Corona Effect & Discharge in Transmission Lines & Power System

Corona Effect & Discharge in Transmission Lines & Power System 2023-06-24, 10:48 AM
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Corona Effect & Discharge in

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A Full Guide about Corona Effect / Corona

Discharge in Transmission Lines
Table of Contents
What is Corona Effect or Corona Discharge?
https://www.electricaltechnology.org/2018/02/corona-effect-discharge-transmission-lines-power-system.html Page 1 of 43
What is the Difference between Corona effect and Skin

Effect.
Corona Effect / Discharge:
Skin Effect:
Theory of Corona Formation
Mathematical Modelling of Corona Effect
Important terms related to Corona
Critical disruptive voltage
Visual critical voltage
Factors & condition effecting Corona
Atmosphere
Conductor size
Spacing between conductors
Line voltage
Power Loss due to Corona
Methods of reducing corona effect
By increasing conductor size
By increasing conductor spacing.
Solved Examples of Corona Calculations
Advantages and Disadvantages of Corona Effect
What is Corona Effect or Corona Discharge?

When an alternating potential difference is applied across
two conductors whose spacing is large as compared to
their diameters, there is no apparent change in the
condition of atmospheric air surrounding the wires if the
applied voltage is low.
However, when the applied voltage exceeds a certain

value, called critical disruptive voltage, the conductors
are surrounded by a faint violet glow called corona.
The phenomenon of corona is accompanied by a hissing
sound, production of ozone, power loss and radio

interference.
The higher the voltage is raised, the larger and higher the
luminous envelope becomes, and greater are the sound,
the power loss and the radio noise. If the applied voltage
is increased to breakdown value, a flash-over will occur
between the conductors due to the breakdown of air
insulation.
Corona effect or corona discharge in transmission lines

and power system may be defined as:
'
The phenomenon of violet glow, hissing
noise and production of ozone gas in an
overhead transmission line is known as
corona.
If the conductors are polished and smooth, the corona glow

will be uniform throughout the length of the conductors,
otherwise the rough points will appear brighter. With d.c.
voltage, there is difference in the appearance of the two
wires. The positive wire has uniform glow about it, while
the negative conductor has spotty glow.
You may also read: Design of Grounding / Earthing

System in a Substation Grid
What is the Difference between Corona effect

and Skin Effect.
Difference between Corona and skin effect as follows.
Corona Effect / Discharge:
As described above, corona is an effect of violet glow,

hissing noise and production of ozone gas in an overhead
transmission line is known as corona which leads to hissing
sound, production of ozone, power loss and radio
interference in power system.
Skin Effect:
Skin effect is a behavior or tendency of alternating current

to flow through the surface (outer layer) of a conductor
instead of the core of the wire in power system
transmission lines.
In this scenario, the current density is lager near the

surface of the wire or conductor and decreases with greater
depths in the conductor which leads to increase in
resistance of the conductor, thus increase the overall power
loss in the power system (generally transmission lines).
Theory of Corona Formation

Some ionization is always present in air due to cosmic rays,
ultra-violet radiations and radioactivity. Therefore, under
normal conditions, the air around the conductors contains

some ionized particles (i.e., free electrons and +ve ions)
and neutral molecules.
Corona Formation. Corona discharge on insulator string of a 500 kV

overhead power line. Corona discharges represent a significant
power loss for electric utilities.
When p.d.is applied between the conductors, potential

gradient is set up in the air which will have maximum value
at the conductor surfaces. Under the influence of potential
gradient, the existing free electrons acquire greater
velocities.The greater the applied voltage, the greater the
potential gradient and more is the velocity of free electrons.
When the potential gradient at the conductor surface

reaches about 30 kV per cm (max. value), the velocity
acquired by the free electrons is sufficient to strike a neutral
molecule with enough force to dislodge one or more
electrons from it.
This produces another ion and one or more free electrons,

which is turn are accelerated until they collide with other
neutral molecules, thus producing other ions. Thus, the

process of ionization is cumulative. The result of this
ionization is that either corona is formed or spark takes
place between the conductors.
Introduction to Harmonics – Effect of Harmonics on

Power System
Mathematical Modelling of Corona Effect

Corona effect or corona discharge is a phenomenon that
results from a partial discharge in the air (or in any fluid)
caused by the ionization of the environment when an
electrical current flows in a conductor and when the
electric field gradient[1] is strong enough to ionize the
environment, but it is not strong enough to cause dielectric
breakdown[2] or arcing between the conductors.
This phenomenon that is characterized by a glow (mostly

with a color in blue/violet spectrum), mainly happens in
overhead lines, close to the suspension and strain
insulators, when the distance between conductors is much
greater than the diameters of the conductors.
Generally for parallel conductors in the air there is corona

effect when.
D/r < 5.85
Where:
r is the radius of the conductors

D is the distance between the conductors
When studying corona effect it is important to evaluate the

minimum value of the voltage between phases or
between one phase and the neutral (or the ground) for
which the corona effect takes place.
This voltage is named Critical Disruptive Voltage. If r [cm]

is the radius of the conductor, d [cm] is the distance
between the conductor and the neutral (or the ground) and
U [V] is the gradient of the electric field E (mathematical
notation: grad E), the critical disruptive voltage that we will
designated as G, is calculated by the equation:
G = (U / (r x ln (d/r)) [V/m]
Where ln represents the natural logarithm.
To corona effect takes place it is necessary that G will be

equal or greater than the disruption voltage of the air, that
at atmospheric pressure (1.01325×105 Pa = 1 atm = 760
mmHg[3]) and at a temperature of 25 ºC is equal to 30
kV/cm – considering the maximum value of U – or 21.2
kV/cm – considering the rms[4] value of U.
Designating by G0 the value of grad E that obeys to the

above condition the critical value of the disruption
voltage (Uc) is calculated by the equation:
Uc = G0 x r x ln (d/r) [kV/phase]
For different conditions of temperature and of

atmospheric pressure, the density of the air is also
different; it is possible to express that variation by a factor δ
that for a given pressure P [Pa] and temperature θ [ºC] is
calculated by the equation:
δ = (3.92 x 1.01325×105 x P) / ((273 + θ) x 760)
Being G’0 the value of grad E corresponding to the new

atmospheric conditions, its value is calculated by the
equation:
G’0 = δ x G0
Hence, the critical value of the disruption voltage (U’c) is

U’c = G0 x r x δ x ln (d/r) [kV/phase]
Taking into account the irregularity of the conductor

surface and expressing that irregularity as a factor m0, the
value of U’c is then:
U’c = m0 x G0 x r x δ x ln (d/r) [kV/phase]
Common values of m0 are:
Polished conductors: m0 = 1
Dirty conductors: m0 = 0.92-0.98
Stranded conductors: m0 = 0.8-0.87
Another value used to characterize the corona effect is the

Visual Critical Voltage, represented by Uv, that is the
minimum voltage between one phase and the neutral
(or the ground) for which the corona effect takes place all
along the conductor. That voltage is calculated by the
following empirical equation:
Uv = mv x G0 x δ x 3 x (1 + (0.3 / √(δ x r)) x ln (d/r)

[kV/phase]
Factor mv is also a “measure” of the irregularity of the

conductor, assuming the following values.
Polished conductors: mv = 1
Rough conductors: mv = 0.72-0.82
Another value that must be calculated when studying the

corona effect is the losses caused by this effect;
considering the rms value of Uc and being U the rms
rated voltage of the network, both in kV, and f [Hz] the
rated network frequency, losses by corona effect (Pco) are
Pco = 242.2 x ((f + 25) / δ) x √(r/d) x (U(exp)2 – Uc2) x 10-5

[kW/km/phase]
Short Circuit Currents And Symmetrical Components
Important terms related to Corona

The phenomenon of corona plays an important role in the
design of an overhead transmission line. Therefore, it is
profitable to consider the following terms much used in the
analysis of corona effects:
Critical disruptive voltage
It is the minimum phase-neutral voltage at which corona

occurs. Consider two conductors of radius r (cm) and
spaced d (cm) apart. If V is the phase-neutral potential,
then potential gradient at the conductor surface is given by:
g =[V/ r loge (d/r)] volts / cm

In order that corona is formed, the value of g must be made
equal to the breakdown strength of air. The breakdown
strength of air at 76 cm pressure and temperature of 25ºC
is 30 kV/cm (max) or 21·2 kV/cm (r.m.s.) and is denoted by
go.
If VC is the phase-neutral potential required under these

conditions, then,
go =[Vc/ r loge (d/r)] volts / cm

where go = breakdown strength of air at 76 cm of mercury
and 25ºC = 30 kV/cm (max) or 21·2 kV/cm (r.m.s.)
∴ Critical disruptive voltage, Vc = go r loge d/r
The above expression for disruptive voltage is under

standard conditions i.e., at 76 cm of Hg and 25ºC.
However, if these conditions vary, the air density also
changes, thus altering the value of go.
The value of go is directly proportional to air density. Thus

the breakdown strength of air at a barometric pressure of b
(cm) of mercury and temperature of tºC becomes δ go
where
δ = air density factor = 3.92b / 273 + t
Under standard conditions, the value of δ = 1.
∴ Critical disruptive voltage ,V c = go δ r loge d/r
Correction must also be made for the surface condition of
the conductor. This is accounted for by multiplying the

above expression by irregularity factor mo.
∴ Critical disruptive voltage, Vc = mo go δ r loge d/r ….

kV/phase
where,
mo = 1 for polished conductors
= 0·98 to 0·92 for dirty conductors
= 0·87 to 0·8 for stranded conductors
Visual critical voltage
It is the minimum phase-neutral voltage at which corona

glow appears all along the line conductors.
It has been seen that in case of parallel conductors, the

corona glow does not begin at the disruptive voltage Vc but
at a higher voltage Vv , called visual critical voltage.
The phase-neutral effective value of visual critical voltage is

given by the following empirical formula :
where mv is another irregularity factor having a value of 1·0

for polished conductors and 0·72 to 0·82 for rough
conductors.
Typical AC Power Supply system (Generation,

Transmission and Distribution)
Factors & condition effecting Corona
The phenomenon of corona is affected by the physical state

of the atmosphere as well as by the conditions of the line.
The following are the factors upon which corona depends :
Atmosphere
As corona is formed due to ionization of air surrounding the
conductors, there-fore, it is affected by the physical state of
atmosphere. In the stormy weather, the number of ions is
more than normal and as such corona occurs at much less
voltage as compared with fair weather.
Conductor size
The corona effect depends upon the shape and conditions

of the conductors. The rough and irregular surface will give
rise to more corona because unevenness of the surface
decreases the value of breakdown voltage. Thus a
stranded conductor has irregular surface and hence gives
rise to more corona that a solid conductor.
You may also read: How to Find The Suitable Size of

Cable & Wire for Electrical Wiring Installation
Spacing between conductors
If the spacing between the conductors is made very large

as compared to their diameters, there may not be any
corona effect. It is because larger distance between
conductors reduces the electrostatic stresses at the
conductor surface, thus avoiding corona formation.
Line voltage
The line voltage greatly affects corona. If it is low, there is

no change in the condition of air surrounding the
conductors and hence no corona is formed. However, if the

line voltage has such a value that electrostatic stresses
developed at the conductor surface make the air around the
conductor conducting, then corona is formed.
Factors and condition effecting Corona. Corona

discharge from a Wartenberg pinwheel in air
caused by applying a high voltage, ~30kV.
Power Distribution in Industries – All You Need to

Know
Power Loss due to Corona

Formation of corona is always accompanied by energy
loss which is dissipated in the form of light, heat, sound
and chemical action. When disruptive voltage is
exceeded, the power loss due to corona is given by:
Methods of reducing corona effect

It has been seen that intense corona effects are observed
at a working voltage of 33 kV or above. Therefore, careful
design should be made to avoid corona on the sub-stations
or bus-bars rated for 33kV and higher voltages otherwise
highly ionized air may cause flash-over in the insulators or
between the phases, causing considerable damage to the
equipment.
The corona effects can be reduced by the following

methods:
By increasing conductor size
By increasing conductor size, the voltage at which corona

occurs is raised and hence corona effects are considerably
reduced. This is one of the reasons that ACSR
conductors which have a larger cross-sectional area are
used in transmission lines.
By increasing conductor spacing.
By increasing the spacing between conductors, the voltage

at which corona occurs is raised and hence corona effects
can be eliminated. However, spacing cannot be increased
too much otherwise the cost of supporting structure (e.g.,
bigger cross arms and supports) may increase to a
considerable extent.
Why Power Transmission Lines are Loose on Electric

Poles & Transmission Towers?
Solved Examples of Corona Calculations
Why Power Plant Capacity Rated in MW and not in

MVA?
Advantages and Disadvantages of Corona

Effect
Corona effects on communication lines. Corona has many
advantages and disadvantages. In the correct design of a
high voltage overhead line, a balance should be struck
between the advantages and disadvantages. Below are the
Advantages and disadvantages of Corona.
Advantages
Due to corona formation, the air surrounding the

conductor becomes conducting and hence virtual
diameter of the conductor is increased. The increased
diameter reduces the electrostatic stresses between

the conductors.
Corona reduces the effects of transients produced by

surges.
Disadvantages
Corona is accompanied by a loss of energy. This

affects the transmission efficiency of the line.
Ozone is produced by corona and may cause
corrosion of the conductor due to chemical action.
The current drawn by the line due to corona is non-
sinusoidal and hence non-sinusoidal Voltage drop
occurs in the line. This may cause inductive
interference with neighboring Communication lines.
(
Good to know:
[1]
[1]Gradient is a differential operator that when

applied to a scalar field F defines the vector in
which direction is achieved the greatest rate of
increase of that field.
[2]
Dielectric breakdown of an insulating material
happens when the value of the electric field
applied to that material is too high, causing the
material to become conductive. In the air this
breakdown happens when the value of the
electric field is ≈ 3×106 V/m. In this case a
disruption takes place.
[3]
Between brackets are indicated pressure units:
Pa – Pascal; atm – atmosphere; mmHg –
millimeter of mercury.
[4]rms:
root mean square, a measure of the
magnitude of a varying quantity.
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) Tags Corona Corona Advantages & Disadvantages
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Design of Grounding / Earthing

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Design of Earthing / Grounding System in a Substation

Grid
Table of Contents
Introduction to Substation Earthing Grid

Important formulas for Designing a Substation Grid Earthing
System
Resistance of the Earth Grid

Substation Earthing Grid
a.) Exothermic welding
b.) C connector:
About the Author: Manuel Bolotinha
Introduction to Substation Earthing Grid

In high and medium voltage[1]Air Insulated Substations (AIS) the
electromagnetic field, which causes are the static charges of bare
cable and conductors and by the atmospheric conditions (surges),
induce voltages at no-live parts of the installation that create
potential differences between metallic parts and ground and also
between different points of the ground.
Similar situations can occur when there are faults between live parts of
the installation and no-live parts, for example in phase-to-earth short
circuit.
These potential differences give origin to step potential and touch

potential, or a combination of both, that can lead to circulation of an
electric current through the human body, that can cause
hazardous to people.
Touch voltage (Et) can be defined as the maximum potential difference

that exists between an earthed metallic structure capable to be touched
by the hand and any point of the ground, when a fault current flows.
It is usual to consider a distance of 1 m between the metallic structure

and the point on the ground.
Step voltage (Es) is defined as the maximum potential difference that

exists between the feet when a fault current flows.
It is usual to consider a distance of 1 m between the feet.
A particular case of step voltage is the Transferred voltage (Etrrd):

where a voltage is transferred into or out of the substation from or to a
remote point external to the substation site.
Related Post: Earthing and Electrical Grounding Installation |

A Complete Guide
Other concepts are:
Ground potential rise (GPR): The maximum electrical potential

that a substation grounding grid may attain relative to a distant
grounding point assumed to be at the potential of remote earth.
This voltage, GPR, is equal to the maximum grid current times the
grid resistance.
Mesh voltage (Em): The maximum touch voltage within a mesh of
a ground grid.
Metal-to-metal touch voltage (Emm): The difference in potential
between metallic objects or structures within the substation site
that may be bridged by direct hand-to-hand or hand-to-feet
contact.
The diagram in Figure 1 shows the phenomena referred above.
Figure 1 – Touch, step and transferred voltages
In order to minimize to acceptable values of the currents through the

human body, to ensure electrical safety for people working within or
near the installation, and also to limit any eventual electrical
interference with third-party equipment, AIS must be provided with
an earthing (or grounding) system, to which all metallic non-live
parts of the installation must be connected, such as metallic
structures, earthing switches, surge arresters, enclosures of
switchboards and motors, transformers rails and metallic fences.
Since earthing has an influence on the levels of power system

overvoltages and fault current, and the definition of protection
systems, earthing system must be designed to ensure that there is
proper operation of the protective devices such as protective relaying
and surge arresters.
Design and construction of earthing system must assure that system

performs for the expected life of the installation and it must therefore
take into account future additions and the maximum fault current for the
ultimate configuration.
Earthing system is made of a mesh of buried bare copper cable, with

additional earth rods, and shall be calculated, being recommended to
use IEEE Std. 80-2000.
Related Post: Difference Between Grounding, Earthing and

Bonding
Important formulas for Designing a Substation Grid

Earthing System
The cross section of the buried cable should calculated in accordance
with the value of the phase-to-earth short circuit current, but it is
common to use the three phase short-circuit current for this purpose.
For this calculation the following formula must be used:
Where:
I”K1 is the phase-to-earth short-circuit current [A]

ts is the duration of the fault [s]
Δθ is the maximum admissible temperature rise [°C] – for bare
copper Δθ = 150 °C
According to the referred IEEE Standard maximum tolerable step and

touch potential and maximum tolerable current through the human
body (Ihb) and the resistance of the earth grid (Rg) are calculated by
the formulas:
Maximum tolerable step potential
Maximum tolerable touch potential
Maximum tolerable current through the human body
Resistance of the Earth Grid
Where:
Cs is the surface layer derating factor and is calculated by the

formula:
ts is the duration of the fault [s]

ρs is the surface material resistivity [Ω.m] – typical value for wet
crushed rock/gravel: 2,500 Ω.m
ρ is the resistivity of the earth beneath the surface material [Ω.m]
hs is the thickness of the surface material [m]
A is the area occupied by the ground grid [m2]
lT is the total buried length of conductor, including the earth rods
[m]
If no protective surface layer is used, then Cs =1 and ρs = ρ
These calculations are usually done using specific software.
Substation Earthing Grid

Figure 2 shows an example of the earth grid.
Figure 2 – Earth grid
The most suitable methods for the connection of the earth grid
connections are:
a.) Exothermic welding
Figure 3 – Exothermic welding
Exothermic welding is conductors’ permanent connection process

that uses molten metal and molds, which is based in a chemical
reaction between metal oxides (the conductor) and ignited
aluminium powder, which acts as fuel, with heat energy release.
This chemical reaction is a pyrotechnic composition known as
thermite.
It must be assured that the number of exothermic welding done

with each mold will not exceed the indications of the
manufacturer.
Also read: What is the Difference Between Neutral, Ground and

Earth?
b.) C connector:
using a hydraulic crimping tool and matrixes with a size suitable for
the size of the connectors.
Figure 4 – C connector and crimping tool
Close to the control boxes of circuit breakers, switches and isolators it

must be installed a metallic equipotential mat, connected to the earth
system, similar to the one shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5 – Metallic equipotential mat
( Good to know:
[1] Being Un the rated voltage of the network: HV – Un ≥ 60

kV; MV – 1 kV < Un ≤ 49.5 kV.
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SUBSTATIONS EARTHING GRID Touch
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Introduction to Harmonics – Effect of

Harmonics on Power System
What are Harmonics and How to Filter and Eliminate it.

(Manuel Bolotinha)
Table of Contents
Introduction to Harmonics
What are Harmonics?
Harmonic Distortion
Sources and Effects of Harmonics
Harmonics Compensation & Types of Filters

Passive filters
Active filters
Hybrid filters
Good to know:
About the Author: Manuel Bolotinha
Introduction to Harmonics
The quality of electrical power supply is an important issue both for
utility companies and users, but that quality may affected by
electromagnetic disturbances.
Among these disturbances it must be highlighted harmonics that

happens in all voltage levels and whose study, calculation of acceptable
values and correction methods are defined in IEC[1] Standard 61000-2-
4: Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)[2] – Environment – Compatibility
levels in industrial plants for low-frequency conducted disturbances.
What are Harmonics?

Alternators produce alternated voltages (V) and currents (I) with a
sinusoidal wave form and a frequency (f) of 50 Hz or 60 Hz (this
frequency, the first harmonic, is usually designated by industrial
frequency or fundamental), what can be observed in Figure 1.
Figure 1 – Sinusoidal alternated voltage
However, due to some equipments characteristics, which are

installed in the network, voltages and/or currents with different
frequencies, odd integral multiples of industrial frequency, may be
induced in the network, the harmonics, i. e.: 3th harmonic – 150 Hz or
180 Hz; 5th harmonic – 250 Hz or 300 Hz; 7th harmonic – 350 Hz or
420 Hz; etc.
We can say then that harmonics are continuous (steady-state)

disturbances or distortions on the electrical network and are a
completely different subject or problem from line spikes, surges,
sags, impulses, etc., which are categorized as transient disturbances.
Figure 2 shows examples of 1st harmonic, 3th harmonic and 5th

harmonic.
Figure 2 – Fundamental, 3th harmonic and 5th harmonic waves
The presence of harmonics gives origin to a distorted wave of voltage

(or current) that may be observed in Figure 3, taking into account that
all complex waveforms can be resolved into a series of sinusoidal
waves of various frequencies, therefore any complex waveform is the
sum of a number of harmonics of lesser or greater value.
Fourier series[3] expresses the instantaneous value of that sum – u(t)

– by the equation:
Where:
t is the time [s]

ω = 2πf [s-1]
T is the period [s]

f0 is the fundamental frequency [Hz]
s(t) is a periodic function integrable in the interval [0, T]
Figure 3 – Harmonic distortion
Usually 3th harmonic is the most harmful, but in certain conditions, 5th
and 7th harmonics cannot be overlooked.
Harmonic Distortion
According to IEC Standard 61000-2-4 harmonic distortion is
characterized by the parameter THD – Total Harmonic Distortion –
Where Q1 represents the rms value of the voltage or of the current at

industrial frequency and Qi the harmonic wave of order “i” (2nd
harmonic – i=2; 3th harmonic i=3; etc.) of the voltage or of the current.
The same IEC Standard defines also the following parameters:
TDC (Total Harmonic Content), which rms value is calculated by

the equation:
Where Q1 represents the rms value of the voltage or of the current at

industrial frequency and Q the rms value of the voltage or of the
current.
TDR (Total Harmonic Ratio) – relation between the rms value of

TDC and the rms value of the voltage or of the current at
industrial frequency (Q1), which is calculated by the equation:
Usually calculations are made for the voltage, considering minimum

three-phase short-circuit power (S”K) of the network and maximum
values (in Ω) of short-circuit impedance in the points where THD is
calculated (ZK; RK; XK[4]); a specific software is required to do these
calculations.
The above referred IEC Standard defines 3 classes for

electromagnetic environment[5]:
1. Class 1: This class applies to protected supplies and has

compatibility levels lower than those on public networks. It relates
to the use of equipment very sensitive to disturbances in the
power supply, for instance electrical instrumentation in
laboratories, some automation and protection equipment, some
computers, etc.
2. Class 2: This class applies generally to PCC[6] and to IPC[7] in the
environments of industrial and other non-public power supplies.
The compatibility levels of this class are generally identical to
those of public networks. Therefore, components designed for
supply from public networks may be used in this class of industrial
environment.
environment.
3. Class 3: This class applies only to IPC in industrial environments.
It has higher compatibility levels than those of class 2 for some
disturbance phenomena. For instance, this class should be
considered when any of the following conditions are met: a major
part of the load is fed through converters; welding machines are
present; large motors are frequently started; loads vary rapidly.
Harmonic compatibility levels[8] (Uh [%]) for odd frequencies

multiples of 3 are indicated in Table 1and for odd frequencies not
multiples of 3 are indicated in Table 2.
Table 1 – Levels of harmonic compatibility for odd frequencies multiples

of 3
Table 2 – Levels of harmonic compatibility for odd frequencies multiples

of 3
Compatibility levels of THD for each of the classes are:

Compatibility levels of THD for each of the classes are:
Class 1 – 5%.
Class 2 – 8%.
Class 3 – 10%.
Sources and Effects of Harmonics

Harmonics are a permanent source of problems in electrical
equipments and systems.
The following types of loads (non-linear loads [9]) are the main sources
of harmonics:
Power electronic equipment (example: rectifiers – namely those

used in electrical traction systems – and static converters).
Arcing equipment (example: arc furnaces, AC or DC, arcing
welding machines).
Saturable devices (example: off-load current wave absorbed by a
transformer with an insufficiently large power rating).
To minimize harmonics generation rectifier units are preferably six-

pulse and these type of units for electrical traction systems typically
generate current harmonics of 5th, 7th, 17th and 19th order, resulting
from diodes unbalancing and from network impedance.
Although of a lower magnitude, under normal working conditions of

equipments and of network, it must be taken into account the risk of
resonance for those frequencies.
Switching operations of capacitor banks and power transformers with

a permanent overload are also an important harmonics source.
Power transformers for voltages above 60 kV with star-star

connection (Yy) are equally a harmonic source. To compensate those

harmonics, the referred power transformers must have a tertiary
winding, delta connected.
Apart from the distortion of voltage wave, harmonics are an origin of

erroneous operation of control and protection systems, due to
[10]
electromagnetic interferences, increase skin effect , cause
mechanical oscillation and vibrations of electrical machines, namely
power transformers and rotating machines, decrease power factor (cos
Φ), conduce to premature ageing of insulation materials, leading to the
lost of their dielectric characteristics, origin overheating and losses
increasing, namely power transformers and cables, and decrease
useful life of equipments.
Harmonics, which are the cause of voltage wave distortion, circulating

in non-linear loads, like motors, when subjected to a variable
magnetic flux, induce circulating currents (Foucault currents) in
conducting materials, what decrease torque.
In unbalanced systems, harmonics may cause a neutral current

higher than the vectorial sum of phase currents at fundamental
frequency, leading to an overload in the neutral conductor.
Skin effect increases conductors’ resistance and therefore voltage

drop and losses by Joule effect. This issue is particularly sensitive in
overhead lines with a voltage above 150 kV and a length of 800 km
and above. Common solution to solve this problem is to use DC
overhead lines, in which skin effect does not exists.
Mechanical oscillation and vibrations of rotating electrical machines

may origin shaft misalignment and destruction of stator, rotor and
bearings.
Losses increase in power transformers, happens in iron losses, due

to Foucault currents and hysteresis[11], which are proportional to the
frequency and in copper losses, due to skin effect.

When capacitor banks are used for power factor correction, a
significant harmonics component flows into the capacitor bank; in
these situations is necessary to temporarily switch-off the capacitor
bank to allow an accurate location of harmonics sources.
In such an installation it is crucial to verify if there is any risk of

harmonic resonance caused by the specific capacitor bank
harmonics. This is the first step to define the correct solution for
harmonic compensation.
Once confirmed the existence of harmonics and that THD value

exceeds the limit defined by IEC Standard 61000-2-4 and/or
established by the utility company it is mandatory proceed to
harmonic compensation; the solution to be implemented depends on
the installation characteristics.
The simplest solution, used in low voltage (V ≤ 1 kV) installations, is the

use of copper coils (see Figure 4) that act as high frequency filter,
limit the starting current of rectifiers and restrain mutual interference.
Figure 4 – Reactance for harmonic compensation
The inductance (L) of each phase is calculated by the equation:
Where:
ΔVL is the internal voltage drop of the reactance [%]

Vn is phase-to-phase voltage of the network [V]
fn is the industrial frequency of the network [Hz]
In is the current [A]
In networks and installations with a strong electrical pollution (higher

harmonics level), where Gh/Sn > 60% (Gh is the apparent power of all
non-linear loads responsible for harmonics production and Sn is the
apparent power of all upstream transformers connected to the same
bus bar where loads are connected) is recommended to install
harmonics filters, like the one shown in Figure 5).
Figure 5 – Harmonics filter
Harmonics compensation may be centralized, with harmonic filters

connected in the main incoming switchboard, or de-centralized or
local, installing the harmonic filters close to the equipments that are
the main sources of harmonics. Both solutions are shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6 – Location of harmonic filters
Harmonic filters are classified into three categories:
Passive filters
These are constituted by LC series association circuits, tuned for

each one of the frequencies that they are designed to compensate,
usually 5th, 7th and 11th harmonics. Their main characteristics are:
There is no limit to harmonic to current to be eliminated.

They perform power factor correction.
They risk amplifying harmonics when there are network
modifications.
There is an overload risk, caused by external electromagnetic

pollution.
Active filters
These are constituted by electronic and micro-processed units,

controlling harmonics within a range between 2nd to 50th orders; for
each range of frequency it is generated a current, which has a phase
shift of 180° and the same value of the harmonic current to be
compensated.
This type of filters is well adapted to modifications of the network, of the

loads and of the harmonic range, being particularly suitable for de-
centralized or local compensation.
Hybrid filters
These are a combination of active and passive filters, controlling

harmonics within a range between 2nd to 25th orders, doing also
power factor correction.
Good to know:
( Good to know:
[1]
IEC: International Electrotechnical Comission.
[2]
Electromagnetic compatibility is defined as the
capability of electrical equipments to worker properly in a
“electromagnetic environment” without introducing any
type of electromagnetic disturbances in other equipments
and systems that may exist in that environment.
[3] Fourier series are converging trigonometric series used

to represent the sum of sinusoidal functions.
to represent the sum of sinusoidal functions.
[4]
If the values of RK e XK of the network it is usual to
consider, as an approximation, RK/XK = 0.1 and the
equation
ZK = √(RK2+XK2).
[5]
The definition of the classes is a transcription of IEC
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Corona Effect &amp; Discharge in Transmission Lines &amp; Power System

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Corona Effect & Discharge in Transmission Lines & Power System 2023-06-24, 10:48 AM

Electric Circuit Analysis Electrical Design Over Head Lines

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Corona Effect & Discharge in

A Full Guide about Corona Effect / Corona

What is Corona Effect or Corona Discharge?

What is the Difference between Corona effect and Skin

What is Corona Effect or Corona Discharge?

However, when the applied voltage exceeds a certain

The phenomenon of corona is accompanied by a hissing

sound, production of ozone, power loss and radio

Corona effect or corona discharge in transmission lines

If the conductors are polished and smooth, the corona glow

You may also read: Design of Grounding / Earthing

What is the Difference between Corona effect

Corona Effect / Discharge:

As described above, corona is an effect of violet glow,

Skin effect is a behavior or tendency of alternating current

In this scenario, the current density is lager near the

Theory of Corona Formation

normal conditions, the air around the conductors contains

Corona Formation. Corona discharge on insulator string of a 500 kV

When p.d.is applied between the conductors, potential

When the potential gradient at the conductor surface

This produces another ion and one or more free electrons,

neutral molecules, thus producing other ions. Thus, the

Introduction to Harmonics – Effect of Harmonics on

Mathematical Modelling of Corona Effect

This phenomenon that is characterized by a glow (mostly

Generally for parallel conductors in the air there is corona

D/r < 5.85

r is the radius of the conductors

When studying corona effect it is important to evaluate the

This voltage is named Critical Disruptive Voltage. If r [cm]

Where ln represents the natural logarithm.

To corona effect takes place it is necessary that G will be

Designating by G0 the value of grad E that obeys to the

For different conditions of temperature and of

calculated by the equation:

δ = (3.92 x 1.01325×105 x P) / ((273 + θ) x 760)

Being G’0 the value of grad E corresponding to the new

Hence, the critical value of the disruption voltage (U’c) is

U’c = G0 x r x δ x ln (d/r) [kV/phase]

Taking into account the irregularity of the conductor

U’c = m0 x G0 x r x δ x ln (d/r) [kV/phase]

Common values of m0 are:

Another value used to characterize the corona effect is the

Uv = mv x G0 x δ x 3 x (1 + (0.3 / √(δ x r)) x ln (d/r)

Factor mv is also a “measure” of the irregularity of the

Another value that must be calculated when studying the

Pco = 242.2 x ((f + 25) / δ) x √(r/d) x (U(exp)2 – Uc2) x 10-5

Short Circuit Currents And Symmetrical Components

Important terms related to Corona

Critical disruptive voltage

It is the minimum phase-neutral voltage at which corona

g =[V/ r loge (d/r)] volts / cm

If VC is the phase-neutral potential required under these

go =[Vc/ r loge (d/r)] volts / cm

∴ Critical disruptive voltage, Vc = go r loge d/r

The above expression for disruptive voltage is under

The value of go is directly proportional to air density. Thus

δ = air density factor = 3.92b / 273 + t

Corona Effect & Discharge in Transmission Lines & Power System

Corona Effect & Discharge in Transmission Lines & Power System