Cement, one of the most important building materials, is a binding agent that sets

and hardens to adhere to building units such as stones, bricks, tiles, etc. Cement generally
refers to a very fine powdery substance chiefly made up of limestone (calcium), sand or clay
(silicon), bauxite (aluminum), and iron ore, and may include shells, chalk, marl, shale, clay,
blast furnace slag, slate. The raw ingredients are processed in cement manufacturing plants
and heated to form a rock-hard substance, which is then ground into a fine powder to be
sold. Cement mixed with water causes a chemical reaction and forms a paste that sets and
hardens to bind individual structures of building materials.
Cement is an integral part of the urban infrastructure. It is used to make concrete as well
as mortar, and to secure the infrastructure by binding the building blocks. Concrete is made
of cement, water, sand, and gravel mixed in definite proportions, whereas mortar consists of
cement, water, and lime aggregate. These are both used to bind rocks, stones, bricks, and
other building units, fill or seal any gaps, and make decorative patterns. Cement mixed with
water silicates and aluminates makes a water-repellant hardened mass that is used for
water-proofing.
The origin of hydraulic cements goes back to ancient Greece and Rome. The
materials used were lime and a volcanic ash that slowly reacted with it in the presence
of water to form a hard mass. This formed the cementing material of the Roman mortars
and concretes of more than 2,000 years ago and of subsequent construction work in
western Europe. Volcanic ash mined near what is now the city of Pozzuoli, Italy, was
particularly rich in essential aluminosilicate minerals, giving rise to the
classic pozzolana cement of the Roman era. To this day the
term pozzolana, or pozzolan, refers either to the cement itself or to any finely divided
aluminosilicate that reacts with lime in water to form cement.

(The term cement, meanwhile, derives from the Latin word caementum, which

meant stone chippings such as were used in Roman mortar—not the binding material
itself.)

Portland cement is a successor to a hydraulic lime that was first developed

by John Smeaton in 1756 when he was called in to erect the Eddystone Lighthouse off
the coast of Plymouth, Devon, England. The next development, taking place about 1800
in England and France, was a material obtained by burning nodules of clayey limestone.
Soon afterward in the United States, a similar material was obtained by burning a
naturally occurring substance called “cement rock.” These materials belong to a class
known as natural cement, allied to portland cement but more lightly burned and not of
controlled composition.

The invention of portland cement usually is attributed to Joseph

Aspdin of Leeds, Yorkshire, England, who in 1824 took out a patent for a material that
was produced from a synthetic mixture of limestone and clay. He called the product
“portland cement” because of a fancied resemblance of the material, when set, to
portland stone, a limestone used for building in England. Aspdin’s product may well
have been too lightly burned to be a true portland cement, and the real prototype was
perhaps that produced by Isaac Charles Johnson in southeastern England about 1850.
The manufacture of portland cement rapidly spread to other European countries
and North America. During the 20th century, cement manufacture spread worldwide.
By 2019 China and India had become the world leaders in cement production, followed
by Vietnam, the United States, and Egypt.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CEMENT

01. Lime
It is the main constituent used in cement manufacturing. It is responsible
for imparting the cementing property to cement. An excess quantity of lime
causes expansion and disintegration of the cement. Deficiency of lime
causes decreased strength and the cement sets quickly. If it is used in the
right proportion, it makes the cement sound and strong. Thus, lime can
drastically change the properties of cement.

02. Silica
This plays a major role in imparting strength to concrete. Silica undergoes a
chemical reaction with calcium to form dicalcium silicate (C2S) and
tricalcium silicates (C3S). Excess silica adds strength to cement but it
prolongs the setting time.

03. Alumina
This forms complex compounds with silica and calcium to improve the
setting capacity of the cement. It acts as a flux and lowers the clinkering
temperature. Use of an excess amount of alumina quickens the setting time
but reduces the strength of cement.

04. Iron Oxide

This is mainly responsible for imparting colour to cement. The hardness
and strength of the cement are also improved to a certain extent. It helps
in the fusion of raw materials during the cement manufacturing process.
05. Magnesium Oxide
It imparts strength to the cement when mixed in a small quantity; however,
an excess amount makes the cement unsound.

06. Sulphur Trioxide

This makes the cement sound if present in small quantity but an excess can
make the cement unsound.
Cement is sometimes blended with other cementitious and/or a special
material. This cement is called blended cement. They are produced by
properly blending two or more types of cementitious materials and cement
raw materials. Generally, the primary blending materials are fly
ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), silica fume, and
natural pozzolana.

1. Tricalcium aluminate (C3A)

Low content of C3A makes the cement sulfate-resistant. Gypsum reduces the
hydration of C3A, which liberates a lot of heat in the early stages of hydration. C3A
does not provide any more than a little amount of strength.
Type I cement: contains up to 3.5% SO3 (in cement having more than 8% C3A)
Type II cement: contains up to 3% SO3 (in cement having less than 8% C3A)
2. Magnesia (MgO)
The manufacturing process of Portland cement uses magnesia as a raw material in
dry process plants. An excess amount of magnesia may make the cement unsound
and expansive, but a little amount of it can add strength to the cement. Production of
MgO-based cement also causes less CO2 emission. All cement is limited to a
content of 6% MgO.
3. Sulphur trioxide
Sulfur trioxide in excess amount can make cement unsound.
4. Iron oxide/ Ferric oxide
Aside from adding strength and hardness, iron oxide or ferric oxide is mainly
responsible for the color of the cement.
5. Alkalis
The amounts of potassium oxide (K2O) and sodium oxide (Na2O) determine the alkali
content of the cement. Cement containing large amounts of alkali can cause some
difficulty in regulating the setting time of cement. Low alkali cement, when used with
calcium chloride in concrete, can cause discoloration. In slag-lime cement, ground
granulated blast furnace slag is not hydraulic on its own but is "activated" by addition
of alkalis. There is an optional limit in total alkali content of 0.60%, calculated by the
equation Na2O + 0.658 K2O.
 6. Silica fumes
Silica fume is added to cement concrete in order to improve a variety of properties,
especially compressive strength, abrasion resistance and bond strength. Though
setting time is prolonged by the addition of silica fume, it can grant exceptionally high
strength. Hence, Portland cement containing 5-20% silica fume is usually produced
for Portland cement projects that require high strength.
7. Alumina
Cement containing high alumina has the ability to withstand frigid temperatures since
alumina is chemical-resistant. It also quickens the setting but weakens the cement.

15 types of cement
There are a variety of types of cement you can use depending on your project's purpose
and conditions. Here are 15 types of cement:

1. Ordinary Portland cement (OPC)

Ordinary Portland cement is the most widely used type of cement manufactured and
used worldwide. “Portland” is a generic name derived from a type of building stone
quarried on the Isle of Portland in Dorset, England. OPC is suitable for most
general concrete jobs and mortar or stucco construction projects.

2. Portland pozzolana cement (PPC)

Manufacturers create Portland pozzolana cement by grinding pozzolanic clinker,

sometimes with additives of gypsum or calcium sulfate, with ordinary Portland cement.
Compared to OPC, it has a higher resistance to various chemical reactions within
concrete. PPC is often used for projects like bridges, piers, dams, marine
structures, sewage works or underwater concrete projects.

3. Rapid-hardening cement

Contractors or construction teams may choose rapid-hardening cement for its high
strength in the early stages of the hardening process. Its strength in three days is
comparable to OPC strength at seven days with the same water-to-cement ratio. Rapid-
hardening cement may have an increased lime content, combined with a finer grinding
process, or better strength development. It is often used for projects with early-stage
formwork removal or when the focus is on increasing construction rates and decreasing
costs.

4. Extra-rapid-hardening cement

Extra-rapid-hardening cement may set and become durable even faster than OPC and
rapid-hardening cement. Construction professionals achieve this by adding calcium
chloride to rapid-hardening cement. This cement type may be useful for cold-weather
concrete projects due to its fast setting rate.

5. Quick-setting cement

Similar to extra-rapid-hardening cement, this concrete type may set and become
stronger even quicker than OPC and rapid-hardening cement. Its grain and strength
rate are similar to OPC, but it hardens faster. Quick-setting cement may be beneficial
for time-sensitive projects or those located near stagnant or running water.

6. Low-heat cement

Manufacturers produce low-heat cement by monitoring the percentage of tricalcium

aluminate in the mixture to ensure it stays below 6% of the whole. This helps maintain
low heat during the hydration process, making this cement type more resistant to
sulfates and less reactive than other types of cement. It may be suitable for mass
concrete construction or projects to help prevent cracking due to heat. However, low-
heat cement may have a longer initial setting time than other types.

7. Sulfate-resisting cement

Sulfate-resisting cement helps reduce the risk of sulfate side effects on concrete. Its
most common use is for constructing foundations in soil with high sulfate content. This
concrete type can also be beneficial for projects like canal linings, culverts and retaining
walls.

8. Blast furnace slag cement

Manufacturers make blast furnace slag cement by grinding clinker with up to 60% slag.
This creates cement with many of the same properties as OPC. However, it may be less
expensive to produce than other types, making it a good choice for financially conscious
projects.

9. High-alumina cement

High-alumina cement is a type of rapid-hardening cement created by melting bauxite

and lime together and grinding it with clinker. It has high compressive strength and may
be more flexible and workable than OPC. Construction teams can use high-alumina
cement for projects where cement is subject to extreme weather like high temperatures
or frost.

10. White cement

White cement is a type of OPC that's white instead of gray. It's prepared from raw
materials that don't include iron oxide and may be more expensive than other cement
types. It's often useful in architectural projects and interior and exterior decorative
projects like designing garden paths, floors, swimming pools and ornamental concrete
products.

11. Colored cement

Colored cement has properties similar to OPC and white cement. Manufacturers mix
5% to 10% mineral pigments with OPC to achieve the desired color. Like white cement,
contractors often use this type for decorative purposes and projects to enhance their
designs.

12. Air-entraining cement

Air-entraining cement is more workable with a smaller water-cement ratio than OPC and
other types of cement. Manufacturers add air-entraining agents like glues, sodium salts
and resins to the clinker during the grinding process to create this cement. A common
use for this type of cement is for frost resistance in concrete.

13. Expansive cement

Expansive cement can grow slightly over time without shrinking during the hardening
process. It may be beneficial for projects like grouting anchor bolts or concrete ducts.
Teams can also use it in structure joints or to reinforce other concrete structures.

14. Hydrographic cement

Manufacturers create hydrographic cement by mixing in water-repelling chemicals. This

cement type has high workability and strength and also repels water to prevent weather
damage. Teams can use hydrographic cement for projects such as dams, water tanks,
spillways and water retaining structures.

15. Portland-limestone cement (PLC)

Portland-limestone cement is a blend of Portland cement and 5% to 15% fine limestone.

Its properties are similar to Portland cement for general use. However, it also has about
10% lower greenhouse gas emissions, which can help increase sustainability

Limestone
Calcium carbonate (CaC03) is wide spread in nature. Calcium carbonate of all geological
formations qualifies for the production of Portland cement. The purest grades of limestone
are calcspar (calcite) and aragonite. Calcite crystallizes hexagonally, and aragonite is
rhombic. The specific gravity of calcite is 2.7 and of aragonite 2.95. A macroscopic-granular
variety of calcite is marble. It would not be profitable to use marble for cement manufacture.
The most common forms of calcium carbonate, most similar to marble, are limestone and
chalk. Limestone is of a  predominantly fine grained crystalline structure. The hardness of
limestone depends  on its geological age;  usually, the older  the geological formation, the
harder the limestone. The hardness of limestone is between 1.8 and 3.0 of the Mohs’ scale
of hardness; its specific gravity is 2.6 to 2.8. Only the purest varieties of limestone are white.
Limestone usually contains admixtures of clay substance or of iron compounds, which 
influence its color.

Chalk 
Chalk  is a sedimentary rock which was formed during the Cretaceous period in geological
time; geo logically it is relatively In contrast to limestone, chalk is characterized by a soft
earthy texture; this property qualifies chalk as a raw material especially for the wet process
of  cement  manufacture. Since blasting is not required for quarrying of chalk, and the
crushing process  can also be  omitted, this kind of raw material considerably lowers the
cement production costs. In some deposits the calcium carbonate content of chalk amounts
to 98-99 0/o, with small admixtures of Si02, Al203, and MgC03.
In cement raw materials the lime component is generally represented up to an amount of
76-80 0/o. Therefore, the chemical and physical properties of this component are of decisive
influence, when it comes to selecting a method of cement manufacturing as well as the type
of production machinery.

Marl
Limestone with admixtures of silica, clay substance, and iron oxide are called marls.  Marls
form the transition element to the clays. Because of the wide distribution of marls, they
frequently  are used as raw material for cement production.

Geologically, marls are sedimentary rocks generated by simultaneous sedimentation of

calcium carbonate and clay substance. The hardness of marls is lower than that of limestone;
the higher the content of clay substances, the lower  their  hardness.  Sometimes marls
contain also bituminous constituents. The color of marls depends on the clay substance and
ranges from yellow to grayish-black. Marls are an excellent raw material for cement
manufacture, because they contain the lime and the clay component  in  an already
homogenized condition. Calcareous marl  of the chemical composition equal to that of
Portland cement raw mix, are used for the manufacture of so-called natural cement;
however, deposits of such raw materials are not common. As to the quantitative proportions
of the lime and clay components in cement raw materials, the following classification is
established:
Shale
• Shale is a pure sedimentary rock made of very fine silt, clay and quarz.  Shale falls in the category
of mudstones. Its grain size is less than 1/256mm. Shale is distinguished from other mudstones
because it is fissile and laminated. Well into the 20th century, the words shale and slate could be
interchangeable.

• Clays, mudstones and shales are very widely distributed in the UK. They occur in formations that
may be several hundred metres thick. ( British Geological Survey CR/03/281N)

Gypsum
• Gypsum is a soft sulfate mineral composed of calcium sulfate dehydrate

• The largest and commercially most important deposits of gypsum and anhydrite occur as beds,
which may persist over considerable areas with little change in quality or thickness. They are
frequently interbedded with limestones, shales, mudstones, clays, dolomite, rock salt and locally
sylvite.

• Although gypsum is widely distributed throughout England, and has historically been exploited in a
large number of locations, mining now occurs in Cumbria, Staffordshire; Nottinghamshire (open
cast), Leicestershire and East Sussex;

• About 20% of gypsum goes towards cement production.

 In 1877, the cement rotary kiln obtained a patent for calcining cement clinker,
and then the rotary cooler, cement vertical mill and cement ball
mill appeared. They effectively improved the output and quality of cement.
 In 1910, the mechanized shaft kiln was produced, which realized an efficient
and continuous cement production.
 In 1950, the German invented suspension preheater and successfully applied it
to the factory. This invention greatly reduced the heat consumption of clinker
production and increased the production scale.
 In the early 1960s, Japan introduced the technology of Germany’s suspension
preheating and developed the technology of external decomposition of cement
kiln in 1971, thus opening a new chapter of the modern cement industry and
forming a new dry method cement production technology.
With the continuous development and transformation of the cement industry, more
and more efficient, energy-saving and environmentally friendly cement making
machines are being used in cement plants. If you want to work in cement production,
there are five crucial cement manufacturing machines you need to know, they
are cement rotary kiln, shaft kiln, cement vertical mill, cement ball mill, and cement
roller press.

Cement Rotary Kiln

Cement rotary kiln is the core equipment of cement plant, mainly responsible for
clinker calcination, which can be used both in dry process cement production line and
wet process cement production line. It is usually placed horizontally and at an angle to
the ground, forming a state of one end high and one end low. The kiln body rotates
slowly under the drive of the engine. And the fuel is injected from the kiln head and
burned in the kiln to give off heat. Raw materials enter the kiln from the high end and
move toward the low end in the slowly rotating kiln body. In this process, chemical and
physical reactions are generated through high-temperature heating, and then the
clinker is finally formed.

The technical performance and operating condition of cement rotary kiln largely
determine the quality, output, and cost of cement products. So when we purchase a
rotary kiln, we should better choose a reliable manufacturer and an equipment model
with suitable output, high quality, and high efficiency.

Shaft Kiln
The shaft kiln is also called a vertical kiln. Compared with cement rotary kiln, it is a
standing and non-rotating cylindrical cement kiln, which can also be used in wet
cement production line and dry cement production line. The interior of the shaft kiln is
divided into preheating zone, calcination zone, and cooling zone from top to bottom.
Raw materials enter the kiln from top feeding port and move down by their own
weight. In this process, they exchange heat with the hot gas and produce chemical and
physical changes, finally form clinker.

The shaft kiln is not so widely used in cement plant as rotary kiln, but its structure is
simple, the space occupation is small so the investment is relatively low. Besides, it has
a long service life and can produce cement of stable quality, which is a common clinker
calcination machine in cement plants.

Cement Mill
A cement mill is just a general term for clinker grinding mill. It is a kind of grinding
equipment that used to grind the calcined cement clinker then make them reach the
particle fineness requirement of the finished cement product. It is the core equipment
of the last step in the cement production process. The cement mill we usually used in
cement plants includes cement vertical mill, cement ball mill, cement roller press, etc.

Cement Vertical Mill

At present, most of the cement vertical mills in the market merge crushing, drying,
grinding, and grading transportation into a single. They mainly use the grinding disc
and rollers to compress clinker particles for realizing the reduction of grain size with
small dust pollution. The cement vertical mill has become the first choice of many
cement plants.

Features

 The system is simple, the layout is compact, and it can be arranged in the open
air so that saves a lot of investment cost.
 Small vibration, low noise, the whole equipment is sealed. The system works
under negative pressure with no dust spillover, meet the national environmental
requirements.
 The grinding roller directs grind materials on the grinding disc. It saves 30% –
40% energy consumption compared with the ball mill grinding system.
Cement Ball Mill

Cement ball mill is a kind of horizontal cylindrical rotary grinding device. Through a
continuous rotation, the grinding media (grinding steel ball) in the cylinder body is
thrown into the air and then falls to hit the clinker to realize the reduction of the clinker
particle size.

Features

 Strong adaptability to physical properties of materials (particle size, moisture,

hardness, etc.).
 The full hydraulic operation, easy to use, easy to achieve automation, 40%
reduction in energy consumption.
 The circular vibrating screen is used to form a closed-circuit system to realize the
circulation grinding of materials. The crushing efficiency increased by 15%.
 It can adapt to different operation requirements: dry or wet cement production,
open or closed system, single pulverizing or pulverizing and drying operations.
Cement Roller Press

The cement roller press is a new kind of cement mill. It is usually used as a pre-grinding
system to replace some functions of the ball mill so that the output of the ball mill can
be increased by 30-50%. At the same time, it can also be singularly used in cement
plant as a clinker grinding machine. In principle, it uses two rollers to extrude clinker to
reduce the particle size.

Cement manufacturing process

In general, we can divide the cement production line into three main steps: raw
material preparation of cement, clinker production, and cement grinding. Each step has
some cement manufacturing machines, such as raw mill, cement crusher,  cement
mill,  cement kiln, cement cooler,  cement dryer,  cement silo, cement packer, etc.

 Raw material preparation of cement: it is a process of pre-homogenization. Most

of raw materials like limestone, clay should be broken by cement crusher. For
example, limestone is large and hard, crushing is necessary before grinding.
After crushing, mix all materials by a certain ratio. It is also vital to grind crushed
material into fine size before cement clinker production. Cement ball mill is
always applied to manufacture raw material. In this step, stacker and
reclaimer will homogenize the material by using stacker technology.
 Clinker production: pre-heat is a necessary process before rotary kiln. The
preheating and partial decomposition of the raw material are completed by the
preheater, instead of the partial function of the rotary kiln, the length of the kiln
is shortened, and the gas heat exchange process in the kiln is carried out in a
stacked state, and moved to the preheater in a suspended state. Under the
process, the raw material can be fully mixed with the hot gas discharged from
the kiln, the contact area of the gas material is increased, the heat transfer
speed is fast, and the heat exchange efficiency is high, thereby improving the
production efficiency of the kiln system and reducing the heat consumption of
the clinker. The raw materials are preheated and pre-composed at the cement
preheater. Next, all raw materials are sent into the rotary kiln to make a cement
clinker. Dryer and clinker cooler are all used in this section.
 Finished cement: add some gypsum, admixture or additive into cement clinker,
and using cement mill grinding cement clinker into finished cement. The finished
cement can be stored in the cement silo or packed into bags. Cement silo and
packing machine are common equipment used in this step.
What’s the function of every part of the cement production line? As a cement plant
manufacturer with rich experience, AGICO Cement analyzes all cement equipment and
helps you find the answer.

Cement crusher
As we all know, the first step of the cement production line is raw material preparation.
Cement crusher is the main equipment of this step. The raw materials are fed into
cement crusher by vibratory feeder; the breaking material is transported by the belt
conveyor to the impact crusher for further crusher.

There are various types of cement crusher on the market, including jaw crusher, cone
crusher, hammer crusher, impact crusher, and etc. AGICO Cement can provide all
types of cement crusher. Our cement crusher can fully crush the raw material, reduce
feed size into the mill, and increase the reaction of raw material in the following
cement manufacturing process, reduce the energy consumption of the whole cement
production line.

Cement mill
Cement mill is another necessary cement equipment of the cement plant. After raw
material crushing, cement mill plays vital role in the further cement manufacturing
process. Cement ball mill, vertical cement mill, and cement roller press are
common types of cement grinding plant.

Cement mill has two functions of the cement production line. Firstly, cement mill is
used to grind the crushed material into fine size before clinker production. A cement
mill is also applied for grinding clinker into finished cement. The cement clinker
grinding is the last step of the cement manufacturing process, in this step, cement mill
grinds cement clinker, gelatinizing agent and other materials into the required size,
which can meet the requirement of cement.

AGICO Cement adopts the advanced internal selection and special compartment
device, add the activation device. The grinding tail has a special discharge grate plate,
which greatly reduces the size of the grinding media of the grinding bin, greatly
improves the grinding efficiency, and achieves the goal of high output and low energy.
Cement kiln
Cement kiln is used to make cement clinker, and it is the core equipment of cement
production line; usually, apply for dry method cement production. There are two main
kinds of cement kiln to manufacture cement clinker. One is the cement rotary kiln,
and it is horizontal and can rotate. Rotary kiln is widely applied to the cement clinker
production. Another one is vertical and fixed kiln, so it is called as a vertical kiln.
cement rotary kiln

AGICO Cement can manufacture cement rotary kiln with advantages of convenient and
reliable operation, stable thermal regulation, and high operation rate. Compared to
other rotary kilns on the market, our rotary kiln increase operation rate by 10%,
production capacity by 5%-10%, widely apply for cement production line of different
countries.

Clinker cooler and dryer

Clinker cooler and dryer are two necessary parts of cement clinker production.
The dryer produced by AGICO can apply for various raw materials and easy to adjust.
During the operation, the dryer supplies heat stably, ensures the drying quality and
cement quality.
The cement cooler is also used for clinker production. Using blower blowing cold air,
quench the cement clinker that laid on the grate plate, decrease the temperature of
clinker from 1200℃ to 100℃ and below, the cooling exhaust gas enters into the kiln as
secondary air dryer