FINISHING

 Finishing is one of the essential processes of a processing mill where all bleached, dyed and printed material
are subjected before they are put on the market.
 The term finishing is also sometimes used to refer collectively to all processing operations above, including
bleaching, dyeing, printing, etc.
 Quality of the fabric in terms of appearance, handle, functionally enhanced by some physical means or by
chemicals.
 Therefore, ultimate value addition is done to the fabric by finishing
 A finish is a treatment given to a fabric, to change its appearance, handling /touch or performance. Its
purpose is to make the fabric more suitable for its end use
 Finishing is understood to involve all (water-repellent, shrink-resistant, wrinkle-resistant and soil-release
finishes, etc.) processes which cannot be classified under dyeing and printing.
 Bleaching, dyeing and Printing are concerned with the production of colour, whilst finishing provides
additional characteristics beyond coloration.
 In the case of textile fabrics, these characteristics are imparted both before coloration (pretreatment) as well
as in final finishing after coloration.
 Dyeing/Printing + Finishing = RMG/Marketing
Finishing Advantages:
1. Improved appearance – Luster, Whiteness etc.,
2. Improved Feel which depends on the handle of the fabric and its Softness, Suppleness, Fullness etc.,
3. It improves the wearing qualities – Non soiling, Ant crease.
4. It gives special properties required for particular uses e.g., Water proofing, Flame proofing etc.,
5. It covers the faults of the original cloth.
6. It increases the weight of the fabric.
7. It increases the sale value of the material.
8. It improves the natural attractiveness of the fabric.
9. It improves the serviceability of the fabric.
Hence, Finishing is essential for a textile good before they are put on the market.

Type of Finish
Finishing mainly falls into three groups;

1. According to Function
2. According to type of machinery to be used
3. According to Quality
1. According to Function:
a) Aesthetic Finish
Modify the appearance and/or hand (feel) of fabrics
Ex:
 Mercerization
 Shearing
 Softening
 Stiffening etc.
b) Functional Finish
Improve the performance of a fabric under specific end use conditions.
 Ex:
 Anti-Microbial
 Moth Proof
 Soil Release
 Shrink Control etc
2. According to type of machinery to be used:
a) Mechanical finish
 These are also known as dry finishes.
 Here the process consists of application of moisture, pressure and heat or a mechanical device to
finish a fabric.
 These finishes are either temporary or semi durable and do not last long.
Examples are: beating, brushing, calendaring, filling, etc.

b) Chemical finish
 These are also known as wet finishes.
 In these, chemical treatment is given to fabric, either to change its appearance or basic properties.
 These finishes are usually durable and permanent or wet finishes.
 Examples are: fire proof, crease resistance, etc.
3. According to Quality:
a) Temporary finish
 A finish which is not stable and goes off after the first wash is known as Temporary Finish.
 If the finishing effect in the fabric disappears during subsequent washing and usage then it is called
temporary finishing.
Examples:
Mechanical: Calendering, Embossing etc.
Chemical: Starching, Bluing of white fabric, softening (Except Reactive softeners)
b) Semi-permanent finish
 A finishing on the fabric is said to be Semi-Permanent Finish if it is stable to more than 5 to 10
washes and not afterwards.
Examples:
Mechanical: Schreiner Calendaring.
Chemical: Buckram Finish. Bleaching
c) Permanent finish
 If the finishing effect in the fabric does not disappear and remains unaffected through all the
conditions of wear and washing treatments, then the finish is said to be a Permanent Finish.
Examples:
Mechanical: Sanforising, Mechanical milling of wool etc.
Chemical: Resin Finishing, Water proof, Flame proof finish etc.
 CALENDERING
 Textile fabrics are taken through the process of calendering to improve their aesthetic (appearance) and
handle.
 Calendering is a thermo-mechanical process, i.e. it involves the use of heat and mechanical pressure, but
no chemicals.
Objectives:
1. To upgrade the fabric hand and to impart a smooth, silky feel to the fabric.
2. To compress the fabric and reduce its thickness.
3. To improve the opacity of the fabric.
4. To reduce the air permeability of the fabric by changing its porosity.
5. To impart different degrees of lustre to the fabric and
6. To reduce the interlacing yarn slippage.
1. Swissng Calendering:

 ‘Swissing’ simply means running the cloth through

all the nips of all under given conditions of heat and
pressure thus giving it a smooth appearance.
 This operation closes the interstices (the spaces in
between the interlacing threads) in the cloth and gives it a
smooth appearance
 A 10-bowl calender used for swissing gives a very
large production. Prior to calendering, a softening and
filling agent should be applied (as the finishing mix) to
produce lustrous fabric.
 In swissing, all the bowls rotate at the same speed
 In this operation, if a cold calender is used, moderate
smoothness and a regular surface lustre of the fabric are
produced.

A hot calender, where the metal bowls are heated by steam or gas from the inside, produces greater smoothness
and a more lustrous fabric surface.
When all the bowls of a universal calender are used, the fabric acquires a smooth appearance and gloss without
the high glaze that is so characteristic of a friction calendered fabric.

Calendering influenced by the following factors:

 Moisture content in the fabric
 The number of bowls of the calender used
 the composition of the bowls (steel-cotton, cotton-cotton, steel-paper, cotton-plastic, etc)
 Arrangement of bowls
 Temperature
 Pressure
 Fabric speed
 2. Friction Calendering:

 For producing this effect, the top four bowls of a 7-bowl

universal calender are lifted up, disengaging or disconnecting
the contact between the third and the fourth bowls, so as to
use only the two or three bottom bowls.
 When the first two bowls alone are used, the arrangement
is a two-bowl friction calender and if the first three are used
it is a three-bowl friction calender.
 The friction-calendering operation produces a high degree
of lustre on one side of the fabric (this is the side that touches
the iron bowl); it also results in the closing up of the
interlacing threads.
 In this process, the third (top), polished, chilled iron bowl
is heated with steam.
 The friction-calendering operation produces a high degree
of lustre on one side of the fabric (this is the side that touches
the iron bowl); it also results in the closing up of the
interlacing threads.
 In this process, the third (top), polished, chilled iron bowl is heated with steam.
 As a further modification, this bowl is rotated by means of special gear wheels such that its surface speed is
double that of the fabric and those of the lower two bowls.
 As a variation, the top bowl may be run at 1½ times the speed of the lowest bowl, with the middle bowl
running at an intermediate speed. Due to the differential bowl speeds, a frictional effect is exerted on the
fabric surface.
3. Chasing Calender:
 In a chasing calender, the cotton fabric passes normally through the nips of a 7-bowl calender, then over
the chasing rollers.
 The cloth is then fed again into the cotton nip of the calender so that it is led back into the machine. This
is repeated several times, such that each layer of cloth lies one over another.
 Chasing gives the cloth a thready-linen appearance and a special handle.
Chasing Calender with Water Mangle:
 In a variation, a water mangle precedes the calender and the mangled fabric is passed through the calender
a number of times, as explained above, and finally either batched or plaited, as shown in the figure at the
right. Roll No. 3 (from the bottom) is the power-driven roll.
 The alternate rolls (1, 3 and 5) are generally geared together to prevent slipping.
 When a fabric is water-mangled under high pressure, the threads are well flattened and the spaces between
them are closed.
 If this fabric is taken for starch finishing in a starch mangle, a flat, bonded structure and a better starched
finish is obtained with a lower number of starch mangle runs.

4. Schreiner Calender:

 The schreiner finish can be imparted to textile fabric by means of a schreiner calender. This operation
gives a silk-like brilliance to cotton fabric. This is carried out chiefly on cotton linings, sateen and printed
fabrics.
 When produced on mercerised fabric it gives the nearest possible resemblance to silk.
 The silk-like finish is due to the fine lines (5-20/mm) engraved on the steel roller of the schreiner calender.
 A large number of lines are thus embossed on the cloth that is passed through the calender.
 The engraving is so cut on the steel roll of the calender that the lines are at a small angle with respect to
the directions of the warp and weft threads in the fabric.

5. Embossing Calender:

 Similar to shreinr calender.

 In embossing calender any design may be engraved on the
surface of the steel bowl and transferred to the fabric.
 The engraving may be lines or in figured designs but bowls are
much bigger than shreiner calender.
 WATER REPELLENT/PROOF FINISHES
 Water repellency depends on surface tension and fabric penetrability.
 Water repellent fabric resist wetting but air / moisture can penetrate.
 It is achieved by combination of fabric structure and finish.
 Water repellent are chemical finish

Different Contact angle

Methods:
 The yarns are coated with water repellent material like wax.
 The water repellent do not permit the water drop to spread and penetrate.
 Could be of durable and non-durable types.
 Non-durable repellents are easily removed in laundering or dry cleaning
 Non-durable repellents do not provide satisfactory resistance to oily liquids
 Durable repellent finish can be either repellent to water or oil or both
 Flurocarbon compounds have excellent durability to both dry cleaning and laundering
Commonly used chemicals are: (These chemicals fill the gaps between yarns in fabric.)
Paraffin Wax  Spray
Paraffin Wax with Al or Cr Salt  Spray
Pyridinum Salt  Pad -Dry – Bake
Reactive Silicon Resins  Pad - Dry – Bake
Fluoro Carbon Emulsion  Pad - Dry - Bake
Water proof finish:
 Waterproof fabrics are fabrics that are inherently, or have been treated to become, resistant to penetration
by water and wetting.
 A water-proof fabric, unlike a water repellent fabric, is completely moisture proofed
 The fabric is coated or laminated with a film of natural or synthetic rubber or plastic, such as vinyl or
polyurethane
 Water proof fabrics are not necessarily more desirable than water-repellent fabrics
 Water proof fabrics are uncomfortable
 Water proof fabric possesses a rather firm, non-drapable hand

Paraffin Waxes:
Wax Emulsion Composition:
Chemicals %  The oldest and most economical way to make a fabric water repellent is to
Paraffin 17.0 coat it with paraffin wax.
 Solvent solutions, molten coatings and wax emulsions are ways of applying
Bone glue 2.5
wax to fabrics.
Al2O3 3.0  Paraffin wax melts and wicks into the fabric when the fabric is heated. This
will cause most of the fibers to be covered with a thin layer of wax, especially
Formic Acid 7.0
those that are exposed to water, and the fabric will have excellent water
Resin 0.7 repellent properties.
KOH(500Be) 0.2  The major disadvantage of wax water repellents is poor durability. Wax
is easily abraded by mechanical action and wax dissolves in dry cleaning
Water 100 fluids. It is also removed by laundry processes.

Silicone Water Repellent:

 Resinous polysiloxanes, are more resistant to abrasion and less soluble in dry-cleaning fluids or laundry
products.
 Aqueous pH is maintained between pH 3-4, stable emulsions can be prepared. .
 When these emulsions are applied to a fabric with a tin catalyst (e.g. dibutyltin-dilaurate), the Si-H group
hydrolyzes and condenses to a three-dimensional resinous polymer, making the fabric highly water repellent.

Application to Fabrics:
 Silicone finishes are applied to fabrics either from an organic solvent or from water as an emulsion.
 When cationic emulsifiers are used to make an emulsion, the finish may be applied by exhaustion since the
negative fiber surface charges attract positively charged particles.
 Generally however, silicone water repellents are co applied with a durable press finish. Durable press resins
enhance the durability of the water-repellent finish.
 Silicone repellents are also used to make upholstered furniture stain repellent.
 Chlorinated solvent solutions are sprayed onto upholstery by the retailer as a customer option. The fabric is
resistant to water borne stains such as coffee and soft drinks
Fluoro chemical Repellents:
Recipe:
Chemicals Bath  Fluoro chemical repellents are unique in that they confer both oil and
concentration water repellency to fabrics.
(%)  The ability of fluoro chemicals to repel oils is related to their low surface
Fluorochemical 2.0-3.0 energy which depends on the structure of the fluorocarbon segment, the non-
product fluorinated segment of the molecule, the orientation of the fluorocarbon tail
Resin wax 2.0-3.0 and the distribution and amount of fluorocarbon on fibers.
water repellent  Commercial Fluoro-chemical repellents are fluorine-containing vinyl or
DMDHEU 10-15 acrylic polymers. This is a convenient method of affixing perfluoro side
MgCl2 catalyst 2.5-4.0 chains to fiber surfaces that can orient air-ward and give a reasonably close
packed surface of -CF2- and -CF3 groups.
Polyethylene 0.5-2.0
softener
 A typical formulation for polyester-cotton rainwear and outerwear is
Non-rewetting 0.03-0.05
given.
surfactant
 The finish is applied by padding the formulation onto fabric, drying at
Acetic acid 0.05-0.1
120°C and curing 1-3 minutes at 150-182° C.
 The fabric will give a 100 spray rating initially and an 80 rating after 5 home laundering-tumble drying cycles.
An 80 spray rating is expected after one dry cleaning cycle.
 In addition, oil repellency rating of 5 initially and 4 after laundering or dry cleaning is expected.

N-Methylol Stearamide:
 In an effort to improve the durability of hydrocarbon based water repellents, several approaches incorporating
reactive groups have found commercial success. The simplest of these is N-methylol stearamide.

Pyridinium Compounds:
 A variation of N-methylol stearamide is the pyridinium type water repellents.
 These were once very popular and used extensively as reactive type water repellent finishes. Toxicological
considerations have curtailed the use of pyridinium-type water repellents.

Resin Formers:
 The multiple reactive sites on methylolmelamines can be utilized for making resin-forming water repellents.
The reactivity of stearamide with formaldehyde can be utilized for attaching hydrophobic groups to the
melamine molecule.

Assessment of water proofing:

100 - No sticking on wetting of upper surface
90 - Slight random sticking or wetting of upper surface
80 - Wetting of upper surface at spray points
70 - Partial wetting of whole of upper surface
50 - Complete wetting of whole of upper surface
0 - Complete wetting of whole upper and lower surface
 BIO-POLISHING
 Enzymes are macromolecular biological catalysts.
 Enzymes are high molecular weight proteins produced by living organisms to catalyse the chemical reactions
essential for the organism’s survival.
 They have complex three-dimensional structures composed of long chains of amino acid with molecular
weights ranging from 10 000 to about 150 000 and occasionally to more than 1 000 000.
 The appearance and handle of cotton knits/woven can be significantly improved by treatment with celluloses.
 Such treatment leads to the removal of surface hairs from fabric and improve brightness of dyed fabric.
 Bio polishing of textile substrates with enzymes has been actively carried out for to remove fuzz fibres from
surfaces of dyed fabrics for color revival.
 Cellulases have been widely used in many finishing applications, such as denim washing replacing pumice
stone to bio polish and soften fabrics.
 Enzymes are environmentally friendly and do not produce undesirable side reactions.
 Biopolishing is a finishing process in which a fabric is treated with an enzyme to impart properties such as
anti-pilling, softness and smoothness.
 The amount of surface fibres in the textile substrate is directly related to the amount of surface defects in the
final coated fabrics.
 Bio-finishing also called bio-polishing, is a finishing process applied to cellulose textiles that produces
permanent effects by the use of enzymes.
 Bio-finishing removes protruding fibres and slubs from fabrics, significantly reduces pilling, softens fabric
hand and provides a smooth fabric appearance, especially for knitwear and as a pre-treatment for printing.
 In denim processing, bio-finishing can reduce or eliminate abrasive stones and the aggressive chlorine
chemistry, achieving the desired “Worn” looks.
 Bio-finishing is not only useful for cotton but also for regenerated cellulose fabrics, especially for lyocell.
 By incorporating enzymes into detergents to remove protruding surface fibres, improved colour retention is
achieved after multiple launderings.
Advantages Enzyme Based Process in Textile Wet Finishing:
 Ecological friendly production of fibers and finishing agents
 Reduction in BOD / COD in the effluents treatment plant (ETP)
 Use of renewable resources
 Saving of water and energy

Cellulases:
 Cellulases are high molecular colloidal protein bio-catalyst in metabolite form.
 Industrial cellulases represent complex of a number of cellulases, cellobiose and related enzymes
of completely non uniform composition in a molecular weight range of 10,000 to 4 million.
 These are susceptible to degradation due to temperature, ionizing radiation, light, acids, alkali,
and biological effect factors.
 Cellulases are capable of breaking the 1, 4-β-glucoside bond of cellulose randomly.
 When cotton fabric is treated with a cellulase solution under optimum condition: Cellulase
hydrolyses cellulose by reaching to the 1, 4-β-glucoside bond of the cellulose molecule.
Types of Cellulases:
1. Acid stable (more effective in pH range of 4.5 - 5)
2. Neutral stable (effective at pH: 7)
 3. Alkaline stable (not used widely)
Action of cellulase enzymes on cellulose:
 Enzymes are large molecular complex and can’t penetrate interior of the fabric.
 Hence enzyme action takes place preferentially on the surface.
 Where chemical bonds of cellulose chain occurs, Micro fibrils, which are loose fibres break off
under the influence of bio-catalytic degradation and results in better mechanism or modify the
surface of the fabric.

 Enzymes that hydrolyse cellulose are found in nature in both Trichoderma and Humicola fungi.
 The β (1, 4) linkage between adjacent repeat units in the cellulose polymer chain are the sites that are
vulnerable to catalytic hydrolysis by celluloses (Fig.).
 These enzymes are thus able to provide a food source for the organisms by producing glucose from
cellulose.

β-1,4-glucoside linkage

Figure: Before and after bio-polishing

Termination of Enzyme:

 Heat treatment at 80°C for 20 minutes.

 By raising the pH to 11-12.
Denim wash and bio-finishing
 The production of jeans wear usually follows the subsequent steps: dip-dyeing of cotton warp,
sizing, weaving, desizing of fabric, mercerization, weft warp fabric.
 Final treatments comprise bio-finishing with different cellulase enzymes, stones for stonewashed
jeans, pumice stones, and bleaching of indigo dyed denim.
 The basis for achieving the desired final effect on jeans is the first phase, the dyeing of cotton warp
for weaving.
 Indigo-dyed cotton warp woven with raw cotton weft assures the production of original jeans fabrics.
Attractive jeans wear can be produced with different final wear treatments

Factors affecting bio-polishing:

Major ones are enzyme,
Type of fabric and process variables.
The predominant process variables:
 Temperature
 pH,
 Duration of treatment,
 Material to liquor ratio,
 Enzyme concentration
 Mechanical agitation
Advantages of Bio-Polishing:
 Hairiness, fluffs and pills are removed.
 Material sticking (the burr effect) is prevented.
 Improved handle.
 Achievement of surface smoothness and a clear structural appearance.
 Improved luster.
 Material texture relaxation.
 Increased flexibility and therefore a soft handle even with over end- products and mercerized
fabric.
 Improved sewability.
 Fast to washing, low pilling tendency, no napping in use, or during care operation.
 Stone wash effect without pumice stone and dyestuff destroying chemicals.
 Poor quality, uneven, napped, knoppy material surface (i.e.) typical second quality goods are
converted into elegant, lustrous, soft, top quality with a fine, high quality surface appearance.
Disadvantages of Bio-Polishing:
 Loss in weight.
 Formation of fiber dust.
 The reproducibility of the effect (which is dependent upon many parameters).
 Loss in tear strength.
Sequence
Before dyeing:
Scoured & bleaching sample Bio-polishing Dye addition Salt addition Soda ash
addition Hot wash Hot wash Soaping (at boil temperature ) Hot Wash Cold
wash Drying
After dyeing:
Scoured &bleaching sample Dye addition Salt addition Soda ash addition Dyeing Hot
wash Hot wash Soaping (at boil temperature ) Hot WashCold washBio-Polishing Cold
wash Drying

FIRE PROOF /FIRE RETARDANT FINISH

 Many textile fabrics are flammable and therefore involve personal safety.
 Some fibers such as cotton, linen, rayon, acetate, acrylic, and silk are flammable.
 Wool will smolder (burn very slowly), Mod acrylic, nylon, polyester, saran are self-extinguishing. Glass and
asbestos do not burn.
 Fabric flammability is a surface-confined phenomenon: in fact, the fabric surface represents the most critical
region, through which the mass and heat transfers, responsible for fueling the flame, are controlled and
exchanged with the surroundings.
 More specifically, the heat the fabric surface is exposed to is transferred to the bulk, from which volatile
products of thermal degradation diffuse toward the surface and the gas phase, hence feeding the flame.
 As a consequence, the chemical and physical characteristics of the fabric surface considerably affect the
ignition and combustion processes, as the surface influences the flux of combustible volatile products toward
the gas phase.

Table 1: Flammability parameter of fibres

Fibre Tg(soften) Tm(melts) Tp(pyrolysis) Tc(combustion) LOI Type

°C °C °C °C (%)
Wool ---- ---- 245 600 25 Thermosetting
Cotton ---- ---- 350 350 18.4 Thermosetting
Viscose rayon ---- ---- 350 420 18.9 Thermosetting
Nylon 6 47 215 431 450 20-21.5 Thermoplastic
Nylon 6,6 50 255-265 403 530 20-20.1 Thermoplastic
Polyester 79-85 255 420-427 480 20-21 Thermoplastic
Acrylic 100 310 320 560 18.2 Thermosetting
Mod acrylic 80 240 273 650 29-30 Thermoplastic
Polypropylene -20 165 460 550 18.6 Thermoplastic
PTFE 126 327 400 560 95 Thermoplastic
Nomex 275 375 410 500 28.5-30 Thermoplastic
Kevlar 340 ---- 590 550 29 Thermosetting
PBI 400 ---- 500 500 40-42 Thermosetting
 Firefighters and emergency personnel require protection from flames as they go about their duties.
 Floor coverings, upholstery and drapery also need protection, especially when used in public buildings.
 The military and the airline industry have multiple needs for flame-retardant textiles.
While selecting and designing flame protective clothing, the following points should be kept in mind:

 The thermal or burning behaviour of textile fibres

 The influence of fabric structure and garment shape on the burning behaviour
 Selection of non-toxic, smoke-free flame-retardant additives or finishes
 Design of the protective garment, depending on its usage, with comfort properties
 The intensity of the ignition source
 The oxygen supply

When solid materials are heated, physical and chemical changes occur at specific temperatures depending on the
chemical make-up of the solid.
 Thermoplastic polymers soften at the glass transition temperature (Tg),
 Melt at Tm.
 Both thermoplastic and non-thermoplastic solids will chemically decompose (pyrolyze) into lower
molecular weight fragments.
 Chemical changes begin at Tp (pyrolysis temperature) and continue through the temperature at which
combustion occurs (Tc).

Limiting Oxygen Index (LOI): This is the amount of oxygen in the fuel mix needed to support combustion. The
higher the number, the more difficult it is for combustion to occur.
or
Percentage of oxygen when mixed with nitrogen sustain downward burning of textiles.
 The effect of heat on a textile material can produce physical as well as chemical change.
 In thermoplastic fibres, the physical changes occur at the second order transition (Tg), and melting temperature
(Tm), while the chemical changes take place at pyrolysis temperatures (Tp) at which thermal degradation
occurs. Textile combustion is a complex process that involves heating, decomposition leading to gasification
(fuel generation), ignition and flame propagation.
 A self-sustaining flame requires a fuel source and a means of gasifying the fuel, after which it must be mixed
with oxygen and heat. When a fibre is subjected to heat, it pyrolyses at Tp (Figure) and volatile liquids and
gases, which are combustible, act as the fuels for further combustion.
 After pyrolysis, if the temperature is equal to or greater than combustion temperature Tc, flammable volatile
liquids burn in the presence of oxygen to give products such as carbon dioxide and water.
 When a textile is ignited, heat from an external source raises its temperature until it degrades. The rate of this
initial rise in temperature depends on the specific heat of the fibre, its thermal conductivity and also the latent
heat of fusion (for melting fibres) and the heat of pyrolysis.
Mechanisms of flame propagation:
Combustion is an exothermic process that requires three components, heat, oxygen and a suitable fuel.
When left unchecked, combustion becomes self-catalyzing and will continue until the oxygen, the fuel supply
or the excess heat is depleted.
A diagram of the current model of combustion of textile fibres is given in Figure

Figure1: Combustion of fibres.

 When heat is applied, the fibre’s temperature increases until the pyrolysis temperature, TP, is reached.
 At this temperature, the fibre undergoes irreversible chemical changes, producing non-flammable gases
(carbon dioxide, water vapour and the higher oxides of nitrogen and sulfur), carbonaceous char, tars (liquid
condensates) and flammable gases (carbon monoxide, hydrogen and many oxidisable organic molecules).
 As the temperature continues to rise, the tars also pyrolyse, producing more non-flammable gases, char and
flammable gases.
 Eventually, the combustion temperature, TC, is achieved. At this point, the flammable gases combine with
oxygen in the process called combustion, which is a series of gas phase free radical reactions (Figure).
 These reactions are highly exothermic and produce large amounts of heat and light.
 The heat generated by the combustion process provides the additional thermal energy needed to continue the
pyrolysis of the fibre, thereby supplying more flammable gases for combustion and perpetuating the reaction.
 The burning behaviour of textiles is determined more by the speed or rate of heat release than by the amount
of this heat.

Method of flame retardancy:

 One method is to provide a heat sink on or in the fibre by use of materials that thermally decompose through
strongly endothermic reactions.
 If enough heat can be absorbed by these reactions, the pyrolysis temperature of the fibre is not reached and
no combustion takes place.
 Another approach is to apply a material that forms an insulating layer around the fibre at temperatures below
the fibre pyrolysis temperature.
 A third way to achieve flame retardancy is to influence the pyrolysis reaction to produce less flammable
volatiles and more residual char.
 This ‘condensed phase ‘mechanism can be seen in the action of phosphorous-containing flame retardants
which, after having produced phosphoric acid through thermal decomposition, crosslink with hydroxyl-
containing polymers thereby altering the pyrolysis to yield less flammable by-products
In Other Hand:
The combustion process as a feedback system which may be interrupted at various points to create flame
retardancy shown in figure 2. Thus to be effective, a flame retardant must interfere with the feedback mechanism
in one or more of the following ways:
a) Removal of heat.
b) Increase decomposition temperature Tp at which significant volatiles form.
c) Decrease the amount of combustible gases and promote char formation. This should happen at reduced
temperatures so ignition will not occur.
d) Prevent the access of oxygen to the flame or dilute the fuel gases in the flame to concentration below
which they will not support combustion.
e) Increase the combustion temperature, Tc, of the fuels and/or interfere with their flame chemistry.

Figure 2: Combustion Feedback Mechanism

Radiation Retardant Action

(a)
Heat + Light
)
(d)
CO, CO2, H2O )
Oxidation
Oxygen
(e)
)
Flammable gasses (c)
)
Liquid condensates, Tars

Nonflammable gasses
Char
Pyrolysis

(b)
Fibre )

Heat

 Rarely do flame retardants function by a single mode. Today it is more common to refer to their
retardant activity as either functioning in the condensed phase (modes (a), (b) and (c)), the vapor
phase (modes (d) and (e), or both. Water, either from a fire hose or water from a hydrated salt will
extinguish a flame by mode (a).
 Nomex and Kevlar function by mode (b). The structures of these polymers are such that Tp has been
significantly increased.
 Most flame retardants for cellulose fibers function by mode (c), promoting the formation of char and
reducing the amount of levoglucosan produced by pyrolysis.
 Some phosphorous and borate flame retardant are thought to form glassy polymers on the surface of
the fibers, insulating the polymer from heat (modes (a) and (d)).

How Certain Elements Work:

Boron
Boric acid (H3BO3) and borax (Na2B4O7) are often used as non-durable flame retardants in applications such as
cellulose batting and shredded newspaper for insulation. Boron functions in the condensed phase as a lewis acid
and as mentioned earlier, coats the fiber with a glassy polymer to insulate the polymer.
Phosphorus and Nitrogen
 Phosphorus and nitrogen also work in the condensed phase.
 Phosphorus compounds react with the C(6) hydroxyl of the anhydro-glucose unit blocking the
formation of levoglucosan.
 This reduces the amount of fuel to the flame. Additionally, phosphorous promotes char formation.
The acidity associated with certain phosphorous analogues and its electrophilic nature lowers the
activation energy for dehydrating cellulose. Additionally there is the possibility of crosslinking
cellulose chains which further enhances char formation
 Nitrogen alone is not an effective flame retardant, however it acts synergistically with phosphorous.
It is thought that nitrogen reacts with phosphorous to form polymeric species containing P-N bonds.
Nitrogen enhances the electrophilicity of phosphorous thereby making it a stronger Lewis acid and
also
 Promoting the phosphorylation reaction with the C(6) hydroxyl of the anhydro-glucose ring.
Halogens
 Chlorine and bromine operate in the vapor phase by forming free radicals that scavenge hydrogen
and hydroxyl free radicals.
 Combustion occurs by a free radical, chain reaction mechanism of which hydrogen and hydroxyl
radicals are major reaction species. The halogen radicals deactivate them, causing the chain reaction
to break down.
 Antimony and phosphorus enhances the efficiency of the halogen radicals.
 Phosphorus effect is additive while antimony is synergistic.
Nondurables Flame retardant:
1. Boric Acid/Borax.
2. Diammonium Phosphate and Phosphoric Acid
3. Sulfamic Acid and Ammonium Sulfamate

Durable Flame retardant:

1. Tetrakis (hydroxymethyl) Phosphonium Derivatives:
 Tetrakis(hydroxymethyl) Phosphonium Chloride (THPC)
 THPC-Urea Precondensate
 Tetrakis(hydroxymethyl)Phosphonium Hydroxide (THPOH)
2. N-Methyloldimethyl Phosphonopropioamide (PYROVATEX CP)
3. Fyrol 76
4. Phosphonic and Phosphoric Acid Derivatives

DURABLE PRESS FINISH

 Easy-care and durable press finishes are generally applied to cellulose and cellulose blend fabrics, but other
fibres can benefit from these finishes also.

 Disadvantages of cotton is, wrinkling after washing is overcome by a very important and special kind of
finish.
 It is difficult to find the one best term to describe this class of finishes.
 Special kind of terminology used in the past include easy-care, minimum care, easy-to-iron, no-iron, wash
and wear, crease resistant, durable press, permanent press, shrink proof, wrinkle resistant and wrinkle
free.
 Resin finishing often known by various fancy terminologies is an important process of textile processing.
Resin finishing quite often called “Wash & Wear Finish” “Anti Crease Finish” Crease Resistant Finish”
“Durable Press Finish” and “Wrinkle Free Finish” Is gaining importance today.
 The primary effects of the easy-care and durable press finish on cellulosic fibres are reduction in swelling and
shrinkage, improved wet and dry wrinkle recovery, smoothness of appearance after drying, and retention of
intentional creases and pleats.
 The total crease recovery angle (CRA) that is the sum of the crease recovery angles of the warp and the fill
directions of the fabric, increases from about 150° to about 300°.
 A fabric shrinkage of less than 5 % can usually be achieved.
 An unavoidable side effect of the cellulosic crosslinking finishes is a reduction in the elasticity and flexibility
of the cellulose fibres.
 This produces a considerable decrease in abrasion resistance and tear and tensile strengths on natural cellulose
fibres.

 A rule of thumb states that an increase in the wrinkle recovery angle of 10° corresponds to a loss in
abrasion and tear strength of about 7 %.
 The dry tear strength of regenerated cellulose fibres decreases only slightly with a crosslinking finish, but
the wet tear strength actually increases because of the strongly reduced swelling.
 Easy-care and wrinkle resistance, a mainly for woven fabrics smooth wrinkle-free appearance after
washing without ironing.
 Dimension stability, shrink resistance mainly for knitwear after washing.
 Durable press, retention of intentional Formal and leisure wear with creases some demands, plisée/pleated
goods.

Mechanisms of easy-care and durable press finishing:

 The primary cause of the shrinkage of cellulosic fibres is the fact that these fibres can readily absorb moisture.
 This absorbed moisture facilitates internal polymer chain movements in the amorphous fibre areas by
lubrication.
 It disrupts the internal hydrogen bonding between these polymer chains.
 When a moisture laden cellulosic fibre is stressed, the internal polymer chains of the amorphous areas are
free to move to relieve that stress.
 Hydrogen bonds can reform between the polymer chains in their shifted positions, in effect locking in the new
configuration.
 With no restoring forces available, a newly formed wrinkle or crease will remain until additional processes
(ironing for example) apply adequate moisture and mechanical forces to overcome the internal forces.
 The swelling of cellulosic fibres by moisture can be reduced by the application of self-crosslinking urea or
melamine products as well as by products that mainly crosslink with cellulose molecules.
 Without such a crosslinking finish, cellulose fibres can take up more than 10 % of their weight in water.
 As the fibres swell, the fabric must crease and shrink to relieve the internal stresses caused by the swelling.
 The new arrangement of the cellulose molecules in the swollen form of the fibre is fixed by newly formed
hydrogen bonds between adjacent cellulose molecules, mostly in the amorphous fibre area.
 Therefore the uneven and wrinkled appearance of the cellulose fabric remains after drying, in contrast to
fabrics made of no swelling synthetic fibres.
 Two different chemical approaches have been used commercially to produce non-swelling or durable press
cellulose fabrics.
 The original approach is the incorporation of a polymerised finish in the pores of the fibres, so that water
molecules cannot easily penetrate the fibre.
 The newer approach is the reaction of multifunctional crosslinking agents with the hydroxyl groups of
adjacent cellulose molecules that hinder the swelling of the cellulose fibre.
Advantages
 It improves the Crease Resistance and Crease Recovery property.
 It reduces the shrinkage of the fabric during laundering.
 It imparts a smooth and quick drying property
 It improves Resilience, Handle and Draping qualities.
 It improves the weight and Dimensional stability.
 It increases the strength of rayons in both wet and dry state.
 It gives resistance to degradation by light and laundering.
 It improves the fastness to Light and Washing of many dyestuffs.
 It prevents the Inter molecular Slippage in the fibre core.
 It becomes partially water proof and Rot-proof

General disadvantages:
 Loss of abrasion, tear and ripping strength.
 Hard handle
 Greying during washing
 Less dilatable and elastic
Possible remedies:
 Wet condensation, liquid ammonia treatment, addition of silicones and other auxiliaries for example polyvinyl
acetate, polyurethane.
 Combination with softeners
 Combination with soil-release finishes
 Combination with silicones, for example elastomerics
Resin finishing agent for crease resistant:
1. Formaldehyde
2. DMU ( Di-methylol urea)
3. DMEU (Di-methylol ethylene urea)
4. DMDHEU (Di-methylol di-hydroxyl ethylene urea)
5. Modified DMDHEU (Di-methylol di-hydroxyl ethylene urea)

DMU (Di-methylol urea):

 Non-reactive
 Easily hydrolyze
 High chlorine content
 Easily dry condensable
 Poor stability of treatments liquor
 High formaldehyde content

DMEU (Di-methylol ethylene urea):

 Good reactivity
 Stable to washing
 Medium chlorine retention
 Cross linkable in dry and humid condition
 Negative influence on fastness to light
 High formaldehyde content

DMDHEU (Di-methylol di-hydroxyl ethylene urea):

 Good reactivity
 Stable to washing
 Medium chlorine retention
 Cross linkable to dry,wet and humid condition
 No influence on fastness to light
 Medium formaldehyde content

Modified DMDHEU (Di-methylol di-hydroxyl ethylene urea):

 Medium reactivity
 High stable to washing
 Low chlorine retention
 Cross linkable in humid and dry condition
 Low influence on hand properties
 Low formaldehyde content
 ANTI-MICROBIAL FINISHES
 The growth of microorganisms on textiles can lead to functional, hygienic and aesthetic difficulties (for
example staining).
 The most trouble-causing organisms are fungi and bacteria.
 Under very moist conditions, algae can also grow on textiles but are troublesome only because they act as
nutrient sources for fungi and bacteria.
 Fungi cause multiple problems to textiles including discoloration, coloured stains, and fibre damage.
 Bacteria are not as damaging to fibres, but can produce some fibre damage, unpleasant odours and a slick,
slimy feel. Often, fungi and bacteria are both present on the fabric in a symbiotic relationship.
 Substances added to fibres, such as lubricants, antistats, natural-based auxiliaries (for example size,
thickener and hand modifiers) and dirt provide a food source for microorganisms.
 Synthetic fibres are not totally immune to microorganisms, for example polyurethane fibres and coatings can
be damaged. Because of evolution, natural fibres are more easily attacked.
 Wool is more likely to suffer attack than cotton, and cotton is more likely than wool to be attacked by fungi.

Field of Use:
Two different aspects of antimicrobial protection provided by chemical finishes:
 The first is the protection of the textile user against pathogenic or odour causing microorganisms
(hygiene finishes).
 The second aspect is the protection of the textile itself from damage caused by mildew or rot producing
microorganisms.

 Antimicrobial finishes are particularly important for industrial fabrics that are exposed to weather. Fabrics
used for awnings, screens, tents, tarpaulins, ropes, and the like, need protection from rotting and mildew.
 Home furnishings such as carpeting, shower curtains, mattress ticking and upholstery also frequently
receive antimicrobial finishes.
 Fabrics and protective clothing used in areas where there might be danger of infection from pathogens can
benefit from antimicrobial finishing. These include hospitals, nursing homes, schools, hotels, and crowded
public areas.
 Textiles in museums are often treated with antimicrobial finishes for preservation reasons.
 Sized fabrics that are to be stored or shipped under conditions of high temperature (~ 40 °C or 100 ºF) and
humidity require an antimicrobial finish to retard or prevent microbial growth fuelled by the presence of warp
size.
 Textiles left wet between processing steps for an extended time often also need an antimicrobial treatment.
 The use of antimicrobial finishes to prevent unpleasant odours on intimate apparel, underwear, socks and
athletic wear is an important market need.
 The odours are produced by the bacterial decomposition of sweat and other body fluids, and controlling
bacterial growth by hygiene finishes reduces or eliminates the problem.

Properties of an Effective Antimicrobial Finish:

 The growth rate of microbes can be astoundingly (surprisingly) rapid. The bacteria population, for example,
will double in every 20 to 30 min under ideal conditions (36–40 °C or 77–98 °F, pH 5–9).
 At this rate, one single bacteria cell can increase to 1,048,576 cells in just 7 hours, therefore, antimicrobial
finishes must be quick acting to be effective.
 In addition to being fast acting, a number of other important criteria can be listed for antimicrobial finishes.
The antimicrobial must kill or stop the growth of microbes and must maintain this property through multiple
cleaning cycles or outdoor exposure.
 The antimicrobial must be safe for the manufacturer to apply and the consumer to wear. The finish must meet
strict government regulations and have a minimal environmental impact.
 The antimicrobial finish must be easily applied at the textile mill, should be compatible with other finishing
agents, have little if any adverse effects on other fabric properties including wear comfort, and should be of
low cost.
Mechanisms of Antimicrobial Finishes:
Anti-microbial products can be divided into two types based on the mode of attack on microbes.

One type consists of chemicals that can be considered to operate by a controlled-release mechanism.
 The antimicrobial is slowly released from a reservoir either on the fabric surface or in the interior of the fibre.
This ‘leaching’ type of antimicrobial can be very effective against microbes on the fibre surface or in the
surrounding environment.
 However, eventually the reservoir will be depleted and the finish will no longer be effective. In addition, the
antimicrobial that is released to the environment may interfere with other desirable microbes, such as those
present in waste treatment facilities.
The second type of antimicrobial finish consists of molecules that are chemically bound to fibre surfaces.
 These products can control only those microbes that are present on the fibre surface, not in the surrounding
environment. ‘Bound’ antimicrobials, because of their attachment to the fibre, can potentially be abraded
away or become deactivated and lose long term durability.
 Antimicrobial finishes that control the growth and spread of microbes are more properly called biostats, i.e.
bacteriostats, fungistats. Products that actually kill microbes are biocides, i.e. bacteriocides, fungicides.
 This distinction is important when dealing with governmental regulations, since biocides are strongly
controlled.
Textiles with biostatic properties, however, are subject to fewer regulations.
 The actual mechanisms by which antimicrobial finishes control microbial growth are extremely varied,
ranging from preventing cell reproduction, blocking of enzymes, reaction with the cell membrane (for
example with silver ions) to the destruction of the cell walls and poisoning the cell from within.
 An understanding of these mechanisms, although important for microbiologists, is not really a requirement
for the textile chemist who applies and evaluates the effectiveness of antimicrobial finishes.

Finishes:
 Tributyl tinoxide (deleted in many countries), dichlorophene and 3-iodopropynylbutyl carbamate. These
products typically show a very broad spectrum of activity against bacteria and fungi, but suffer from
application and durability problems.
 Some more useful products of this same general type include benzimidazol derivatives, salicylanilides and
alkylolamide salts of undecylenic acid (particularly effective against fungi). Application of these materials
with resin precondensates can improve durability to laundering, but also deactivation by reaction with the
resin may occur.
 A widely used biocide and preservation product is formaldehyde. Solutions of formaldehyde in water, called
formalin, were used for disinfection and conservation.
 One of the most widely used antimicrobial products today is 2,4,4'-trichloro-2'- hydroxydiphenyl ether,
known more commonly as ‘triclosan’ .Triclosan finds extensive use in mouthwashes, toothpastes, liquid
hand soaps, deodorant products.
 Quaternary ammonium salts have been found to be effective antibacterial agents in cleaning products and
for disinfecting swimming pools and hot tubs. However, their high degree of water solubility limits their use
as textile finishes.
 Organo-silver compounds and silver zeolites, which are promising candidates for textile finishes.
 Silver ions, for example, incorporated in glass ceramic, have a very low toxicity profile and excellent heat
stability. These principles are also used for fibre modification, an alternative to the antimicrobial finishes with
high permanence
 Fibre modifications is the incorporation of 0.5–2 % of organic nitro compounds (for example based on 5-
nitrofurfural) before primary wet or dry spinning to increase antimicrobial properties within the fibre.

MOTH-PROOFING
 Wool and specialty hair fibres are widely used for producing carpet, blanket, shawl and knit wears
in textile industries.
 These products have unique properties like warmth, softness and flame retardancy.
 Moth is an insect and its larvae eat the protein present in wool.
 The life cycle of moth has four stages, namely egg, larva, pupa and adult.
 The larva of a moth is the voracious eater of wool.
 The favorable conditions for moth attack on wool are dark and humid atmosphere with moderate
temperature (25 -35°C).
 Loosely woven or knitted fabrics are more susceptible to attack than closely woven fabrics.
 The moth do not attack silk or cellulosic materials.
 The common moths attacking the wool materials are common cloths moth (Tineola bisselliella) and
carpet beetle (Anthrenus verbasci) distributed in all the areas.
 The life cycle of common cloths moth is shorter (3-5 months) as compared to carpet beetle (6-9
months).
 The cloths moth produces more number of larvae than carpet beetle in a given period of time.
 Approx. 30 species of moth larvae and approx. 15 species of beetle larvae are counted as keratin-
digesting insects.
 A single female moth may eat 45 kg of wool in a year.

Moth prevention:
 Cold storage rooms: temperatures between 0–6°C do not cause any killing off, only a kind of
“hibernation”.
 Respiratory poisons: work very vigorously, e.g. ethylene oxide, hydrocyanic acid, carbon disulphide
and similar. Less harmful odour poisons (camphor, naphthalene, and paradichlorobenzene) only
work in a higher concentration, repel the larvae, but do not kill them off.
 Contact poisons: neurotoxins, which enter through orifices of the body, paralyzing and later have a
deadly effect. Application in the organic solvent by spraying.
 Oral poisons: colourless compounds, which originate from
  Aqueous, neutral or acid solution similar to dye, either combined in the dyeing and/or afterwards
or in conjunction with wet after cleaning;
 From organic solvents in the style of an impregnation
 Some of the chemicals used as antimoth finishing agent are DDT, permethrin,
permethrin/hexahydro pyrimidine derivative, cyhalothrin, etc.
 Among the different chemicals, the DDT based agents are banned due to their toxicity and
environmental problems. Permethrin and pifenthrin based chemicals are widely used at present as
a moth proofing agent.
 Permethrin is chlorine based chemical compound having chemical formula C21H20Cl2O3 and
the pifenthrine is fluorine based.
Use of dye stuff:
 Martius yellow (dinitro napthol) was commonly used for moth proofing of wool followed by
colourless dyestuff of triphenyl methane applied in acid bath at boil.
Examples, Eulan CN, Eulan CN.
 Mitin FF in 1939, the toxic component of which is the water soluble colourless dyestuff.
 Sulcofuron or Mitin FF (Ciba-Geigy), the oldest mothproofing agent on the market, remains
available.
 It can withstands numerous washing with soap/soda and fast to light milling, potting, bleaching,
carbonizing etc. Limitations for use in the carpet industry.
 First, it is ineffective against brown house moth, which is probably the most important pest of wool
textiles in moist, temperate climates.
 Second, Mitin FF is unsuitable for application during the blend dyeing of wool/nylon, which
constitutes the major part of wool -containing carpet production.
 Third, Mitin FF is unsuitable for use in continuous scouring applications at relatively low
temperatures (40OC) because it has insufficient affinity for the fibre in these conditions.
 Last, Mitin FF is more expensive than competitive products.

Use of inorganic salt:

 Compounds containing fluorine are particularly toxic towards the moths. (e.g., chromium fluoride).
 In washing fluoride is removed and chromium remains there and help to protect wool from moths.
 Phospho tungstic acid, antimony tungstic acid, molybdic acid etc, are used as moth proofing after
treating with metallic salts to form insoluble compounds.
Process of moth proofing:
 By exposing the material to sunlight or sulphur-di-oxide.
 Using Naphthalene balls and para dichloro benzene.
 Using some substances containing fluorine such as Sodium fluoride, Aluminum fluoride, Potassium
fluoride, and Sodium antimony fluoride.
 Using soluble solvents such as Dichloro Beneze, Sulphomethylamid and Dichloro Trichloro ethane.
 Evlan-BL and Mittin FF also produce moth proofing. These are the bet mothicides.
 Chromium fluoride and antimony fluoride (3%) used at 800c for 20 minutes give adequate moth proofing.
Use of organic compounds:
 Mystox B and Mystox LS are two products based on pentachlorophenol which are used with a protein like
casein for moth-proofing.
 They can be applied (4%) during dyeing but not fast to washing.
 DDT (.25% used) for moth proofing but due to volatile nature its effectiveness is reduced along with time.
 DDT based agents are banned due to their toxicity and environmental problems.
 Dieldrin at low concentration also used for permanent moth-proofing effect on wool and it is not costly and
not effluent problem too.
Modified Structure of Wool:
 Modification of keratin structure of wool may result in permanent moth proofing effect.
 In this method disulphide (-S-S-) linkage in wool are converted into bis-thio ether linkage.
 Sulphide linkages are responsible for making the wool fibre delicious and digestive by moth larvae.
 Cystine linkage is providing strength to wool fibre, normally attacked or broken by moth larvae.
 Broken cystine linkage tends to decrease in tensile strength in wool fibres, so cystine linkage need to modify
to prevent attack by moth.

 So first cystine linkage is broken by reduction with

hydrosulphite or thioglycolic acid (SH-CH2COOH) and to
convert into sulphhydryl groups.
 Then the broken end are joined by treatment with an
alkylating agent such as trimethylene dibromide or ethylene
bromide whereby the sulfhydryl groups are converted into
bis-thioether linkages.
CH2-S-CH2-CH2-S-CH2
i.e. two Sulphur atoms present in original cystine linkage are
separated by reduction and then joined by short fatty acid
chain.

STONE WASHING OF DENIM

 The technique is known as “Stone-Wash” or denim finishes because pumice stones are used as an
abrasive agent to achieve special effects (1 kg of stone or sand per kg of fabric).
 The strongly abrasive effect of the pumice stones should also be taken into account;
 It can cause damage to the fabric, the seams and the machinery.
 In addition, the use of pumice stone can cause unwanted dust generation in the working environment,
which generates further problems.
 Also the diameter of the pumice stones reduces rapidly with each wash, making it relatively expensive.
 This is a possible alternative: cellulases (enzymes) can be used for a “non-stone” technique.
 In this method, the jeans are desized first and subsequently treated with cellulase.
 Denim washing are of two types:
1. Mechanical Washes:
 Stone wash
 Micro sanding
2. Chemical Washes:
 Denim bleaching
 Enzyme wash
 Acid wash
 Stone wash is most common and is used to give denim an 'old-look'.
 Pumice stone is one of the most important components used to abrade the surface of the fabric to obtain a
surface pattern effect with color contrast and soft – handle.
 In this process, the fibres on the surface of the fabric are broken and removed and the inner white fibres of the
warp yarn are gradually exposed.
 Natural patterns can be formed as the degree of abrasions varies in various parts of the garment.
Selection of stones:
 According to the end product & effect required.
 Large, hard stones last longer and may be suited for heavy weight fabrics only.
 Smaller, softer stones would be used for light weight fabrics and more delicate items.
 Stone wt. /fabric wt. :0.5 to 3 /1
 Moisture content: less than 5%
 Surface properties: less than 5% fines
 Apparent Density:0.5-0.75gm/cm3
 Abrasion loss:35%
 Impurities, when exceed 10% they increase apparent density 1 gm/cm3, the stone will not float in
water during process.
Stone wash cycle:
 Loading of denim garment and stones
 Desizing for about 15 minutes: Detergent plus enzymes.
 Rinsing
 Stone wash:30 to 60 min
 Rinsing
 Softening
 Extraction
 Unloading and removal of stones from garment
 Tumble drying
Limitations:
 Outcome of a load of jeans is never uniform.
 Damage to wash machineries and garment due to stone to machine abrasion.
 Increase in labor to remove stone particles from finished garments.
 Water pollution during disposal of used liquor.
 ORGANDY FINISH
 This is the process in which cellulosic fabric are treated with concentrated Sulfuric acid at room temperature
(4to5sec.) which produces beautiful transparent and stiffer fabric.
 The action of Sulfuric acid produces different effects depending on its strength of the Acid and duration of
treatment.
 Thin count cotton cloth slightly stiffer is known as organdie fabric.
 The degree of luster and interesting surface effect can be obtained depending on pre-treatment of bleaching
and mercerization of cotton fabric.
 Fancy and novel effect is obtained by well bleached and mercerized fabric.
 Embossed calendared cotton when treated with Sulfuric acid provides damask effect.
Organdie finishing process is also known as parchmentising
Effect of Sulphuric Acid:
 The time of treatment must be short to avoid damage to the fabric.
 Soft fabric fine wool like appearance is obtained when cotton fabric is treated with 1100Tw of H2SO4.
 Another effect is obtained with H2SO4 of 1140Tw when the cloth shrinks considerably and becomes stiff.
 Stiff & semitransparent type of effect produced with H2SO4 of 1160 to 1250Tw.
 For concentrations of acid between 1100 to 1200Tw there is extremely rapid increase in reactivity with
increasing concentration
 The action is sensitive to small changes in concentration.
 Light weight cotton cloth when treated with sulphuric acid of 1400Tw for 20 seconds damages it but with
addition of 0.5% formaldehyde, it gives a good effect without damage in 20seconds
 A bleached embossed or callendered cloth when treated with sulphuric acid and formaldehyde acquires
linen-like feel and became lustrous.
 If the embossed cloth is treated, the parts which have not been subjected to pressure react more rapidly and
become transparent producing damask effect.
 For rayon less concentrated sulphuric acid used (e.g. 820 to 1000Tw).

Treatment with H2SO4 below 00c:

 When cotton fabric is impregnated with 520Tw NaOH solution for 1 minute ate -100c it acquires a transparent
effect which is not removed by washing. If this fabric is subjected to the action of H2SO4 of over 107.50Tw
concentration at a temperature below 00c enhanced transparency is obtained.
 UV PROTECTIVE FINISH
 The solar radiation reaching earth’s surface is a continuous range of energy, among which, UV radiation is
5% of total irradiation, but has the highest quantum energy among all.
 Solar radiation striking the earth’s surface is composed of light waves with wavelengths ranging from the
infrared to the UV.

Table-1 gives the wavelengths, relative intensities and average photon energies of this radiation.
Classification Wavelength Relative intensity properties Average photon
–1
(nm) (%)
energy (kJ mol )
UV-C radiation 100–280 Almost zero UV-C reach
to ground
UV-B radiation 280–320 0.5 Maximum 1.1% reach to 400
the ground
UV-A radiation 320–360 2.4 Maximum 98.8% UV-A 350
1
reach to the ground
UV-A radiation 360–400 3.2 315
2

Visible radiation 400–800 51.8 200

Infrared 800–3000 42.1 63

radiation

 The intensity of UV radiation is much less than visible or infrared radiation, the energy per photon is
significantly higher.
 The very high energy of the UV-C photons is mostly absorbed by ozone in the higher regions of the
atmosphere decreasing their relative intensity on the earth surface to almost zero.
 But the energies of UV-A and UV-B photons that reach the earth surface exceed the carbon–carbon single
bond energy of 335 kJ mol–1, which is why UV radiation can be used to initiate chemical reactions.
 The actual damage to human skin from UV radiation is a function of the wavelength of the incident radiation,
with the most damage done by radiation less than 300 nm.
 If this erythemal (skin reddening) effect is multiplied by the intensity of the incident solar light, as a function
of wavelength, the wavelengths of maximum danger to skin are 305–310 nm.
 Therefore, to be useful in protecting the wearer from solar UV radiation, textiles must demonstrate
effectiveness in the 300–320 nm range.
 To quantify the protective effect of textiles, the solar protection factor (SPF) is determined.
 The SPF is the ratio of the potential erythemal effect to the actual erythemal effect transmitted through the
fabric by the radiation and can be calculated from spectroscopic measurements.
 The larger the SPF, the more protective the fabric is to UV radiation. In Europe and Australia, the SPF is
referred to as the ultraviolet protection factor (UPF).
𝟏
SPFmax=
𝟏−𝐜𝐨𝐯𝐞𝐫 𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫
 The SPF is also used with so-called ‘sun blocking’ skin creams, giving a relative measure of how much longer
a person can be exposed to sunlight before skin damage occurs.
Skin Diseases due to UV radiations:
Basal Cell Carcinoma
Squamous Cell Carcinoma
Melanoma Cancer
Photo Aging
Pmle
Melasma
Pigmentation
Different Aspect of Textile:
Protective garment used to shield UV radiations, resulting in harmful effects to the skin.
 Textile material with enhanced UV protection properties by analyzing the impact of different fabric
parameters on UV transmittance through it.
 Protective clothing with better comfort and style for diseases prevalent in Indian population.
 Typically, a fabric with an SPF of > 40 is considered to provide excellent protection against UV radiation
(according to AS/NZS 4399: Sun protective clothing – Evaluation and classification, Standards Australia,
Sydney).
 It is possible to realise about 80 % of the theoretical maximum of SPF 200

 Since the most probable time for long-term solar exposure is in the summer, the most likely candidates for
UV protective finishes are lightweight woven and knitted fabrics intended for producing shirts, blouses, T-
shirts, swimwear, beachwear, sportswear, and the like.
 Industrial fabrics designed for awnings, canopies, tents and blinds may also benefit from a UV-protective
treatment.

Mechanism of UV protection:
 When radiation strikes a fibre surface, it can be reflected, absorbed, transmitted through the fibre or pass
between fibres.
 The relative amounts of radiation reflected, absorbed or transmitted depend on many following factors:
 Fibre type,
 Fibre surface smoothness,
 Fabric cover factor (the fraction of the surface area of the fabric covered by yarns)
 The presence or absence of fibre delustrants, dyes and UV absorbers.
 Fabric Structure
 Fiber Composition
 Fabric Density
 Fabric Weight

Impact of various fabric parameters on UV protection:

 The effect of fibre type on the SPF of undyed fabrics of similar construction is demonstrated in Table 2 Cotton
and silk fibres offer little protection to UV radiation since the radiation can pass through without being
markedly absorbed.
 Wool and polyester, on the other hand, have significant higher SPFs since these fibres will absorb UV
radiation.
 Fabric description Approximate
SPF
Cotton tricot 4
Wool tricot 45
Silk twill 7
Polyester tricot 26
Nylon/elastomer 80/20 tricot 12
Table-2:SPF value of different fibre
 Nylon falls in between these extremes. One factor influencing nylon and polyester absorbance is the presence
of the delustrant TiO2, a material that strongly absorbs UV radiation.
 If the fibres absorb all of the incident radiation, then the only source of transmitted rays is from the spacing
between the yarns. By definition, the theoretical maximum SPF is the reciprocal of 1 minus the cover factor.

Radiation In Contact With a Textile Surface:

a. SPFmax = 1, Cover factor = 0

b. SPFmax = 2, Cover factor = 0.5
c. SPFmax = 10, Cover factor = 0.9
Chemistry of UV protection finishes:
 The requirements for a material to be effective as a UV protection finish include efficient absorption of UV
radiation at 300–320 nm, quick transformation of the high UV energy into the vibration energy in the absorber
molecules and then into heat energy in the surroundings without photo degradation
 Further requirements are convenient application to textile fibres and lack of added colour for the treated fibre.
Some typical chemical structures useful for UV protection are shown in Figure.
 In most cases, the UV absorber is applied with the dyes during the dyeing process.

Effect of Natural Dyes:

 Research studies have found that few natural dyes exhibit anti-microbial and anti-UV properties like
anthraquinoid napthaquinones are responsible for such properties.
 Natural pigments present in the natural dyes act as UV absorbers, darker hues are found to give better UV
shield
 Absorption band of chemical structure present in natural dyes extends to UV spectral region.
Metal Oxide Nanoparticle Finishes:
 Titanium dioxide is a semiconductor which naturally occurs in three crystalline forms.
 It has got high degree of photo catalytic action and has self-cleaning, soil release and UV protective
properties.
 TiO2 being primarily a UVB absorbing compound, while ZnO is more efficient in UVA absorption.
Nanoparticle size should be less than 50 nm for imparting effective properties

Structures of UV absorbers for synthetic fibres:

Structures of UV absorbers for natural fibres:

 SOIL RELEASE FINISH
 Stain/Soil repellent finishes are Fluoro-chemical finishes that prevent water-, dirt-, and oil-based stains
from being absorbed.
 Hydrophilic fibres (both natural and man-made), when non-treated, are considered easy-wash materials,
which, moreover, do not absorb dirt during washing.
 This is to be attributed to the fact that they have a very high critical surface tension in air, and thus a very
low interfacial tension in water.
 On the other hand, certain synthetic fibres (particularly polyester), like cellulose fibres that have
undergone chemical finishing processes (based on silicones, fluorocarbon compounds, permanent-press
or wash-and-wear resins and acrylic resins), are difficult to clean because of their highly water-repellent
surfaces.
 These surfaces produce an accumulation of electrostatic charges, and thus absorb and retain dirt.Oily
stains are not removed during laundering
 Fabric tends to become grey, detracting from their neat appearance.
 The problem of soiling is more acute with polyester/cellulosic blends.
 Soiling of textiles depends on the chemical nature of the fibre, the constructional characteristics of fibre,
yarn and fabric, chemical treatment and the condition under which textile is used.
 Extensive work has been carried out to study the mechanism of soiling and to develop the soil repellent/
release finishes to provide the textile to consumer with improved characteristics of ease of soil release
during home laundering and keeping the appearance.
Oils and Soiling of Textile:
The different sources of soils found on textiles include:
 The body of wearer (organic soils-fatty materials)
 The surrounding atmosphere (particulate soil, water borne stains)
 Spots and stains derived from food and any material with which a person come in contact.
 Deposited soils are rarely of one type and are usually complex heterogeneous mixture.
 Human skin is the main source of the most soil found on apparel textiles. These soils are organic in nature
and composed of ….
(1) Protein, present as skin fragment
(2) Lipids secreted by the sebaceous glands of skin (SEBUM)
(3) Perspiration residue from the seccrine and approchrine sweat + glands.
 Sebum is the most important with respect to its removal during laundering. As the sebum composition
concerned it contains approximately 35% free fatty acids, 30% triglycerides and 15% fatty alcohols
and cholesterols.
 Since Water–borne stains are soluble in water they are hardly a problem.
 The removal of dried blood and food stains although are not water soluble, their removal can be
facilitated by proteolytic enzymes, now found in the most commercial detergent.
Types of Soils:
Different types of soils occurring on textile can be classified as:
Soil on textile:
1. Particulate soil
2. Water soluble soil
3. Oily soil
 Particulate soils are carbon soot and dust. These soils can be removed by the force of air. If not removed by
means of air, additional energy in the form of brushing, vacuum may be required
 Water soluble soils consist of body fluid, salts or sugars and are best removed by water. Water soluble soils
can also be removed by means of proteolytic enzymes commonly found in the most commercial detergents.
 Oily soils consist of grease, body and natural oils. Oily soils are readily dissolved in solvents and are best
removed by dry cleaning.
Mechanism of Soiling:
A fabric gets soiled mainly by three types of mechanism.
1. By mechanical adhesion of soil to the cloth by direct contact with a soiled surface or by rubbing of the
garments against the skin or picking up dirt from liquors or from air; fabric construction facilitates such
adhesion as the soil gets entrapped in inter fiber and inter yarn spaces or even into the capillary spaces of
the fiber where it gets firmly deposited. Also soil which is oily in nature can diffuse into the fiber.

2. By adhesion by electrical forces due to attraction of dust particles from air by electrically charged fiber
surface. This phenomenon occurs mainly with synthetic fibers because of their low moisture regain.
Positively charged fabric surface is soiled more than negatively charged surface.

3. By redeposition of soil during washing which occurs particularly with nylon and polyester fabrics; the
redeposition on these fibers takes place because of their oleophilic nature. Another aspect of soiling is the
effect of time lag between soiling and washing. When a soiled fabric is allowed to lie unwashed for many
days, the soil diffuses inside the fiber and it becomes difficult to remove it.

Soiling of textiles by soils is caused by two forces viz. force of contact and force of retention.
 Soiling of textile by human skin depends on sebum. Emulsion formation allows the sebum to wet the surface
of the fabric and penetrate into structure. The amount of penetration is increased by mechanical action with
occurs by rubbing action and capillary action of fibre promotes the wicking of soils in the yarn.
 Soiling of textile by particulate soils takes place by contact with soiled surface either by filtration mechanism
or by electrostatic alteration of soil particulates from the atmosphere. Electrostatic forces play in attracting
soil.
 Dry particulates such as clay and carbon black are mainly mechanically trapped in the yarn and fabric
interstices. The generation of static charges on the fibres lead to increased attraction of fine dirt particles
particularly, severe when fibre surfaces moisture regains is low.
Factors Influencing Soiling:
 Particle size of soil
 Textile structure
 Electrostatic charge
 Moisture regain
 Wet soil behaviour.
Mechanism of Soil Release:
Removal of soils from fabrics has been attributed to several mechanisms. These are:
1. Adsorption of detergent and absorption of water leading to:
 Rollup of oily soil
 Penetration of soil-fibre interface by wash liquid
 Solubilization and emulsification of soils.
2. Mechanical work leading to:
 Hydrodynamic flow carrying away the removed soil
 Fibre flexing to force soil from between fibre
 Surface abrasion to remove soil physically
 Swelling of finish to reduce inter-fibre spacing
Soil Release Finishes:
The various treatment given to the fabrics which minimize soiling during uses and which assets in removal
of soil and provide protection against redeposit ion of soil repellent soil release finishes. Some terms used are as
following:
 Soil Release is the term used for a finish which allows the soil to penetrate the fabric during wear but it comes
into action during washing when its special functional group transfer the soil from the fabric to the washing
liquor.
 Soil Repellency is the property of finished material, mainly imparted through finishing which enables it to
repel the soil during laundering.
 Prevention of soil redeposit ion is achieved by applying finishing chemicals to fabric to prevent soil redeposit
ion during laundering.
Ideally finished fabrics have all the following characteristics:
 It should tend to repel soil during use. There should be no attraction of dry particular soil from atmosphere to
the fibre by electrostatic.
 Any soil if present with fabric by rubbing or grinding of fabric against soily surface should be readily released
during laundering.
 The textile fabric should not acquire grey or yellow tinge which is difficult to remove and also accumulate
during subsequent washing.
Various finishes capable of imparting soil release character to the treated fabric can be classified as:-
1. Film forming materials and polymers
2. Hydrophilic finishes to polyester
3. Fluoro-chemical soil release agents
4. Surface grafting techniques
5. Caustic treatment of polyester surface
a) Film forming materials and polymers:-
 Materials such as carboxymethyl cellulose when applied to the surface of the fabrics repel the soil from
entering deep into fabric.
 It is mainly due to the repulsive forces generated between negatively charged soil particles and negatively
charged cotton surface due to carboxyl groups present in CMC.
 Among the film forming polymers acrylic soil release finishes are most popular. Acrylic soil release agents
refer to copolymers containing an appreciable portion of carboxylic groups. Acid acrylates are used to impart
soil release as well as antistatic properties.
b) Hydrophilic finishes to polyester:
 These are mainly employed to diminish the problem of soil by facilitating the soil release and by preventing
soil redeposition during washing.
 Water is absorbed by the surface of hydrophilic finish and water penetrates between the hydrophilic surface
of finish and oil. The oily layers lifted off the surface and get easily released from the fabric.
 Some examples of this type of finishes are “Permalose T” and “Cirrasol P.T.” which are hydrophilic
polymers and diffuse partly into the fibre and make the surface hydrophilic and are mainly applied onto the
polyester/cotton, polyester/wool and 100% polyester fabrics.
 c) Fluoro-chemical soil release agents:-
 The use of Fluoro-chemicals for imparting soil release property is another route of soil releasing finishing.
 These are basically long chain molecules of very high molecular weight and consist of hydrophobic and
hydrophilic segments. These agents are suitable for all types of natural and synthetic fibres.
d) Surface Grafting Technique:-
 Nylon fabrics have been grafted by the radiation technique using the solution containing acrylic acid,
sodium styrene sulphonate, N-methyl acrylamide, polyethylene oxide and water in order to impart
soil release property to fibres and films.
 Polyester fabrics have been grafted with the solution containing sodium styrene sulfonate, dimethyl
sulfoxide, acrylic acid, methylol acryl amide, polyethylene oxide and water.
e) Caustic Treatment:-
 Alkali treatment of polyester generates a more hydrophilic fibre surface by forming new carboxyl and
hydroxyl groups.
 A treatment of polyester with 10% NaOH at 600C for 10 minutes improves the wettability of polyester.
 Controlled alkali treatment is done to impart soil release properties to acrylic fabrics.
Evaluation of Soil Finishing:
The AATCC developed standardised procedures for evaluating soil release finishes that provide a strong
indication of the actual finish performance in the real world. Some of the tests are discussed below as:-
1. Oily soil release testing:
 AATCC test method 130 specifies all the parameters that strongly influence soil release of oily soils.
 A measured amount of corn oil is placed on the fabric to be tested and pressed into the fabric with specified
force.
 The soiled fabric is washed with a standardised detergent under specific conditions of water temperature
and time in a specified washing machine.
 After tumble drying and equilibration, the stained fabric is compared to photographic standards and rated
accordingly.

2. Collar Test:
This method employs a collar made from the fabric to be tested which is worn underneath the regular shirt.
Soiling is measured by the change in reflectance and colour.
3. Soil Redeposition:
 AATCC test method 151 can be used to estimate the degree of soil redeposition likely to occur during
laundering.
 The fabrics to be tested are exposed to a soiling medium during a laundering simulation with a standard
detergent.
 The change in reflectance of the fabric before and after testing is an indication of redeposition potential
of fabric.
 SANFORISING

 Sanforization is a process of treatment used for cotton fabrics mainly and most textiles made from natural
or manmade fibres, patented by Sanford Lockwood Cluett (1874–1968) in 1930.
 Mechanical compacting is one method of reducing residual shrinkage.
 It is a preshrinking process to reduce shrinkage in subsequent washing.

How cotton shrinks?

 Cotton has the property of swelling in water and this effects shrinking. Also the mechanical stress, strain
and tension, during spinning and weaving etc., when released cause the fabric to shrink.
 The cotton fabric, when put in water, swelling takes place and rearrangement of internal forces takes place.
The fibres will become free from tension and it comes to the original tensionless state.

Reasons for shrinkage:

 In case of a fabric, the warp yarns are under much strain due to interlacement than the weft yarns. Hence,
when a fabric is allowed to shrink, the warp yarn shrinkage will be more than weft yarn.
 To overcome this, the fabric is extended in width wise to some extent in the stenter machine during the
finishing process. Then it is subjected to the preshrink process
The shrinkage amount of fabric is dependent on:
1. The nature of fibers
2. The character of threads
3. The way of interlacing of thread in the fabric.
4. Crimp in yarn.
5. Cycle of washing no. of washing.

Sanforising Process:
 Sanforising is a mechanical finishing process of treating textile fabrics to prevent the normal dimensional
alternation of warp and weft. It is also called anti-shrinkage finishing process.
 It is a process of treatment used for cotton fabrics mainly and also for some other textiles made from
natural and synthetic fibres.
 It is a method of stretching, shrinking and fixing the woven cloth in both length and width, before cutting
and producing to reduce the shrinkage which would otherwise occur after wash.
 The machine used for the Sanforising process is called “Sanforising machine.
 Sanforising machine means the machine consisting of large steam-heated, an endless thick woolen felt
blanket which is in close contact with the cylinder for most of its perimeter, and an electrically heated
shoe which presses the cloth against the blanket while the latter is in a stretched condition as it curves
around feed-in roll.
Principle:
 Sanforising process is based on the principle that when an elastic felt blanket is passed around a metal
roller in contact with it, its outer surface is process extended and the inner surface contracted. So the
process is called controlled compressive shrinkage process.
 The process of Sanforising includes the stretching and manipulation of the fabric before it is washed.
 During the Sanforization process, the fabric is fed into a Sanforising machine where it is treated with water
or steam to promote shrinkage, then pressed against a heated rubber band to relax and re-contract the
fibers.
 The amount of potential wash shrinkage must be determined prior to shrinking. A full width sample is
wash-tested according to the test method.
 After the lengthwise and width wise shrinkage has been determined, the compressive shrinkage machine
can be adjusted accordingly.
 The cloth is continually fed into the Sanforising machine and therein moistened with either water or steam.
A rotating cylinder presses a rubber sleeve against another, heated, rotating cylinder. Thereby the sleeve
briefly gets compressed and laterally expanded, afterwards relaxing to its normal thickness. The cloth to
be treated is transported between rubber sleeve and heated cylinder and is forced to follow this brief
compression and lateral expansion, and relaxation. It thus gets shrunk.
 The greater the pressure applied to the rubber sleeve, the bigger the shrinking afterwards. The process
may be repeated.

Figure: different parts of Sanforising machine

 Fabric (F) passes through the skyer (S) or other moistening device and is moistened by water and/or steam.
This will lubricate the fibers and promote shrink ability within the fabric.
 Fabric is moistened in such a way that every single thread achieves a moisture content of approximately
15%.
 Above step allows compression of the fabric with very little resistance.
 When the fabric passes through the clip expander (C), we obtain the required width. The clip expander
also transports the fabric to the most important part of the machine: the rubber belt unit (indicated by
arrows in above figure).
 In the close-up of above figure, we see the endless rubber belt (R). By squeezing rubber belt (R) between
pressure roll (P) and rubber belt cylinder (RB), we obtain an elastically stretching of the rubber belt
surface.
 The more we squeeze the rubber belt, the more the surface is stretched. This point of squeezing is known
as the pressure zone, or the nip point.
 Fabric (F) is now fed into the pressure zone.
 When leaving the pressure zone, the rubber belt recovers itself and the surface returns to its original length
carrying the fabric with it. The effect of this action is a shorting of the warp yarn which packs the filling
yarns closer together. At this actual moment, shrinkage occurs.
  After compaction within the rubber belt unit, the fabric enters the dryer (D). Here the fibers are locked in
their shrunken state by removing the moisture from the fabric.
 After the compressive shrinkage process is completed, another sample of the fabric is taken. This sample
is also wash-tested. The final result of this test must meet the Sanforized Standard, in length and width
before it may carry the Sanforized label.
 All Sanforized Licensees are contractually obligated to follow the required test method and meet the
standards set forth by The Sanforized Company.

Advantages of Sanforization:

 By applying the process of sanforization, a cloth is produced which does not shrink significantly during
clothes production such as washing, cutting, ironing, sewing, hence decreasing the production cost.
 Fabric which has gone through sanforization in production will have minimal shrinkage during first washing
and will ultimately stop shrinking after 3rd wash.
 Sanforized fabrics are highly desirable for customers.
 Sanforized fabrics save the customers from the trouble of shrinking of their favourite clothes.
 Sanforized fabric is highly sought after fabric.