Beeme Unit 2

21ES1201–Basic Electrical, Electronics and Measurement Engineering 2.
UNIT II
ELECTRICAL MACHINES
Construction and Working Principle of DC motor, Stepper Motor, BLDC

motor, Transformer, Singlephase induction motor - Capacitor start and
Capacitor run motor.
2.1 DC MACHINES
DC machines can be classified into two types.
1) DC Generator
2) DC Motor
DC Generator
A dc generator is a electromechanical device which converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy.
DC Motor
A dc motor is a electromechanical device that converts electrical energy
into mechanical energy.
Assembly of DC Generator/Motor
Mr. SASIKUMAR.K, A.P / EEE / PEC

21ES1201–Basic Electrical, Electronics and Measurement Engineering 2.2
2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF DC MACHINES
FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE (LHR)


2.3 CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF DC MACHINES

❖ A direct current machine can be used as generator or as a motor.
❖ When the machine is driven by a prime mover, it converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy and it is called a generator.
❖ If the electrical energy is supplied to it, it works as a motor.
❖ The constructional details of a C generator and a DC motor are the same.
The major parts of a DC machine are:

A) Stator
B) Rotor
A) Stator Parts are:
(i) Yoke
(ii) Field System
(a) Pole core
(b) Pole shoe and
(c) Field coils (or) Pole coils
B) Rotor Parts are:
(i) Armature
(a) Armature core
(b) Armature winding
(ii) Commutator
(iii) Brushes
Bearings, End Covers, Shaft, Terminal box, etc.,

A) Stator Parts
(i) Yoke
✓ It is the outer frame of a DC generator.
✓ It acts as a protecting shield for the generator.
✓ It provides mechanical support for the poles.
✓ In small generators, yokes are made of cast iron.
✓ In large generator, yokes are usually made of cast
steel or rolled steel.
(ii) Field System

(a) Pole Core
➢ Poe cores are the projecting rectangular steel parts to produce magnetic
flux needed for the generator.
➢ The main function of this is to
establish magnetic flux, when the
field coils carry current.
➢ The pole cores are laminated.
(b) Pole Shoe

➢ The pole shoes arelocated at the end of the pole core.
➢ The purpose of providing pole shoe in the poles is to make the magnetic
field uniform on the surface of the armature.
(C) Field coil (or) Field winding

➢ They consist of copper wire wounded on the former.
➢ Current passing through the pole coils produces the necessary magnetic
flux.
B) Rotor Parts
(i) Armature

(a) Armature Core

✓ It houses the armature conductors.
✓ It provides a path of very low reluctance to the flux through the
armature.
✓ It is cylindrical or drum-shaped.
✓ It is generally built up of circular sheet steel discs or laminations
approximately 0.5 mm thick.
(b) Armature winding

They are two types
(1) Lap winding
(2) Wave winding
Lap Winding
➢ No. of parallel path = No. of Poles = No. of Brushes
➢ It is suitable for high current, low voltage machines like welding Plants
Wave Winding
➢ No. of parallel path = 2
➢ It is suitable for high voltage, low current machines, like Generators.
(ii) Commutator
✓ It facilitates the collection of current from the armature conductors.
✓ It converts the AC current into Unidirectional current.
✓ It is of cylindrical structure and is built up of wedge-shaped segments of
high conductivity.
✓ Segments are insulated from each other by thin layer of mica.
✓ No. of segments = No. of armature coils.
(iii) Brushes
✓ They collect current from the Commutator.
✓ They are usually made up of carbon or graphite
and are in the shape of a rectangular block.
✓ They are housed in the brush-holder.
✓ No. of brushes per spindle depends upon the magnitude of the current to
be collected from the Commutator.
(iv) Bearings
✓ Ball or Roller bearings are used.
✓ For heavy duty conditions roller bearings are used.
✓ The armature shaft is mounted over these bearings.
✓ They are frequently employed because if their reliability.

2.4
2.4.1


2.4.2

2.4.3TORQUE EQUATION

2.4.4SHAFT TORQUE


2.5STEPPER MOTOR
A stepper motor is a brushless DC motor whose rotor rotates
through a fixed angular step in response to each input current pulse
received by its controller.
Stepper motors are classified into three types.
a. Variable Reluctance (VR) stepper motor
b. Permanent Magnet (PM) stepper motor
c. Hybrid stepper motor
(a) Variable Reluctance (VR) Stepper Motor:
Construction:
STATOR:
❖ The VR stepper motor consists of stator and rotor.
❖ The stator is made up of soft iron stampings. It has 6 equally -
spaced projecting poles or teeth.
❖ The stator windings (3 phases A, B and C) are wound on the
stator poles.
ROTOR:
❖ The rotor carries no windings.
❖ Rotor poles are of a ferromagnetic material.
❖ It is a 4-pole salient pole type.
STEP ANGLE:
❖ Step angle is defined as the angle through which the stepper
motor shaft rotates for each command pulse. It is denoted as β.
(Ns −Nr )
(i) β= × 360°
Ns Nr
where, Ns = Number of stator poles or stator teeth

Nr = Number of rotor poles or rotor teeth
360°
(ii) β=
m.Nr
where, m = Number of stator phases

Operation:
❖ The VR stepper motor has following modes of operation.
1) 1–phase ON or Full –step operation.
2) 2–phase ON mode.
3) Alternate 1–phase ON and 2–phase ON mode (Half –
step operation).
4) Microstepping operation.
1) 1–phase ON or Full –step operation:
❖ At a time only one winding is energized and remaining windings

are de-energized.
❖ By energizing one stator winding, the rotor rotates by a full step
of 30° in clockwise direction.
Step–1:
❖ First, we close switch S1 and phase A winding is energized.
❖ A magnetic field with its axis along the stator poles of phase A
is created.
❖ Now the rotor moves to the position on which the rotor teeth
align themselves with stator teeth of phase A. (i.e., teeth 1 and 3
lining up with stator teeth 1 and 4)
❖ In this position θ = 0°.

Step–2:
❖ Next, Phase A winding is de -energized by opening switch S1 and
phase B winding is energized by closing s witch S2.
❖ Now the rotor teeth 2 and 4 align with stator teeth 3 and 6.
❖ Here, the rotor rotates through full step of 30° in clockwise
direction. Here θ = 30°.
Step–3:
❖ Next, phase B winding is de -energized by opening switch S2 and
phase C winding is energi zed by closing switch S3.
❖ Now the rotor teeth 1 and 3 to align another 30° in clockwise
direction. Here, θ = 60°.
Step–4:
❖ Again, phase A winding is energized and phase C winding is de -
energized.
❖ Now, the rotor teeth 2 and 4 to align with stator teeth 1 and 4.
❖ Here, the rotor rotates another 30° in clockwise direction. Here,
θ = 90°.
Phase A Phase B Phase C θ
+ 0 0 0°
0 + 0 30°
0 0 + 60°
+ 0 0 90°
❖ If the switching sequence is made CBAC, the rotor will rotate

counter clockwise direction.

2.6BLDC MOTOR
Definition:
A brushless DC motor (also known as a BLDC motor or BL
motor) is an electronically commuted DC motor which does not have
brushes. The controller provides pulses of current to the motor
windings which control the speed and torque of the synchronous
motor.
Types:
BLDC motor is classified into two types based on the rotor.
1) Inner Rotor type and

2) Outer rotor type
1) Inner Rotor Type:

In this kind of motors, rotor is situated
inner side and stator on outer side.
Rotor length is longer length (Cylindrical
Type)
lower number of magnetic poles.
As the stator winding is on the outside,
heat dissipation is very good.
High energy magnets to be used. Fig. Inner Rotor
2) Outer Rotor Type:

In this kind of motors, rotor is situated
outer side and stator on inner side.
Rotor is shorter length.
Higher number of magnetic poles.
As the stator winding is on inner side,
heat dissipation is very poor in outer
configuration.
Low energy magnets can be used. Fig. Outer Rotor

Construction:
❖ BLDC motors do not have brushes and hence it is called Brushless
DC motor.
❖ It has high performance and high torque -speed ratio.
Stator:
❖ Stator is made up of silicon steel stampings with slots.
❖ Winding is wounded in
the slots and is
suitably connected to
DC supply.
Rotor:
❖ Rotor accommodates a
permanent magnet.
❖ The rotor shaft
carries a rotor
position sensor (RPS).
❖ RPS sense the position
of the shaft and sends
signal to the electronic commutator.
Working:
❖ By applying the DC power to the coil, the coil will energies and
become a magnet.
❖ The operation of BLDC is based on the simple force and
acceleration between the permanent magnet and electro magnet.
❖ In this condition when the coil -A is energized the opposite poles
of rotor and stator are attract between eac h other
❖ As the rotor nearest to coil -A, the coil-B is energized.
❖ As the rotor nearest to coil -B the coil-C is energized.
❖ After that coil -A is energized with the opposite polarity.
❖ This process is repeated and the rotor continued to rotate.
❖ For a continuous rotation of rotor in BLDC we used Hall -effect
sensor to determines the position of the rotor and based on this
information the electronic controller decides which coil is to
energize.

2.7 SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

❖ Single phase motors are very widely used in home, offices,
workshops etc. as power delivered to most of the houses and
offices is single phase.
❖ In addition to this, single phase motors are reliable, cheap in
cost, simple in construction and easy to repair .
Single phase induction motor can be classified as:
1. Resistance – start (Split-phase) induction motor
2. Capacitor – start induction motor
3. Capacitor – run induction motor
4. Shaded pole induction motor
2.7.1CONSTRUCTION OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
❖ Construction of a single phase induction motor is similar to
the construction of three phase induction motor having squirrel
cage rotor, except that the stator is wound for single phase
supply.
❖ An induction motor essentially
consists of two parts,
(a) Stationary part called the
stator and
(b) Rotating part called the rotor
❖ The air gap between stator and rotor
is uniform. There is no external
connection between stator and rotor.
Stator Construction
The stator of the single phase induction motor consists of
three main parts:
1) Stator frame,
2) Stator core,
3) Stator winding or field winding.
1) Stator Frame
It is the outer most part of the single phase induction motor .
Its main function is to support the stator core and the field
winding.

The frame is either made up of die cast or fabricated steel.

2) Stator Core
The main function of the stator core is to carry the alternating
flux. In order to reduce the eddy current loss, the stator core
is laminated.
These laminated types of structure are made up of stamping
which is about 0.4 to 0.5 mm thick.
All the stamping are stamped together to form stator core,
which is then housed in stator frame. The stamping is generally
made up of silicon steel, which helps to reduce the hysteresis
loss occurring in motor.
3) Stator Winding or Field Winding
The winding wound on the stator of three phase induction motor
is also called field winding and when this winding is excited by
three phase ac supply it produces a rotating magnetic field.
The three phases of the winding are connected either in star or
delta depending upon which type of starting method is used.
Rotor Construction
The rotor of the squirrel cage induction motor is cylindrical in
shape and have slots on its periphery.
The slots are not made parallel to each other but are bit
skewed as the skewing pr events magnetic locking of stator and
rotor teeth and makes the working of motor more smooth and
quieter.
The squirrel cage
rotor consists of
aluminum, brass or
copper bars (copper
bras rotor is shown
in the figure beside).
The rotor conductors
are permanently
shorted by the
copper or aluminum rings called the end rings.
Hence form a complete closed circuit resembling like a cage and
hence got its name as squirrel cage induction motor.

Working Principle of Single Phase Induction Motor

When the stator of a single phase motor is fed with single
phase supply, it produces alternating flux in the stator winding.
The alternating current
flowing through stator
winding causes induced
current in the rotor bars
(of the squirrel cage
rotor ) according
to Faraday's law of
electromagnetic
induction.
This induced current in
the rotor will also Fig. 3.7
produce alternating flux.
Even after both alternating fluxes are set up, the motor fails
to start (the reason is explained below).
However, if the rotor is given a initial start by external force
in either direction, then motor accelerates to its final speed
and keeps running with its rated speed.
This behavior of a single phase motor can be explained by
double-field revolving theory.
2.8TYPES OF SINGLE PHASE MOTORS
Types of single phase motors

Application of Single Phase Induction Moto r

❖ It is extensively used as electric drives for low power
applications such as home appliances like.
(a) Fans
(b) Grinders
(c) Refrigeraters
(d) Air-conditioners
(e) Small machine tools like
(i) Drilling machines
(ii) Power hacksaw
(iii) Pump motors. Etc.
Disadvantages Compared with 3 Phase Induction Motor

(a) Low starting torque
(b) Low power factor
(c) Lower efficiency
(d) It can develop about 50%of the output of that of 3 -
phase motors.
(e) It is more expensive compared with 3 -phase motor
It is not used in practice due to the following inherent

characteristics.
(i) It does not have any starting torque.
(ii) If the rotor is initially given a starting torque. The
motor can pick up its speed in a direction at which the
initial torque is given and deliver the required output.

2.9TRANSFORMER
Definition
❖ A transformer is an electrical device having no moving parts. It is a
static device.
❖ It works on the principle of
Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction.
❖ By mutual induction, it
transfers electric energy from
one circuit to another at the
same frequency.
❖ It is used either for raising or
lowering the voltage of an a.c.
supply with a corresponding decreases or increase in current.
❖ It consists of two inductive coils, which are electrically separated but
magnetically linked through a common magnetic circuit.
❖ The winding connected to the a.c. source is called primary winding.
❖ The winding connected to load is called secondary winding.
2.9.1WORKING PRINCIPLE
✓ Transformer works on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
mutual induction.
✓ When an alternating voltage ‘V1’ is applied to the primary winding.

✓ An alternating fluxФ is set up in the core.
✓ This alternating flux links both the windings and induces emfs ‘E1’ and ‘E2’ in
term according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.
✓ The emf E1 is termed as primary emf (self-induceedemf).
✓ The emf E2 is termed as secondary emf (mutual induced emf).

𝐝∅
𝐄𝟏 = − 𝐍 𝟏
𝐝𝐭
𝐝∅
𝐄𝟐 = − 𝐍 𝟐
𝐝𝐭
𝑬𝟐 𝑵𝟐
=
𝑬𝟏 𝑵𝟏
✓ The magnitude of induced emfs depends upon the number of turns.
✓ The emf induced in the secondary winding causes a secondary current I2.
Consequently terminal voltage ‘V2’ will appear across the load.
✓ If N2> N1. Then V2> V1 (or) E2> E1, it is called step-up transformer.
✓ If N2< N1. Then V2< V1 (or) E2< E1, it is called step-down transformer.
2.9.2CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSFORMER
1) Base on input supply

(i) Single phase transformer
(ii) Three phase transformer
2) Based on construction
(i) Core type transformer
(ii) Shell type transformer
(iii) Berry type transformer
3) Based on output voltage

(i) Step-up transformer -→ Lower – Higher voltage
(ii) Step-down transformer -→ Higher – Lower voltage
(iii) Auto transformer -→ zero to rated value
4) Instrument transformers
(i) Current transformer
(ii) Potential transformer

5) Duty they perform

(i) Power transformer
(ii) Distribution transformer
6) Based on three phase transformer connections

(a) Star – Star (b) Star – Delta
(c) Delta – Star (e) Delta – Delta
(f) Open Delta connection (g) Scott Connection
2.9.3CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS
The following are the main components of a transformer.
1) Iron core and windings
2) Insulating oil
3) Main tank
4) Conservator (or) Expansion tank
5) Silica gel breather
6) Buchholz relay
7) Terminal bushings
1) CORE CONSTRUCTION
✓ The transformer is very simple in construction and consists of magnetic
circuits linking with two windings known as primary and secondary
windings.
✓ The transformer windings are wound in “Limb” (or) “Legs”.
✓ The parts which connect the legs and serve for closing the magnetic
circuit are termed “Yokes”.
✓ The magnetic frame (core and yokes) of the transformer is build up of
laminated electrotechnic steel called the transformer grade steel
consisting of 3.5% silicon.

✓ The flux in the core is alternating one. It becomes necessary that the
transformer cores are laminated to reduce the eddy current loss.
✓ The thickness of laminations varies from 0.35 mm to 0.5 mm. the
thickness should not be made below 0.3 mm.
✓ Various types of stampings employed in the construction of transformers
are;
2) WINDINGS
✓ Generally, the windings are made of copper.
✓ There are two windings (Primary and Secondary) in a transformer.
✓ They are wound in two different limbs.
✓ To reduce the leakage flux windings should be very close to each other to
have mutual induction. To achieve this, two windings are wound adjacent
to each other on the same limb.
Methods of windings
• Concentric windings are employed in core type transformers.
• Sandwiched windings are used in shell type transformers.
3) INSULATING OIL
✓ The oil performs the following three functions for the transformer.
a) It provides insulation.
b) It protects the paper insulation from dirt and moisture.
c) It cools the core and windings of the transformer.
✓ Therefore, the transformer oil should have the following characteristics.
a) It should have sufficient dielectric strength.
b) It should be free from inorganic acid, alkali and corrosive Sulphur.
c) It should have low viscosity.
Note: Under normal operating conditions, there should not be any sludge at the
bottom of the oil tank.

4) MAIN TANK
✓ Small capacity tanks are fabricated from welded sheet steel.
✓ While larger tanks are assembled from plain boiler plates (or) cast-
aluminium parts.
✓ A water proof gasket being used at the joints.
✓ For cooling purpose, cooling tubes are welded with the tank.
5) CONSERVATOR (OR) EXPANSION TANK

✓ The main tank of the transformer is connected by a pipe to a small
auxiliary tank mounted above the main tank.
✓ The auxiliary tank is termed Conservator tank (or) Expansion tank.
✓ Conservator is partly filled with oil; its function is to keep the main tank
of the transformer completely filled with oil in all circumstances.
✓ The oil level of a transformer changes with changes in temperature of oil
depends upon the load on the transformer.
6) BREATHER
✓ In between the main and conservator tanks, some chemical compound in a
pot is fitted externally. That is called silica gel.
✓ If any moisture tries to enter from atmospheric air, then immediately
the silica gel absorbs the moisture.
✓ Due to the above reaction with air, the silica gel loses its original blue
colour and changes into pink colour.
✓ This change in colour indicates that the silica gel is saturated with
moisture and it is replaced by new silica gel crystals.
7) BUCHHOLZ RELAY
✓ It is a gas and oil actuated protective device and it is practically used on
all oil immersed transformer having rating more than 750 KVA.
✓ It is installed in the pipe joining the main tank of the transformer to the
conservator and its used to give alarm inn case of minor fault and to
disconnect the transformer from supply main in case of severe internal
fault.
8) BUSHINGS
✓ In case of low voltage transformer, the porcelain type bushings are used.
The porcelain bushing is employed around the conductor.
✓ I case of high voltage transformer, the oil filled or condenser type of
bushing is used.
✓ Upto 66 kV -→ non-condense type bushing is utilized.
✓ Above 66 kV -→ condense type bushing is used.

2.9.4TYPES OF TRANSFORMER
(A) Core Type Transformer

(B) Shell Type Transformer

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21ES1201–Basic Electrical, Electronics and Measurement Engineering 2.

Construction and Working Principle of DC motor, Stepper Motor, BLDC

Mr. SASIKUMAR.K, A.P / EEE / PEC

2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF DC MACHINES

FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE (LHR)

Mr. SASIKUMAR.K, A.P / EEE / PEC

Mr. SASIKUMAR.K, A.P / EEE / PEC

2.3 CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF DC MACHINES

The major parts of a DC machine are:

Mr. SASIKUMAR.K, A.P / EEE / PEC

(ii) Field System

(b) Pole Shoe

(C) Field coil (or) Field winding

Mr. SASIKUMAR.K, A.P / EEE / PEC

(a) Armature Core

(b) Armature winding

Mr. SASIKUMAR.K, A.P / EEE / PEC

Mr. SASIKUMAR.K, A.P / EEE / PEC

Mr. SASIKUMAR.K, A.P / EEE / PEC

Mr. SASIKUMAR.K, A.P / EEE / PEC

Mr. SASIKUMAR.K, A.P / EEE / PEC

Mr. SASIKUMAR.K, A.P / EEE / PEC

Mr. SASIKUMAR.K, A.P / EEE / PEC

where, Ns = Number of stator poles or stator teeth

Mr. SASIKUMAR.K, A.P / EEE / PEC

❖ At a time only one winding is energized and remaining windings

Mr. SASIKUMAR.K, A.P / EEE / PEC

❖ If the switching sequence is made CBAC, the rotor will rotate

Mr. SASIKUMAR.K, A.P / EEE / PEC

BLDC motor is classified into two types based on the rotor.

1) Inner Rotor type and

1) Inner Rotor Type:

2) Outer Rotor Type:

Mr. SASIKUMAR.K, A.P / EEE / PEC

Mr. SASIKUMAR.K, A.P / EEE / PEC

2.7 SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Mr. SASIKUMAR.K, A.P / EEE / PEC

The frame is either made up of die cast or fabricated steel.

Mr. SASIKUMAR.K, A.P / EEE / PEC

Working Principle of Single Phase Induction Motor

2.8TYPES OF SINGLE PHASE MOTORS

Types of single phase motors

Mr. SASIKUMAR.K, A.P / EEE / PEC

Application of Single Phase Induction Moto r

Disadvantages Compared with 3 Phase Induction Motor

It is not used in practice due to the following inherent

Mr. SASIKUMAR.K, A.P / EEE / PEC

✓ When an alternating voltage ‘V1’ is applied to the primary winding.

Mr. SASIKUMAR.K, A.P / EEE / PEC

1) Base on input supply

3) Based on output voltage

Mr. SASIKUMAR.K, A.P / EEE / PEC

5) Duty they perform

6) Based on three phase transformer connections

Mr. SASIKUMAR.K, A.P / EEE / PEC

Mr. SASIKUMAR.K, A.P / EEE / PEC

5) CONSERVATOR (OR) EXPANSION TANK

Mr. SASIKUMAR.K, A.P / EEE / PEC

Mr. SASIKUMAR.K, A.P / EEE / PEC

(B) Shell Type Transformer

Mr. SASIKUMAR.K, A.P / EEE / PEC

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