.
2. Know your audience
- Consider the age, educational background, profession, culture and other
salient features of your audience because it will dictate the speaking/writing style
you are going to employ.
3. Know your topic

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 - You communicate essentially because you want to share something.
4. Adjust your speech or writing to the context of the situation
- The environment in which your speech or writing is to be delivered
determines the kind of language you will use.
5. Work on the feedback given to you
- Once you receive comments from the audience, work on them. Take
criticisms kindly. In the long run, constructive criticisms will prove beneficial to
you as you learn to address them.

Principles of Effective Oral Communication

1. Be clear with your purpose

- You should know by heart your objective in communicating.
2. Be complete with the message you deliver
- Make sure that your claims are supported by facts and essential information.
3. Be Concise
- You do not need to be wordy with your statements. Brevity in speech is a must.
4. Be natural with your delivery
- Punctuate important words with the appropriate gestures and movements. Exude
a certain degree of confidence even if you do not feel confident enough.
5. Be specific and timely with your feedback
- Inputs are more helpful when provided on time.

Principles of Effective Written Communication

1. Completeness
- The information conveyed in the message should be complete for the
communication to be effective.
- Include all necessary and relevant information so that the audience will not be
left wanting of any information.
2. Conciseness
- Conciseness means communicating what you want to convey in least possible
words.
- Always stick to the point and do not beat around the bush.
- Be brief by focusing on your main point.
- Concise message is more appealing and comprehensive to the audience.
3. Consideration
- Effective communication must take audience into consideration by knowing the
viewpoints, back ground, mindset, educational level, etc.
- Consideration implies ‗stepping into the shoes of others.
- Consideration ensures that the self-respect of the audience is maintained and
their emotions are not harmed.

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 - Consider the needs and requirements of the audience to achieve effective
communication.
4. Clarity
- Clarity implies emphasizing on a specific goal or objective at a time, rather than
trying to move away from track.
- Clarity helps to understand the message easily.
- Always be guided by your purpose in communicating.
5. Concreteness
- Support your claims with enough facts.
- The reader will easily know if you are bluffing or deceiving them because there is
nothing to substantiate your claims.
6. Courtesy
- Courtesy means being polite, kind, enthusiastic and convincing.
- Courtesy reflects the nature and character of the sender of the message.
- It is the same as give respect and then expect the same.
7. Correctness
- It is important that you observe grammatical correctness in your writing.
- Always have time to revise and edit your work.
- Even simple spelling errors may easily distract your readers.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

1. Noise 2. Inappropriate Medium

3. Assumptions/Misconceptions 4. Emotions 5. Language Differences

6. Cultural Differences 7. Poor Listening Skills 8. Use of Jargons

9. Distractions

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 OTHER BARRIERS IN COMMUNICATION

ENCODING TRANSMITTING
BARRIERS BARRIERS
• Lack of Sensitivity to Receiver
• Physical Distractions
• Lack of Basic Communication
• Channel Barriers.
Skills
• Insufficient Knowledge of the • Long Communication
Subject Chain.
• Emotional Interference
• Lacking confidence

RESPONDING
BARRIERS
• No Provision for
Feedback
• Inadequate
Feedback.

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 DECODING
BARRIERS

• Lack of Interest
• Lack of Knowledge
• Lack of Communication Skills
• Emotional Distractions
• Information overload
• Conflicting Messages
• Knowledge of the Subject

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 ETHICS OF COMMUNICATION

• It is important to understand that whatever we communicate should be guided by

certain ethical principles.
• Ethical communication enhances human worth and dignity by fostering
truthfulness, fairness, responsibility, personal integrity and respect for self and
others.
• It is important to note that one‘s behavior should be regulated by honesty,
decency, truthfulness, sincerity, and moral uprightness.
• Ethics in communication can be displayed in several ways including but not
limited to the following:
1. Adhering to the golden rule or the platinum rule.
o The golden rule asserts to always treat others in the same
way you want to be treated while the platinum rule
according to Bennett (1980) stresses on treating others the way
they wish to be treated.

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 o Ethical communicators address people of other cultures with the
same respect that they would like to receive themselves.

2. Considering the feelings of the receiver.

o Humans are not only cognitive but also emotional beings. If we
are less careful with our words, tone, and non-verbal gestures,
people could be negatively affected.
o It is important to be reasonable rather than be too emotional or
threatening when we communicate.
3. Acknowledging the source of idea and information.
o It is unethical and unlawful for someone to convey other
people‘s intellectual property without recognizing the authors‘
names or organizations.
4. Speaking the truth.
o This is a universal rule. Unfortunately, there are also those who
seem to enjoy propagating falsehood (fake news; alternative
facts on the Internet).
o Social media and speeches in public have also been so filled with
black propaganda that there is a call to reiterate the need for
truth and honesty
5. Fostering an environment where people feel safe enough to express
what they think and feel, and for these expressions to be met with
reasonable dialogue and debate, rather than outright censure or
violence.
o In certain political climates, people may feel threatened to the
point that they no longer feel that it is safe to express what they
feel or think.

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