applied
sciences
Article
Elastic Critical Lateral Buckling of Beams Subjected to
Simultaneous Negative End Moments and Transverse Loads
Xuan Tung Nguyen 1 , Tri N. M. Nguyen 1 , Kha Loc Nguyen 1 , Ki-Yong Yoon 2 , Sun-Hee Park 3
and Jung J. Kim 4, *
Citation: Nguyen, X.T.; Nguyen,
T.N.M.; Nguyen, K.L.; Yoon, K.-Y.;
Park, S.-H.; Kim, J.J. Elastic Critical
Lateral Buckling of Beams Subjected
to Simultaneous Negative End
Moments and Transverse Loads.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 778. https://
doi.org/10.3390/app13020778
Academic Editors: Angelo Luongo
and Simona Di Nino
Received: 3 December 2022
Revised: 22 December 2022
Accepted: 23 December 2022
Published: 5 January 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 778. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13020778
1 Campus in Ho Chi Minh City, University of Transport and Communications,
Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
2 Department of Civil Infrastructure Systems and Safety Engineering, Sunmoon University,
Asan 31460, Republic of Korea
3 R&D Department, Kwang Deug E&C, Gumi 39454, Republic of Korea
4 Department of Civil Engineering, Kyungnam University, Changwon-si 51767, Republic of Korea
* Correspondence: jungkim@kyungnam.ac.kr; Tel.: +82-55-249-6421; Fax: +82-505-999-2165
Abstract: This study presents a numerical investigation of the elastic critical lateral-torsional buckling
of a steel beam subjected to simultaneous transverse loading at the top flange and negative end
moments. Here, the elastic critical buckling of the steel beam was estimated by utilizing the finite
element software ABAQUS. In addition, the influence of the length-to-height ratio was taken into
account. Additionally, the predicted values for elastic critical buckling when applying existing
design codes and a previous study were also analyzed and compared to the numerical results of
the finite element analysis. The result of the comparison revealed that the projected values from the
design codes and the study are conservative for the majority of cases and have a tendency to be too
conservative when the length-to-height ratio increases. Furthermore, a new equation with a factor
considering the influence of the length-to-height ratio and transverse loading on the top flange is
proposed, and the proposed equation shows sufficient accuracy and less conservative values for
most cases.
Keywords: finite element analysis; elastic critical buckling; length-to-height ratio; transverse loading;
negative end moment
1. Introduction
Overhanging beams and continuous beams are common structures in buildings and
bridges, which are directly subjected to transverse loadings, resulting in negative moments
occurring at interior supports, as shown in Figure 1. For flexural steel members, the loss of
stability of lateral-torsional buckling (LTB) is a common failure phenomenon. Moreover,
elastic moment determination to predict the buckling strength values of steel beams must
be performed and checked as one ultimate limit state considered to be one of the critical
standards, which can be found in several current design standards and guidelines [1–6].
However, so far, many researchers have proven that the recommendations of some stan-
dards and guidelines are too conservative or even unsafe under specified conditions, which
has to be investigated in detail under particular circumstances to ensure the economic and
safety indicators. Based on many previous studies, a buckling resistance evaluation greatly
depends on two factors, bending moment distribution and restriction at supports, which
have been widely numerically investigated by many researchers under several specified
investigated factors.
Theoretical studies on the elastic critical buckling of steel beams have been carried out
in many works in the literature, wherein studies on the elastic buckling of simply supported
steel beams with a monosymmetric cross-section subjected to transverse loadings or end
moments were presented in [7–9]. Here, Kitipornchai and Wang [7], Kitipornchai et al. [8]
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci
 Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 778 2 of 12

, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
and Wang and Kitipornchai [9] revealed that the proposed design graphs are different from
current design solutions in which the moment gradient factor (Cb ) is employed. In addition,
Lim et al. [10] also investigated the elastic lateral-torsional buckling utilizing an I-beam and
applying the Bubnov–Galerkin method [11] and the finite element method. The authors
developed alternative equations concerning the Cb correction factor and the end constraint
boundary conditions. As a result, in three end restraint cases, more precise solutions2 of 13
were
attained with greater safety and less conservative values over the entire selection of linear
moment gradients in the three above-mentioned cases.

(a)

(b)
Figure 1. Bending moment
Figure diagram.
1. Bending (a) Continuous
moment beam, (b) beam,
diagram. (a) Continuous Overhanging beam. beam.
(b) Overhanging

In addition,
Theoretical studies on the studies on critical
elastic beams subjected
buckling to of
simultaneous
steel beams transverse
have beenloadings and end
carried
moments were also carried out in [12–15]. As a result, the moment gradient factors based
out in many works in the literature, wherein studies on the elastic buckling of simply
on the bending diagram were proposed. The equivalent uniform moment factor (EUMF)
supported steelmethod
beamswas with a monosymmetric
investigated by Serna etcross-section subjected
al. [14]. The results to transverse
indicated, in the case load-
of simply
ings or end moments were presented in [7–9]. Here, Kitipornchai and
supported beams with very conservative values, additionally, non-conservative Wang [7], Kitiporn- values
chai et al. [8] and Wangwhen
occurred and Kitipornchai
support types were [9] revealed
used to limitthat the proposed
lateral bending and design
warping.graphs are
Furthermore,
different from the investigation
current of Wong etin
design solutions al.which
[15] alsotherevealed
moment unacceptable results (C
gradient factor forb)a is
procedure
em-
from a design standard [16], for most cases taking into account common bending moment
ployed. In addition, Lim et al. [10] also investigated the elastic lateral-torsional buckling
distributions considering the moment gradient factor values observed from twelve moment
utilizing an I-beam and applying the Bubnov–Galerkin method [11] and the finite element
distribution comparisons. Moreover, a proposed equation was proven to be appropriate for
method. The authors developed
most cases of typicalalternative
applicationslequations
however, the concerning
equation does the not
Cb correction factor
show good agreement
and the end constraint boundary conditions. As a result, in three
when concentrated loads occur, as with all quarter-point moment methods. end restraint cases, more
precise solutions were In terms of thewith
attained impact of the loading
greater safety andposition
lessinconservative
cross-sectional depth over
values on thethe elastic
critical buckling of the beam, it has been also studied
entire selection of linear moment gradients in the three above-mentioned cases. in [17–20]. Generally, these studies
have considered the shape of the cross-section, including singly and doubly symmetric
In addition, studies on beams subjected to simultaneous transverse loadings and end
cross-sections. The effect of loading conditions, including beams subjected to end moments
moments wereand alsotransverse
carried out in [12–15].
loadings, as well Asasathe
result,
effectthe
of moment
load heights gradient
on the factors basedLTB
elastic critical
on the bendingwere diagram wereinto
also taken proposed.
account.The Theequivalent
study of Park uniform moment
et al. [19] compared factor
the (EUMF)
results from
method was investigated
the SSRC Guide by Serna
[6] withettheal.results
[14]. Theof theresults indicated,
FEA method, in the
leading to a case of simply
new design method
supported beams restricted
with in cases
very of monosymmetric
conservative values,I-beams with a monosymmetric
additionally, non-conservative degree ranging
values
occurred whenbetweensupport0.1types
and 0.9. Moreover,
were used toBijak [20]
limit studied
lateral the analysis
bending and of unbraced,
warping. symmetric,
Further-
prismatic beams of simply supported ones in terms of the lateral-torsional critical moment,
more, the investigation of Wong et al. [15] also revealed unacceptable results for a proce-
proving an incorrect estimation in a previous study [21] in terms of the coefficient allowing
dure from a design standard
for random [16], of
ordinates forapplied
most casesloadings.taking into account
Moreover, the study common bending the
also investigated
moment distributions
assumption considering
of boundarythe momentnon-linear
conditions, gradientbending factor moment
values distributions
observed from and the
twelve momentimpact distribution comparisons.
of the position of loadingMoreover,
concerning athe proposed
height of theequation was proven
cross-sectional element.to
be appropriate for On the other
most caseshand, Park etapplicationsl
of typical al. [22] and Park [23] numerically
however, investigated
the equation doesthe noteffect
of the length-to-height ratio on the LTB of stepped
show good agreement when concentrated loads occur, as with all quarter-point moment beams with a continuously laterally
methods.
In terms of the impact of the loading position in cross-sectional depth on the elastic
critical buckling of the beam, it has been also studied in [17–20]. Generally, these studies
have considered the shape of the cross-section, including singly and doubly symmetric
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 778 3 of 12

braced top flange. In the studies, the loading conditions on stepped beam models were
a concentrated load at midspan and a uniformly distributed load on the top flange with neg-
ative end moments. As a result, the data of these studies showed that the length-to-height
ratio has a great influence on the LTB of stepped beams with continuous lateral bracing.
Recently, cellular beams have been investigated and widely applied, with several
advantages compared to conventional solid web steel beams. The numerical investigation
of their elastic buckling behavior has been considered by several researchers [24–28],
with the modified factors considering the presence of web perforations under specified
conditions. In this case, the study by Khatri et al. [28] investigated the impact of load height
on the Cb factor under uniform load distribution for laterally unsupported I-beams. The Cb
factor attained from the numerical results was compared with the procedure calculations
from SSRC guidance, leading to considerable variation between these results, which was
due to serious web distortion, which is neglected in the equations in the SSRC guidance.
Moreover, the application of this guidance is appropriate when the mode of lateral-torsional
buckling is dominant for span beams that are longer than the investigated one.
To date, there have been many standards and guidelines [1–6] aimed at preventing the
lateral-torsional buckling phenomenon; however, as mentioned above, these recommen-
dations are either too conservative or unsafe in some circumstances. Moreover, although
the elastic critical buckling of steel beams has been focused on and researched with many
proposed models to analyze the related ultimate limit stage under specific circumstances,
to the best of our knowledge, the effect of the length-to-height ratio with transverse loads
at the top flange on the elastic critical LTB of prismatic steel beams has been studied with
limitations in the literature. Therefore, this paper focuses on the investigation of the influ-
ence of the length-to-height ratio on the elastic critical buckling of prismatic steel I-beams.
The simply supported beams were subjected to a uniformly distributed load or concen-
trated load on the top flange with negative end moments. In addition, a finite element
program (ABAQUS) was employed to analyze the elastic critical buckling of beam models.
Eventually, an equation was proposed, compared and verified with several standards and
a previous study. As a result, the proposed equation indicated good agreement, with less
conservative values compared to the previous study and the standards for most cases.

2. Background and Previous Research

Timoshenko and Gere [29] provided the equation to calculate the elastic critical LTB
for a doubly symmetric I-beam under equal end moments as follows:
s
 2
π πE
Mocr = EIy GJ + Iy Cw (1)
L L

where L is the unbraced length; E and G are the Young’s modulus and the shear modulus,
respectively; Iy is the inertia moment of the cross-section about the minor axis; J and Cw are
the torsional and warping constants, respectively.
In order to take into account the influence of varying bending moments within the
laterally unbraced length, a moment gradient factor (Cb ) was proposed. Moreover, the
elastic critical LTB strength of beams subjected to general loading conditions (Mcr ) is also
calculated by multiplying Mocr by Cb based on the study of Salvadori [30]. The author
offered a moment modification factor that has been also incorporated into the American
Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) Specifications (1986) [5]:
   2
M2 M2
Cb = 1.75 + 1.05 + 0.3 (2)
M1 M1

in which M1 and M2 are the greater and smaller end moments, respectively. In addition, the
value of the ratio M2 /M1 is taken as negative for end moments triggering single-curvature
bending and positive for end moments causing double-curvature bending. It should be
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 778 4 of 12

noted that Equation (2) was developed for the case of beams subjected to end moments
without transverse loadings.
The moment gradient factor was established by Kirby and Nethercot [12], which has
been also incorporated into the AISC Specifications (2016) [1]:

12.5Mmax
Cb = (3)
2.5Mmax + 3M A + 4MB + 3Mc

where Mmax is the absolute value of the maximum moment; MA , MB and MC are the
absolute values of the moments at the quarter point, the center point and the three-quarter
point, respectively. It should be mentioned that this factor can be applied to bending
moment diagrams of any shape. Moreover, the loads are imposed at the shear center of
the cross-section.
BS 5950 [4] provides the equation for the moment correction factor given by

Mmax
Cb = ≤ 2.273 (4)
0.2Mmax + 0.15M A + 0.5MB + 0.15Mc

The equation of Cb used in the AS 4100 [2] is taken as

1.7Mmax
Cb = q ≤ 2.5 (5)
M2A + M2B + MC2

The position of the transverse loading in the cross-sectional depth also influences the
elastic critical LTB strength of the beam. Helwig et al. [17] suggested a simplified formula
for the moment gradient factor of simply supported beams, as presented in Equation (6),
which has been also mentioned in Ziemian [6]:

Cb∗ = (1.42y/h )Cb (6)

where Cb is determined using Equation (3); h is the beam height; y is the distance from the
midheight of the cross-section to the transverse loading position. Furthermore, the value
of y is negative for transverse loading above the midheight and positive for transverse
loading below the midheight.
Moreover, there are also studies on the moment gradient factor for the elastic critical
LTB of steel beams, which were performed by Serna et al. [14] and Wong and Driver [15]. In
their studies, the factor Cb was also used only for the case of transverse loadings imposed at
the shear center of the cross-section. For this study, the factor Cb for steel beams subjected
to transverse loadings on top flanges with negative end moments is followed, according to
the recommendations from the investigation of Helwig et al. [17] and Ziemian [6].

3. Finite Element Modeling

The elastic critical LTB of steel beams subjected to transverse loading with negative
end moments was achieved using the finite element analysis (FEA) program ABAQUS [31],
applying the four-node shell element (S4R), which was utilized to model the investigated
steel beam. It should be mentioned that the S4R element, with six degrees of freedom at
each node, which was also used in previous studies [32–37], can accurately model the elastic
buckling behavior of steel beams and provide quick results with high accuracy. In addition,
the steel beam with an H700x300 cross-section was chosen in this study according to [38],
with detailed properties listed in Table 1. Regarding the cross-section size of the beams, the
beam height (h), flange width (bf ), flange thickness (tf ) and web thickness (tw ) were 700, 300,
24 and 13 mm, respectively, as shown in Figure 2. In addition, the mechanical properties of
the beams, i.e., elastic modulus (E) and yield stress (fy ), are 210 and 275 Mpa, respectively.
Meanwhile, the Poisson’s ratio (m) was 0.3, and all the geometric and mechanical properties
of the beams were taken from [38].
 (tw) were 700, 300, 24 and 13 mm, respectively, as shown in Figure 2. In addition, the me-
chanical properties of the beams, i.e., elastic modulus (E) and yield stress (fy), are 210 and
275 Mpa, respectively. Meanwhile, the Poisson’s ratio (m) was 0.3, and all the geometric
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 778
and mechanical properties of the beams were taken from [38]. 5 of 12

Table 1. Properties of H700x300 (unit: mm, MPa).

Table 1. Properties of H700x300 (unit: mm, MPa).

Properties Values
Beam
Properties height, h Values 700
Flange
Beam height, h
width, bf 700
300
Flangebf thickness, tf
Flange width, 300 24
Flange thickness, tf
Web thickness, tw 24 13
Web thickness, tw 13
Elastic modulus, E 210
Elastic modulus, E 210
Yield
Yield stress, fy stress, fy 275 275
Poisson’sPoisson’s
ratio, m ratio, m 0.3 0.3

Figure 2.Cross-section
Figure 2. Cross-sectionofof beams.
beams.

In
In order
ordertotoconsider
consider the
thevarious
variousbeam
beamlengths, a range
lengths, of length-to-height
a range ratios ratios
of length-to-height (L/h) (L/h)
from 10 to 40 with an interval of 5 was employed. Moreover, a convergence
from 10 to 40 with an interval of 5 was employed. Moreover, a convergence analysis analysis was was
conducted to determine the proper mesh size of the steel beam models. Furthermore, based
conducted to determine the proper mesh size of the steel beam models. Furthermore,
on the analysis results, the meshing of beam models was achieved with 30 mm × 30 mm
based on the analysis results, the meshing of beam models was achieved with 30 mm x 30
elements. The elastic critical LTB of steel beams was investigated by using eigenvalue
mm elements. The elastic critical LTB of steel beams was investigated by using eigenvalue
analyses.
analyses.
This study aimed to investigate the LTB strength of simply supported beams subjected
This study
to transverse aimed
loadings onto
topinvestigate
flanges withthe LTB strength
negative of simply
end moments. supported
In addition, beams sub-
the beam
jected
model andto transverse
boundary loadings
condition on topsimply
of the flanges with negative
supported beam are end moments.
given In3.addition,
in Figure Here, the
beam model
both tips and
of the boundary
bottom flangescondition
and both of the simply
centroids supported
at the ends of the beam
web are
weregiven
fixedin
toFigure
ensure the prevention of vertical displacements. Likewise, lateral displacements
3. Here, both tips of the bottom flanges and both centroids at the ends of the web were for both
tips ofto
fixed theensure
web were
the also prevented.
prevention Moreover,
of vertical the displacement
displacements. along the
Likewise, axial direction
lateral displacements
of one centroid at the ends of the web was prevented for the hinge
for both tips of the web were also prevented. Moreover, the displacement along support and another
the axial
one was free at the position of the roller support.
direction of one centroid at the ends of the web was prevented for the hinge support and
Figure 4 shows the loading conditions used in this study. It can be seen that the steel
another one was free at the position of the roller support.
beams were subjected to a uniformly distributed load or concentrated load on the top flange
with negative end moments, which are denoted LC1 and LC2 , respectively. In Figure 4, M1
and M2 are the greater and smaller moments at the ends of the beam, and α is the ratio
of M1 taking into account the end moment variation with the values of α as 0, 0.5, 0.75
and 1. In addition, Mq and MP are, respectively, the moment at the midspan of the simple
beam triggered by the uniformly distributed load and the concentrated load with respect
to unbraced length L. To take into account the effect of the variation in the negative end
moments and transverse loadings, the Mq /M1 and MP /M1 ratios were investigated ranging
from 0.5 to 3 with an interval of 0.5 in this study.
The negative end moments were simulated by using tension forces at the top flange
and compression forces at the bottom flange, as shown in Figure 5. In addition, the typical
buckling mode shapes are illustrated in Figure 6. Additionally, for the case of the Mq /M1
and MP /M1 ratios greater than 1, the buckling of the beam occurs in the top flange, as
shown in Figure 6a. In the case of Mq /M1 and MP /M1 ratios less than 1, the buckling of the
beam occurs in the bottom flange (i.e., compression flange), as shown in Figure 6b.
Appl. Sci.
Appl.2023, 13, x
Sci. 2023, 13,FOR
778 PEER REVIEW 6 of 12

Figure 3. Beam model and boundary conditions.

Figure 4 shows the loading conditions used in this study. It can be seen that the steel
beams were subjected to a uniformly distributed load or concentrated load on the top
flange with negative end moments, which are denoted LC1 and LC2, respectively. In Fig-
ure 4, M1 and M2 are the greater and smaller moments at the ends of the beam, and α is
the ratio of M1 taking into account the end moment variation with the values of α as 0, 0.5,
0.75 and 1. In addition, Mq and MP are, respectively, the moment at the midspan of the
simple beam triggered by the uniformly distributed load and the concentrated load with
respect to unbraced length L. To take into account the effect of the variation in the negative
end moments and transverse loadings, the Mq/M1 and MP/M1 ratios were investigated
Figure
ranging
Figure 3. Beam
3.from
Beam0.5 to model
model3 with and
an boundary
interval
and boundary of 0.5 conditions.
conditions.in this study.

Figure 4 shows the loading conditions used in this study. It can be seen t
beams were subjected to a uniformly distributed load or concentrated load
flange with negative end moments, which are denoted LC1 and LC2, respectiv
ure 4, M1 and M2 are the greater and smaller moments at the ends of the bea
the ratio of M1 taking into account the end moment variation with the values o
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
0.75 and 1. In addition,
(a) Mq and MP are, respectively, (b) the moment at the mid
simpleLoading
Figure beam
Figure4.4.Loading
triggered
conditions.
conditions.(a)
by
(a)LC
theLCuniformly
1, (b)
LC 2. distributed load and the concentrate
1 , (b) LC2 .
respect to unbraced length L. To take into account the effect of the variation in t
The negative end moments were simulated by using tension forces at the top flange
end moments and transverse loadings, the Mq/M1 and MP/M1 ratios were i
and compression forces at the bottom flange, as shown in Figure 5. In addition, the typical
ranging
buckling from
mode 0.5 are
shapes to 3illustrated
with anininterval
Figure 6.of 0.5 in thisfor
Additionally, study.
the case of the Mq/M1
and MP/M1 ratios greater than 1, the buckling of the beam occurs in the top flange, as
shown in Figure 6a. In the case of Mq/M1 and MP/M1 ratios less than 1, the buckling of the
beam occurs in the bottom flange (i.e., compression flange), as shown in Figure 6b.

Figure
Figure 5. End
5. End moment
moment simulation.
simulation.
(a) (b)
Figure 4. Loading conditions. (a) LC1, (b) LC2.

The negative end moments were simulated by using tension forces at th

and compression forces at the bottom flange, as shown in Figure 5. In addition
buckling mode shapes are illustrated in Figure 6. Additionally, for the case o
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 778 7 of 12

Figure 5. End moment simulation.

Figure6.6.Typical
Typical buckling mode shapes.
(a)(a) Mq(P) /M1>> 1,
1. (b)
(b) M
Mq(P)/M 1 ≤ 1.
Figure buckling mode shapes. Mq(P) /M 1 q(P) /M1 ≤ 1.

Table
Table 2 presents
2 presents the the elastic
elastic critical
critical buckling
buckling strengths
strengths of theseofbeams
these subjected
beams subjected
to equal to
equal
end end moments.
moments. The dataThe datathat
show show thethat the elastic
elastic criticalcritical
bucklingbuckling strengths
strengths obtained
obtained in the in
the and
FEA FEATimoshenko
and Timoshenko and Gere’s
and Gere’s study study [29]
[29] are in are
veryingood
veryagreement.
good agreement.

Table
Table Comparison
2. 2. between
Comparison Timoshenko
between and
Timoshenko Gere’s
and study
Gere’s andand
study FEA.
FEA.

Elastic Critical
Elastic Moment
Critical (kN.m)
Moment (kN.m)
L/hL/h Difference (%)
Difference (%)
Timoshenko andGere
Timoshenko and Gere[29]
[29] FEAFEA
10 10 1894.96
1894.96 1891.12
1891.12 −−0.20
0.20
15 15 1003.31
1003.31 996.84
996.84 −−0.65
0.65
20 20 670.97
670.97 663.96
663.96 −−1.06
1.06
25 503.75 497.04 −1.35
25 503.75 497.04 −1.35
30 404.05 397.88 −1.55
30 35 404.05
337.94 397.88
332.32 −−1.55
1.69
35 40 337.94
290.83 332.32
285.72 −−1.69
1.79
40 290.83 285.72 −1.79
4. Finite Element Results
4. Finite Element Results
A total of 336 models were analyzed to investigate the effect of the length-to-height
A total
ratio (L/h) on ofthe336 models
elastic wereLTB
critical analyzed
of steeltobeams.
investigate the effect
For this, simply of supported
the length-to-height beams
ratio (L/h) on the elastic critical LTB of steel beams. For this, simply
were simultaneously subjected to negative end moments and transverse loadings on the supported beams were
top flanges. As mentioned, the values of the ratio of L/h from 10 to 40 with an interval oftop
simultaneously subjected to negative end moments and transverse loadings on the
5flanges.
were used.As mentioned,
In addition,the values
values of αoffrom
the ratio
0 to 1ofand
L/hMfrom
q /M1 10
andtoM40P /M
with an interval
1 ratios rangingof 5
were0.5
from used.
to 3 In
with addition, values
an interval of α
of 0.5 from
were 0 to 1 and Mq/M1 and MP/M1 ratios ranging from
considered.
0.5 to 3 with7 an
Figures andinterval
8 showof 0.5FEA
the were considered.
results for steel beams with LC1 and LC2 , respectively.
The representative
Figures 7 andcases 8 showwith
theαFEAof 0results
and 1, forcorresponding
steel beams withto theLCcases
1 andof LC one negative
2, respectively.
end moment and negative end equal moments, are presented. Moreover,
The representative cases with α of 0 and 1, corresponding to the cases of one negative the results areend
presented as the ratio of the elastic critical buckling of beams
moment and negative end equal moments, are presented. Moreover,1 the results with LC and LC 2 , M cr to
are, pre-
the elastic
sented ascritical
the ratio buckling of beams
of the elastic subjected
critical to end
buckling of equal with LC1M
beamsmoments, andocr , LC
with 2, M respect
cr, to the
Mq /Mcritical
toelastic 1 or MPbuckling
/M1 . Obviously,
of beams these figures to
subjected show
endthat
equal ratio of MM
themoments, cr /M
ocr, ocr
withforrespect
beams to
with LC and LC increases as the ratio of L/h increases. As can be
Mq/M1 or MP/M1. Obviously, these figures show that the ratio of Mcr/Mocr for beams with
1 2 seen from the figures,
the
LCdata also indicate that the values of Mcr /Mocr areAsgreater
1 and LC2 increases as the ratio of L/h increases. can bethan
seen1from
and changethe figures, withthe
the shape of the bending moment diagrams. In the case of α = 0, the ratio of Mcr /Mocr
gradually decreases as the Mq(P) /M1 ratio increases for both LC1 and LC2 , as shown in
Figures 7a and 8a, respectively. In the case of α = 1, the ratio of Mcr /Mocr increases when
Mq(P) /M1 is less than 1. The ratio of the Mcr /Mocr ratio gradually decreases when the Mq /M1
ratio is greater than 1, as shown in Figures 7b and 8b.
 data
data also
also indicate
indicate that
that the
the values
values of of M
Mcrcr/M
/Mocr are greater than 1 and change with the shape
ocr are greater than 1 and change with the shape
of
of the bending moment diagrams. In the case of
the bending moment diagrams. In the case of α α == 0,
0, the
the ratio
ratio of Mcrcr/M
of M /Mocr gradually de-
ocr gradually de-
creases as the M q(P)/M1 ratio increases for both LC1 and LC2, as shown in Figures 7a and 8a,
creases as the Mq(P)/M1 ratio increases for both LC1 and LC2, as shown in Figures 7a and 8a,
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 778 respectively.
respectively. In In the
the case
case of
of αα == 1,
1, the
the ratio
ratio of
of MMcrcr/M
/Mocr increases when Mq(P)/M1 is less than
ocr increases when Mq(P)/M1 is less than
8 of 12
1. The ratio of the M cr/Mocr ratio gradually decreases when the Mq/M1 ratio is greater than
1. The ratio of the Mcr/Mocr ratio gradually decreases when the Mq/M1 ratio is greater than
1,
1, as
as shown
shown in in Figures
Figures 7b 7b and
and 8b.8b.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure7.7.Finite
Finite element analysis
analysis results for
for LC1.. (a) αα ==0.0.(b)
(b)α = 1.
Figure 7. Finiteelement
Figure element analysisresults
results for LC
LC11 (a) α = 0. (b) αα==1.1.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 8. Finite element analysis results for LC2. (a) α = 0. (b) α = 1.
Figure8.8.Finite
Finiteelement
elementanalysis
analysisresults
resultsfor
for LC
LC2.. (a) α = 0. (b) α = 1.
Figure 2 (a) α = 0. (b) α = 1.

5.5. Proposed
5.Proposed Equation
ProposedEquation
Equation
ToTo consider
Toconsider
considerthethe effect
effect of
the effect of different
differentloading
different loadingconditions,
loading conditions,the
conditions, thethemoment
moment
moment gradient
gradient
gradient factor is
factor
factor is
multiplied
ismultiplied
multiplied by the
byby values
thethe values
values of
of MM ocr. In addition, the existing equations for calculating the mo-
ofocrM . In addition,
. Inocraddition, the existing
the existing equations equations for calculating
for calculating the mo-
ment
the
ment gradient
moment
gradient factor
factor are
gradient taken
factor
are arefrom
taken takenEquations
from (3)–(6)
from Equations
Equations (3)–(6) and correspond
(3)–(6)
and to
to the
and correspond
correspond the recommen-
to the rec-
recommen-
dations
ommendations of AISC
dations of AISCof[1], [1], BS
AISC 5950 [4],
[1], BS
BS 5950 AS
[4],5950 4100
AS 4100 [2]
[4], [2] and
ASand 4100the
the study
[2]study
and ofof Helwig
theHelwig
study etet al.
ofal. [17].
[17]. Moreover,
Helwig et al. [17].
Moreover,
Figures
Figures 99 and
Moreover, and 10
10 show
Figures 9 andcomparisons
show 10 show comparisons
comparisons of
of the
the elastic critical
of the
elastic elastic
critical buckling
critical of
buckling of beams
buckling
beams of with LC
LC11 and
beams
with with
and
LC
LC 2, respectively, between the FEA results and the existing equations. It can be seen that
LC1 2and LC2 , respectively,
, respectively, between between
the FEA resultsthe FEA results
and and theequations.
the existing existing equations.
It can be seen It can be
that
the
seen estimated
that the values
estimated using
values the
using recommendations
the recommendations of
the estimated values using the recommendations of the standards AISC, BS5950 and the standards
of the AISC,
standards BS5950
AISC, and
BS5950
AS4100
and AS4100
AS4100 are
are conservative
are conservative
conservative for
for most
for most
most cases
casescasesand
and tend to
and tend
tend to be
betotoo
toobeconservative
too conservative
conservative as
as the
theasL/h ratio
L/hthe L/h
ratio
increases.
ratio In
increases.
increases. addition, there
In addition,
In addition, are
therethere also
are also a
are also few cases
a fewa cases of
few cases small values
of small
of small values of
values L/h (i.e., L/h
L/h (i.e.,
of L/hof(i.e., of
L/h ofL/h10,
10,of15)
10,
15)
with
15) with
with unconservative
unconservative
unconservative and
andandacceptable
acceptable
acceptable results. Moreover,
results.
results. Moreover,
Moreover, Helwig’s study
Helwig’s
Helwig’s provides
studystudy
provides too
too con-
provides too
con-
servative
servative results
conservative for
results
results all
all models,
for for all models,
models, which
which whichincrease as
as the
increase
increase theasL/h
theratio
L/h ratio increases,
L/h ratio as
as shown
increases,
increases, in
in Fig-
as shown
shown Fig-in
ures
Figures 9d
ures 9d9d and 10d.
and10d.
and Furthermore,
10d.Furthermore,
Furthermore,the the standards
thestandards of
standardsofofAISC,AISC,
AISC,BSBS 5950,
BS5950, AS
5950,AS 4100
AS4100
4100andand Helwig’s
and Helwig’s
Helwig’s
study
study
studygive give maximum
givemaximum
maximum differences
differences
differences forfor conservative
conservative
for conservative valuesvalues of
of 50.7%,
of 50.7%,
values 59.3%,
50.7%, 59.3%,
55.3%55.3%
59.3%, and
and 64.8%,
55.3% and
64.8%,
64.8%, respectively. Additionally, the maximum differences for unconservative values are
respectively.
respectively. Additionally,
Additionally, the maximum the maximum
differences differences
for for unconservative
unconservative values values
are − 35.4%,
are
−−35.4%,
4.6% and
−35.4%, −4.6%
−4.6% and
and −27.4%
−27.4% for AISC
−27.4% for AISC
AISC (2016),
for(2016), BS 5950BS
(2016), BSand5950
5950ASand AS
4100,
and 4100,
4100, respectively.
ASrespectively.
respectively.
In order to increase the accuracy, a proposed equation was developed for the elastic
critical buckling of steel beams subjected to simultaneous transverse loadings at the top
flange and negative end moments as follows:

Mcr = Fb Cb Mocr (7)

in which Mocr is the elastic critical buckling of beams subjected to equal end moments and
is calculated using Equation (1); Cb is given in AISC 2016 and in Equation (3) and has been
widely used in previous studies; Fb is the factor considering the length-to-height ratio (L/h)
and transverse loading on the top flange. Based on the FEA results, the proposal for Fb was
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 778 9 of 12

developed as a set of linear expressions and is defined in Table 3, in which the expressions
of Fb were developed for LC1 and LC2 based on the ratio between M1 and M2 , including
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 13
the cases of beams subjected to transverse loading on the top flange with one negative
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 ofend
13
moment (i.e., α = 0) and two negative end moments (i.e., 0 < α ≤ 1).

(a) (b)
(a) (b)

(c) (d)
(c) (d)
Figure9.9.Comparison
Comparison of elastic critical
criticalLTB
LTBfor forLC1 between FEA results and existing equations.
Figure 9. Comparison of
Figure of elastic
elastic critical LTB for LC
LC 11
between
between FEA
FEA results
results andand existing
existing equations.
equations.
(a) AISC [1], (b) BS 5950 [4], (c) AS 4100 [2], (d) Helwig’s study [17].
(a)(a)AISC
AISC[1],
[1],(b)
(b)BSBS5950
5950[4],
[4],(c)
(c)AS
AS4100
4100[2],
[2],(d)
(d)Helwig’s
Helwig’sstudy
study[17].
[17].

(a) (b)
(a) (b)

(c) (d)
(c) (d)
Figure 10. Comparison of elastic critical LTB for LC2 between FEA results and existing equations.
Figure10.
10.Comparison
Comparison ofelastic
elastic critical
critical LTB for LC
LC22between FEA results and existing equations.
Figure
(a) AISC [1], (b) BS 5950of[4], LTB(d)
(c) AS 4100 [2], forHelwig’s
between
study FEA
[17]. results and existing equations.
(a) AISC [1], (b) BS 5950 [4], (c) AS 4100 [2], (d) Helwig’s study [17].
(a) AISC [1], (b) BS 5950 [4], (c) AS 4100 [2], (d) Helwig’s study [17].
In order to increase the accuracy, a proposed equation was developed for the elastic
In order to increase the accuracy, a proposed equation was developed for the elastic
critical buckling of steel beams subjected to simultaneous transverse loadings at the top
critical buckling of steel beams subjected to simultaneous transverse loadings at the top
flange and negative end moments as follows:
flange and negative end moments as follows:
𝑀 =𝐹 𝐶 𝑀 (7)
𝑀 =𝐹 𝐶 𝑀 (7)
 isiscalculated
calculated
is is
is calculated
calculated using
using
calculated
using
using Equation
Equation
Equation
using Equation
Equation
(1);(1);
(1); (1);
C(1); isbgiven
Cb bisC
C b given
Cis
is given
b is
given ininAISC
given
AISC
in
in AISC
inAISC
2016
2016
AISC
2016
2016and
and
2016 ininEquation
and
and
and
Equation
in
in Equation
inEquation
Equation
(3)and
(3) and
(3)
(3)
(3)and
andhashas
has
and
been
has
been
has
been
been
been
widely
widely
widely
widely used
used
widely ininprevious
used
used
used previous
inin
in previous
previous studies;
studies;
studies;
previous studies; FFb bisF
studies; is b the
Fbthe
F is
is
b is
the
thefactor
factor
the factor
factor considering
considering
considering
factor considering
considering thethe
the length-to-height
the length-to-height
length-to-height
the length-to-height
length-to-height ratio
ratioratio
ratio (L/h)
(L/h)
ratio (L/h)
(L/h)
(L/h)
and
and and
and transverse
transverse
transverse
transverse loading
loadingloading
loading on
on on
on the
the the
the top
top top
top flange.
flange. flange.
flange. Based
Based Based
Based
and transverse loading on the top flange. Based on the FEA results, the proposal for onon the
on
on
the FEA
the
the
FEA FEA
FEA results,
results,
results,
results, the
the theproposal
the
proposal proposal
proposal for
for Fb b FF
for
for
F Fbbb
waswas
waswas developed
developed
developed
was developed
developed as a
as
as aasset set
a
asa asetof
set
ofset linear
of linear
linear
ofoflinear expressions
expressions
expressions
linear expressions
expressions and
andandandis defined
is
is defined
and defined
isisdefined in
in Table
defined Table
in
in Table
inTable 3,
3, in
Table in
3,
3, which
in
3,which
in which
in which
which the
thethe ex-
the ex-
ex- ex-
the ex-
pressions
pressions
pressions
pressions ofofFof
pressions Fb bof
of FFwere
were were
bbFwere developed
developed
developed
b were developed
developed forfor
for LCLC
for
for1LCLC and
1and
LC and
11 1and LC2LC
LC
and LCbased
2based
LC based
22 2based onon
on
based thethe
on
the
on theratio
ratio
the ratiobetween
ratio between
between
ratio between
between MM1 1MM and
and
M M2,2M
and
111 and
M
and M
M, 222,,
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 778 10 of 12
including
including
including
including thethe
the
including the cases
cases cases
thecases ofofbeams
cases beams
of
of beams
ofbeams subjected
subjected
subjected
beams subjected
subjected tototransverse
totransverse
to transverse
totransverse
transverse loading
loading
loading
loading
loadingononon onthethe
the
on toptop
the
top
the topflange
flange
top flange
flange
flange with
with with
withone
one
with one
one
one
negative
negative
negative
negative end
end
negative end
end moment
moment
end moment
moment
moment (i.e.,
(i.e., αα==α
(i.e.,
(i.e.,
(i.e.,α0)0) and
α==and
0)
=0) and
0)and two
two
and two
two negative
negative
two negative
negative
negative end
end moments
end
end moments
moments
end moments
moments (i.e.,
(i.e., 00<<00α0α<<≤<≤α
(i.e.,
(i.e.,
(i.e., α1).
α1).
≤≤≤ 1).
1).
1).

Table
Table
Table
Table
Table 3.
3.3.FF3.
Table b3. FFFbbbFfactor.
factor.
bfactor.
3. factor.
factor.
b factor.

LC
LCLCLC
1LC
1 LC
111 1 LC
LC
LC LC
22LC
2LC
22 2 Value
Value
Value
Value
Value
Valueof
ofof
αα α
of
of
ofαα
α FFbFb bFFFbbb

LL LLL
ααα
===α0α0===000
0α
85h +++ +0.8
0.8
+
0.8 0.8
0.8
85h85h
85h
85h
85h

0<α ≤
<00α0α LL LLL+0.8
00< <<≤<≤1α
α1α1≤≤≤111 75h+0.8
+0.8
+0.8
+0.8
75h
75h 75h
75h
75h

Figure
Figure Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure 11a,b
11a,b 11a,b
11a,b
11a,b
11a,bpresent present
present
present
present
present thethe
the thecomparison
the
the comparison
comparison
comparison
comparison
comparison between
between
between
between
between
between thethe
the FEA
the
the
FEA FEA
FEA
FEA results
results and
results
results
results
results
and and
and
and
and
the the
thethethe proposed
proposed
the proposed
proposedproposed
proposed equa-
equa- equa-
equa-
equa-
tion
tion tion
forfor
tion
tion
tion
for forfor
LC1LC
for
LC LC
LC LC
and
1and and
and
1
111 and
and
LCLC2LC LC 2 ,
,2,respectively.
LC respectively.
respectively.
222,,, respectively.
respectively.
respectively. Evidently,
Evidently,
Evidently,
Evidently,
Evidently,
Evidently, ititcan
itit
itcan
itcancan
bebe
can
can
be be
be observed
observed
observed
observed
observed
be observed that
that that
that
that
thatthe
thethe the
the
the proposed
proposed
proposed
proposed
proposed
proposed equa-
equa-
equation
equa-equa-
tion
tion tion
gives
gives
tion
tion
gives gives
reasonable
gives
gives reasonable
reasonable
reasonable
reasonable
reasonable accuracy
accuracy
accuracy accuracy
accuracy
accuracy andand
and and
less
and
and less
less less
less
less conservative
conservative
conservative
conservative
conservative
conservative values values
values
values
values
values compared
compared
compared
compared
compared
comparedtototo toFigures
Figures Figures
Figures
to 8 8and
Figures
Figures
to 8and88 and
and and
9, with
9,9, 9,
9,
with
with with
the
with
withthe
the the
thethe
results
resultsresults
taken
results
results
results taken
taken taken
from
taken
taken from
from from
the
from
from the the
thethe
thestandardsstandards
standards
standards
standards
standards and
and
and and
the
and
and
the the
study.
thethe
the study.
study. In
study.
study.
study.
In Inaddition,
In
In addition,
addition,
Inaddition,
addition,
addition,the
the the
thethe
the proposed
proposed
proposed
proposed
proposed
proposed equation
equa-
equa- equa-
equa-
tion tion
provides
tion
tiontion provides
provides
provides
provides
provides conservative
conservative
conservative
conservative
conservative
conservative valuesvalues
values
values
values
values for for
most
most
for
for for
most most
most
most cases,
cases,
cases,
cases,
cases,
cases,
with with
with
withwith
with maximum
maximum
maximum
maximum
maximum
maximum differences
differences
differences
differences
differences
differences of of
of
35.1%
of 35.1% 35.1%
35.1%
of 35.1% and
andand and
and
32.7%
32.7% 32.7%
32.7%
32.7%
32.7% for for
for for for
for
LC
LC1LC LC
LC
1 LC
and
and and
1
1 1and
1 and
and
LC
LC2LC LC LC
LC
, , 2, respectively.
respectively.
respectively.
, respectively.
2 2,2respectively.
2 Moreover,
Moreover,
Moreover,
Moreover,
Moreover, only
only only
only
only3.3%
3.3% 3.3%
3.3%
3.3%
3.3%of of
of
of beamof
beam beam
beam
beam
of beam models
models
models
models
models
models provide
provide
provide
provide
provide
provide uncon-uncon-
uncon-
uncon-
uncon-
uncon-
servative
servative
servative
servative
servative
servative values,values,
values,
values,
values,
values, with
with with
with
with
with the thethethethe
the maximum
maximum
maximum
maximum
maximum
maximum differences
differences
differences
differences
differences of−
of
ofof−26.4%
of −26.4%
−26.4%26.4%
−26.4%
−26.4% and
and and
and
and
and −−1.9%
−1.9% 1.9%
−1.9%
−1.9%
−1.9% for
forfor
for for LC
1LC
LC1LC
for
LC LC and
and and
and
1 and
111and
LC
LC2LC
LC ,LC
LC ,, ,
2, 222,2
respectively.
respectively.
respectively.
respectively.
respectively.
respectively. In In
In In
Inaddition, addition,
addition,
addition,
addition,
addition, Table
Table Table
Table
Table
Table 4 4 presents
presents
44presents
presents
44 presents
presentsthethe
thethe the
thepeak
peak
peak peak
peak
peak differences
differences
differences
differences
differences
differences between
between
between
between
between
between the the
FEA
thethe
the FEA
the
FEA FEA
FEA
FEA results
results
results
results
results
resultsand
andandand considered
considered
considered
considered equations,equations,
equations,
equations, with
with with
the
withthe the
positivepositive
positive
the and
positive and and
negative
and negative
negative values
negative values
values
values indicating
indicating
indicating
indicating conservative
conservative
conservative
conservative and
andandconsidered
considered equations,
equations, with withthethepositive
positiveandand negative
negative values
values
indicating
indicating conservative
conservative
andandand unconservative
unconservative
unconservative
unconservative values,
values, values,
values, respectively.
respectively.
respectively.
respectively.
andandunconservative
unconservative values, values, respectively.
respectively.

(a) (b)
(a)(a)
(a) (a) (b)(b)
(b) (b)
Figure11.
Figure 11.Comparison
Comparisonofofelastic
elasticcritical
criticalLTB
LTBbetween
between FEA
FEA results
results and
and proposed
proposed equations.
equations. (a)
(a) LC1 ,
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure 11.11.Comparison
Comparison
11.
11. ofofelastic
Comparison
Comparison elastic
of critical
of elastic
elastic
critical LTB
critical
critical
LTB between
LTB
LTB
between FEA
between
between
FEAFEA
FEAresults
results and
results
results
and proposed
and
and equations.
proposed
proposed
proposed (a)(a)
equations.
equations.
equations.
(a) (a)
LC 1, (b) LC2.
LC (b)
LC1LC
,1,(b)
LC (b) LCLC
11,, LC
(b)
(b) .
.2. 22..
LC
22LC

Table 4. Differences in elastic critical LTB between FEA and considered equations.
Table4.4.Differences
Table
Table
Table
Table Differences
4. ininelastic
Differences
Differences
4. Differences
4. elastic
in critical
elastic
in elastic
in elastic LTB
critical
critical
critical
critical
LTB between
LTB
LTB
LTB
between FEA
between
between
FEA and
FEA
FEA
and considered
and
and
considered equations.
considered
considered equations.
equations.
equations.
LC1 LC2
Design Equation LC
LCLCLC
1LC
1 11
1 LCLC
LC LC
2LC
2 22
2
Design
Design
Design
DesignEquation
Equation
Equation
DesignEquation
Equation Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum
Maximum
Maximum
Maximum
Maximum
Maximum Minimum
Minimum
Minimum
Minimum
Minimum Maximum
Maximum
Maximum
Maximum
Maximum Minimum
Minimum
Minimum
Minimum
Minimum
AISC 50.7% −35.4% 49.5% −10.1%
AISC
AISC
AISC
AISC 50.7%
50.7%
50.7%
50.7% −35.4%
−35.4%
−35.4%
−35.4% 49.5%
49.5%49.5%
49.5% −10.1%
−10.1%
−10.1%
−10.1%
BS 5950
AISC 59.3%
50.7% −35.4%
−4.6% 54.36%
49.5% −10.1%
−0.1%
BS5950
BS 5950
BS
BS 5950
5950 59.3%
59.3%
59.3%
59.3% −4.6%
−4.6%
−4.6%
−4.6% 54.36%
54.36%
54.36%
54.36% −0.1%
−0.1%
−0.1%
−0.1%
BS 5950 59.3% −4.6% 54.36% −0.1%
AS 4100 55.3% −27.4% 47.4% −22.5%
Helwig’s study 64.8% 3.31% 63.9% 20.9%
Proposed equation 35.1% −26.4% 32.7% −1.9%
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 778 11 of 12

6. Conclusions
This paper investigates the elastic critical buckling of prismatic steel beams subjected
to transverse loadings at the top flange with negative end moments. In addition, the elastic
critical buckling of steel beams was analyzed by using the FEA program ABAQUS. Here,
336 models in total were used to study the influence of the length-to-height ratio (L/h) on
the elastic critical LTB of steel beams, and simply supported beams were simultaneously
subjected to negative end moments and transverse loadings on the top flanges. In addition,
the end moment variation was taken into account with the investigated end moment ratios
of 0, 0.5, 0.75 and 1. Additionally, to consider the effect of the variation in the negative
end moments and transverse loadings, the Mq /M1 and MP /M1 ratios were considered,
ranging between 0.5 and 3, with a gap of 0.5, applied in this study. After performing the
comparisons between the FEA, existing designed procedures and Helwig’s investigation,
some conclusions can be drawn as follows:
1. The ratio of Mcr /Mocr for beams with LC1 and LC2 increased as the ratio of L/h
increased. The values of Mcr /Mocr were greater than 1 and changed with the values of the
Mq(P) /M1 ratio.
2. The predicted values obtained from the current design standards and Helwig’s
study were conservative for most cases and tended to be too conservative as the L/h ratio
increased. AISC 2016, BS 5950, AS 4100 and Helwig’s study give maximum differences for
conservative values of 50.7%, 59.3%, 55.3% and 64.8%, respectively.
3. A new equation with a factor, Fb , taking into account the effect of the length-to-
height ratio and transverse loading on the top flange was proposed. The proposed equation
provided reasonable accuracy and less conservative values for most cases, with maximum
differences of 35.1% and 32.7% for LC1 and LC2 , respectively.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.J.K.; methodology, X.T.N. and J.J.K.; software, X.T.N. and
S.-H.P.; validation, T.N.M.N. and K.L.N.; formal analysis, T.N.M.N., S.-H.P. and K.L.N.; investigation,
X.T.N. and K.-Y.Y.; resources, J.J.K.; data curation, X.T.N. and T.N.M.N.; writing—original draft
preparation, X.T.N., S.-H.P. and K.L.N.; writing—review and editing, T.N.M.N., S.-H.P. and J.J.K.;
visualization, X.T.N. and K.L.N.; supervision, J.J.K. and K.-Y.Y.; project administration, J.J.K.; funding
acquisition, K.-Y.Y. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was supported by a grant (RS-2021-KA163626) from the Technology Advance-
ment Research Program (TARP) funded by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and Transport of the
Korean government.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data are contained within the article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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