3/18/2017

TOPIC 7:
INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN FOR
EFFECTIVE LEARING

SEMINAR 4
DR LIM PECK CHOO

TOPIC OUTLINE
• Development of Instructional Design

• Instructional Design Theories

 Gagné’s Nine Instructional Events
 Reigeluth’s Elaboration Theory
 Merril’s Component Display Theory
 Jonassen’s Constructivist Learning
Environment

TOPIC OUTLINE
• Instructional Design Model
 ADDIE Model
 ARCS Model
 Dick & Carey Model
 Kemp’s Model
 Leshin, Pollock & Reigeluth Model
 Smith & Ragan Model

• Instructional Design Theories vs Instructional

Systems Development

1
 3/18/2017

THINK ABOUT IT

• Define instructional design.

• Explain the major elements of Gagne’s

instructional design theory.

• Explain the FIVE (5) phases of the ADDIE

model.

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN:
DEFINITION
• Instruction: A planned process that facilitates
learning

• ID: The process by which instruction is improved

through the analysis of learning needs and
systematic development of learning materials.

• Instructional designers often use technology and

multimedia as tools to enhance instruction.

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
Instructional design:

• is a systematic approach to course development

• ensures that specific learning goals are
accomplished
• is an iterative (repetitive) process
• requires ongoing evaluation and feedback.

Purpose of ID: to activate and support the learning of

the individual student

2
 3/18/2017

ID IN E-LEARNING
 E-learning is the marriage of technology and education.

 WHY ID in e-learning?
To serve the learning needs and success of students
through:

effective presentation of content

fostering of interaction
the visibility of a trail which is transparent for all to see
and can be used as a resource for subsequent courses

CONDITIONS OF LEARNING
It is important to understand how a person learns in order to ensure
effective instruction. (Gagne, 1979, p. 78)

Contiguity The stimulus situation to which one wants the learner to

respond must be presented contiguously in time with the
desired response.
Repetition The stimulus situation and its response need to be
repeated, or practised, in order for learning to be
improved and retention more certain. He cautioned that
modern learning theory casts doubts on the idea that
repetition improves learning. He advises to view
repetition in a broader sense: practice.
Reinforce- Quoting Thorndike (1913), reinforcement is stated as the
ment learning of a new act that is strengthened when the
occurrence of that act is followed by a satisfying state of
affairs (reward)

CONDITIONS OF LEARNING
Prior State of mind that the learner brings to the task.
learning:

Motivation/ Internal states that affects an individual’s choice of action.

Attitudes/ Should be dealt with appropriately as these are essential
Self- for effective learning.
concept:
Retrieve Ability to retrieve previously learned facts, concepts,
rules and principles (memory).
Learning Ability to carve out a repertoire of learning strategies.
strategies.

3
 3/18/2017

PLAN INSTRUCTION: STEPS

 adapted from Gagne (1979, p.14)

HISTORY OF ID
1910 • John Dewey
• Learning occurs best by doing rather than rote
memorization
1920 • Behaviorist approach
• Thorndike proposed connectionism based on Stimulus –
Response (S-R) constructs.
• WWII – first time instructional development team was
instituted.
1954 • B.F. Skinner
• instruction materials should present instruction in small
steps
• require overt responses to frequent questions
• provide immediate feedback
• allow learners to phase themselves
The beginning of ID revolution.

History of ID
1956 Benjamin Bloom
Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives

1962 Robert Mager: Learning objectives must contain:

4
 3/18/2017

HISTORY OF ID
1960 • Robert Glaser
• introduced the concept of “instructional design”
• Individually Prescribed Instruction (IPI)
• Criterion reference test
• Gagne’s 9 instructional events

1970 • Computer technology flourished.

• Cognitive ID was born
• Constructivist ID could be realized

ID HISTORY & TIMELINE

http://www.instructionaldesigncentral.com/htm/IDC_instructionaltechnol
ogytimeline.htm
http://timerime.com/en/timeline/826652/Instructional+Design+and+Tech
nology+A+Graphical+History/

THEORIES AND MODELS

What is a theory? What is a model?
• provides a general explanation
for observations made over • is a mental picture that helps us
time. understand something we
• explains and predicts behaviour. cannot see or experience
• can never be established beyond directly.
all doubt.
• may be modified.
• theories seldom have to be (Dorin, Demmin & Gabel, 1990 cited in
thrown out completely if Mergel,1998)
thoroughly tested but sometimes
a theory may be widely
accepted for a long time and
later disproved.
(Dorin, Demmin & Gabel, 1990 cited in
Mergel 1998)

5
 3/18/2017

ID THEORIES
• Instruction: is “anything that is done to help
someone learn” (Reigeluth, 1997, p.44)

• Instructional design theory: is “anything that

offers guidance for improving the quality of that
help” (Reigeluth, 1997, p.44)

• Therefore ID theory is based mainly on learning

theories.

ID THEORIES

• Gagné’s ID theory

• Reigeluth’s ID theory

• Merril’s ID theory

• Jonassen’s ID theory

GAGNÉ’S IDEA OF LEARNING

• the cause of students' failure in learning was the gaps in
their knowledge of the sub-components of the tasks, i.e. the
prerequisite skills.
• Need to have a cumulative organization of learning events
based on prerequisite relationships among learned behaviors
i.e. instruction should provide a set of component tasks and
sequence those tasks to ensure the learners' mastery of each
component task and the optimal transfer of the final task.
• Gagné's principal assumption is that there are different
kinds of learned outcomes, and that different internal and
external conditions are necessary to promote each type.

6
 3/18/2017

contd…
What is learning to Gagné?
• Learning is cumulative. Human intellectual
development is the building of increasing complex
structures of human capabilities.
• Learning is the mechanism by which an individual
becomes a competently functioning member of
society.
• Learning results in different kinds of human
behaviors, i.e. different human capabilities, which
are required both from the stimulation from the
environment and the cognitive processing
undertaken by the learners.

Contd…
The underlying assumption derived from Gagné's ideas
about learning and instruction are:
• Because learning is complex and diverse, different
learning outcomes (capabilities) require different
instructions, prerequisites and processing by the learners
i.e. the specific operations that constitute instructional
events are different for each different type of learning
outcome.
• Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that
constitute the conditions of learning. The internal states
required in the learner to acquire the new skills are internal
conditions of learning, and the environmental stimuli
required to support the internal learning process are
external conditions of learning.
• Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to
be learned and a sequence of instruction.

Major Elements of Gagne’s Instructional

Design Theory

Taxonomy of 
Learning  Nine Events of 
Internal and 
Outcomes Instruction
External Conditions 
of Learning

• External:  1. Gaining attention
Cognitive Domain:  contiguity  2. Informing learners of  
•Cognitive strategies, Psychomotor   repetition   objectives
•Intellectual skills, Domain:  reinforcement 3. Stimulating recall of prior 
•Verbal information •Motor Skills • Internal:  learning
4. Presenting the stimulus
 factual information
5. Providing learning 
 Intellectual skills guidance
 Strategies  6. Eliciting performance
7. Providing feedback
Affective  8. Assessing performance
Domain: 9. Enhancing retention and 
•Attitudes transfer

Gagne’s ID Theory Major Elements

(Driscoll, 2000)

7
 3/18/2017

GAGNÉ’S NINE INSTRUCTIONAL

EVENTS (Pedagogic Strategy)
NINE INSTRUCTIONAL EVENTS COGNITIVE PROCESSES

1 Gaining attention Reception

2 Informing learners of the objective Expectancy
3 Stimulating recall of prior learning Retrieval
4 Presenting the stimulus Selective perception
5 Providing learning guidance Semantic encoding
6 Eliciting performance Responding
7 Providing feedback Reinforcement
8 Assessing performance Retrieval
9 Enhancing retention and transfer Generalization
Flow chart of 9 events

REIGELUTH’S ELABORATION THEORY

• is an instructional design theory that argues that content to be learned should
be organized from simple to complex order, while providing a
meaningful context in which subsequent ideas can be integrated.

• is an instructional design model that aims to help select and sequence

content in a way that will optimize attainment of learning goals.

• Proponents feel the use of motivators, analogies, summaries and syntheses

leads to effective learning.

• While the theory does not address primarily affective content, it is

intended for medium to complex kinds of cognitive and psychomotor
learning.

• The paradigm shift from teacher-centric instruction to learner-centered

instruction has caused “new needs for ways to sequence instruction”
(Reigeluth 1999)

ELABORATION THEORY: VALUES

• values a sequence of instruction that is as holistic
as possible, to foster meaning-making and
motivation
• allows learners to make many scope and sequence
decisions on their own during the learning process
• is an approach that facilitates rapid prototyping in
the instructional development process
• integrates viable approaches to scope and sequence
into a coherent design theory
(Reigeluth, 1999)

8
 3/18/2017

REIGELUTH’S ELABORATION THEORY

EIGHT BASIC STRATEGIES OF
ELABORATION THEORY
1 Organised course structure
2 Simple to complex sequence
3 Within –lesson sequencers
4 Summarisers
5 Synthesisers
6 Analogies
7 Activators
8 Learner control
COGNITIVE PROCESSES
Elaborative sequence:
Choose organizing structure: conceptual,
procedural, theoretical
Simple to complex sequence of lessons
Within-lesson sequencing (hierarchical
sequencing, general to detailed sequencing,
simple to complex sequencing)
content reviews presented in rule-example-
practice format
integrates and interrelates presented ideas
(e.g. diagrams, flow chart etc…)
relate to learner’s field of experience
Cognitive strategies: embedded/detached
cues to trigger cognitive strategies
motivation and relevance.

MERRIL’S COMPONENT DISPLAY

THEORY (CDT)
Merrill's (1983) CDT:

• describes the micro elements of instruction (single

ideas and methods for teaching them).
• designed to work in conjunction with Reigeluth’s
theory.
• classifies learning along two dimensions:
 Content (facts, concepts, procedures, and principles)
 Performance (remembering, using, finding)

• By forming a matrix using the two dimensions of

content and performance, the instructor determines
which elements on the matrix are the goals for the
learner:

9
 3/18/2017

COMPONENTS OF CDT
CONTENT is the The four types of content in CDT are:
actual information • Facts - logically associated pieces of information. Some
to be learned. examples are names, dates, and events.
• Concepts - symbols, events, and objects that share
characteristics and are identified by the same name. Concepts
make up a large portion of language and understanding them is
integral to communication.
• Procedures - a set of ordered steps, sequenced to solve a
problem or accomplish a goal.
• Principles - work through either cause-and-effect or
relationships. They explain or predict why something happens
in a particular way.

PERFORMANCE The three types of performance are:

is the manner in • Remembering - the learner is required to search and recall
which the learner from memory a particular item of information,
applies the content. • Using - the learner directly apply the information to a specific
case and
• Finding - the learner uses the information to derive a new
b i ( i i l )

COMPONENTS OF CDT
PRIMARY CDT specifies four forms:
PRESENTATION • rules: (expository presentation of a
forms: generality),
• examples (expository presentation of
instances),
• recall (inquisitory generality) and
• practice (inquisitory instance).

SECONDARY They include:

PRESENTATION • prerequisites,
forms • objectives,
• help,
• mnemonics,
• feedback.

COMPONENT DISPLAY THEORY

• The matrix is set up to determine the level of performance
needed for an area of content.

• Instruction is more effective if a combination of all three

performance forms (remember, use and find) are present for
the different content types.

• CDT specifies that instruction is more effective when it

contains all the necessary primary and secondary forms.
•
• Thus, a complete lesson would consist of an objective,
followed by some combination of rules, examples, recall,
practice, feedback, helps, and mnemonics appropriate to the
subject matter and learning task.

10
 3/18/2017

PRINCIPLES OF CDT
• Instruction will be more effective if all three primary
performance forms (remember, use, generality) are
present.
• Primary forms can be presented by either an
explanatory or inquisitory learning strategy
• The sequence of primary forms is not critical
provided they are all present.
• Students should be given control over the number of
instances or practice items they receive.

CDT: EXAMPLE OF LESSON

Components of a complete lesson on equilateral triangles:
Objective Define an equilateral triangle
(Remember-Use)
Generality Definition
(attributes, relationships)
Instance Examples (primary presentation)
(attributes present, representations)
Generality Practice State definition
Instance Practice Classify
(attributes present)
Feedback Correct generalities/instances
Elaborations Helps, Prerequisities, Context

JONASSEN’S CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING

ENVIRONMENT (CLE)
• According to the constructivist theory, knowledge is being actively
constructed by the individual and knowing is an adaptive process,
which organises the individual’s experiential world (Mayer, 1992;
Hendry, 1996).
• Hence, the learner is not considered as a controlled respondent to
stimuli as in the behaviourist rubric (Jonassen, 1990; Perkins, 1991)
but as “already a scientist” (Solomon, 1994, p. 16) who actively
constructs knowledge while striving to make sense of the world on the
basis of personal filters: experiences, goals, curiosities and beliefs
(Cole, 1992).
• Knowledge for constructivism cannot be imposed or transferred intact
from the mind of one knower to the mind of another.
• Therefore, the design puts the emphasis on providing learning
experiences that facilitate knowledge construction and in meaning
making.

11
 3/18/2017

CLE: MODEL DESCRIPTION

The theory:
• provides a comprehensive set of methods to promote
constructivist learning environments.
• focuses on problem solving and conceptual development in ill-
defined, ill-structured domain.
• assumes that the problem drives the learning, rather than acting
as an example of the concepts and principles previously taught.
The key to meaningful learning is ownership of the problem or
learning goal.
• suggests a set of instructional methods including selecting and
providing appropriate problem, related cases or worked examples,
learner-selectable information, cognitive tools, collaborative
tools, social/contextual support. Instructional activities could
involve modeling, coaching and scaffolding in the CLEs.

PRINCIPLES OF CLE
1. provide multiple representations of reality and represent the
complexity of the real world
2. emphasize knowledge construction instead of knowledge
reproduction
3. emphasize authentic tasks in a meaningful context rather than
abstract instruction out of context
4. provide learning environments such as real-world settings or
case-based learning instead of predetermined sequences of
instruction
5. encourage thoughtful reflection on experience
6. enable context and content dependent knowledge construction
7. support collaborative construction of knowledge through
social negotiation, not competition among learners for
recognition

The Constructivist Learning Environment Theory

12
 3/18/2017

Specification of CLE Theory

(a) Goals and • Primary goal of the theory is to design for a
preconditions learning environment to foster problem solving
and conceptual development in ill-defined/ill-
structured domain

(b) Principles  The key of meaningful learning is authentic

problem/task and ownership of the problem
that learners attempt to solve.
 Students are required to active learning
activities including exploration, articulation,
and reflection.
 CLEs require appropriate instructional
supports including modeling, coaching, and
scaffolding.

Specification of CLE Theory

(c) Condition of Primary learning setting focuses on problem
learning solving and conceptual development in ill-
defined, ill-structured domains
(d) Required media Computer based programs or multimedia to
support problem presentation and scaffold
cognitive process including knowledge-
representation, knowledge-modeling,
information- gathering, and problem solving
performance
(e) Role of Facilitator can be instructor or computer-based
facilitator tools (e.g., database, multimedia, Internet).
Facilitator should take the instructional roles
including modeling, coaching, and
scaffolding.

Specification of CLE Theory

(f) Instructional Select and provide the followings:
strategies 1) an appropriate problem, question, case or
project
2) related cases or worked examples
3) learner-selectable information
4) cognitive tools
5) conversation and collaboration tools
6) social/contextual support

(g) Assessment
method Project- or problem-based task

13
 3/18/2017

ID Models
• ADDIE Model

• ARCS Model

• Dick & Carey Model

• Kemp’s Model

• Leshin, Pollock & Reigeluth Model

• Smith & Ragan Model

ADDIE MODEL
This model is the generic process traditionally used by instructional
designers and training developers.
There are five phases:
Analysis

Design

Development

Implementation

Evaluation

ADDIE model
(M G iff)

ADDIE MODEL
Analysis In this phase, instructional problem is clarified, the
instructional goals and objectives are established and the
learning environment and learner's existing knowledge and
skills are identified.

Some of the questions that are addressed:

* Who is the audience and their characteristics?

* Identify the new behavioral outcome?
* What types of learning constraints exist?
* What are the delivery options?
* What are the online pedagogical considerations?
* What is the timeline for project completion?

14
 3/18/2017

ADDIE MODEL
Design This phase deals with learning objectives, assessment instruments,
exercises, content, subject matter analysis, lesson planning and media
selection.

The design phase should be systematic and specific. Systematic means a

logical, orderly method of identifying, developing and evaluating a set of
planned strategies targeted for attaining the project's goals. Specific means
each element of the instructional design plan needs to be executed with
attention to details.

These are steps used for the design phase:

* Documentation of the project's instructional, visual and technical design
strategy
* Apply instructional strategies according to the intended behavioral
outcomes by domain (cognitive, affective, psychomotor).
* Create storyboards
* Design the user interface and user experience
* Prototype creation
* Apply visual design (graphic design)

ADDIE MODEL
Development The development phase is where:
• Developers create and assemble the content assets that were
created in the design phase.
• Programmers work to develop and/or integrate technologies.
• Testers perform debugging procedures.
• The project is reviewed and revised according to any
feedback given.

Implementation During the implementation phase:

• a procedure for training the facilitators and the learners is
developed. The facilitators' training should cover the course
curriculum, learning outcomes, method of delivery, and
testing procedures. Preparation of the learners include training
them on new tools (software or hardware), student
registration.
• The project manager ensures that the books, hands on
equipment, tools, CD-ROMs and software are in place, and
that the learning application or Web site is functional.

ADDIE MODEL
Evaluation The evaluation phase consists of two parts:

• Formative: Formative evaluation is present in each

stage of the ADDIE process.

• Summative: Summative evaluation consists of tests

designed for domain specific criterion-related
referenced items and providing opportunities for
feedback from the users.

15
 3/18/2017

List of Sample Tasks and Output According to the five

Elements in ADDIE (OUM Module, p.178)
Sample Tasks
Analysis • Needs assessment
The process of defining what is to be • Problem identification
learned • Task analysis
• Write objectives
Design
• Develop test items
The process of specifying how it is to be
• Plan instruction
learned
• Identify resources
Development • Work with producers
The process of authoring and producing • Develop workbook,
the materials flowchart, programme
• Teacher training
Implementation
• Try out
The process of installing the project in
the real world context
Evaluation • Record time data
The process of determining the adequacy • Interpret test results
of the instruction • Survey graduates
• Revise activities
Sample Output
• Learner profile
• Description of constraints
• Needs, Problem Statement
• Task Analysis
• Measurable objectives
• Instructional strategy
• Prototype specifications
• Storyboard
• Script
• Exercises
• Computer assisted instruction
• Student comments, data
• Recommendations
• Project report
• Revised prototype

Associating ARCS Model to Gagne’s 9 events

Dick & Carey Model

16
 3/18/2017

DICK & CAREY MODEL: 9 STEP PROCESS

Stage 1: Instructional Goals
• Instructional Goal: Desirable state of affairs by instruction
• Needs Analysis : Analysis of a discrepancy between an
instructional goal and the present state of affairs or a personal
perception of needs.
Stage 2: Instructional Analysis
• Purpose : To determine the skills involved in reaching a goal
• Task Analysis (procedural analysis) : about the product of which
would be a list of steps and the skills used at each step in the
procedure
• Information-Processing Analysis : about the mental operations
used by a person who has learned a complex skills
• Learning-Task Analysis : about the objectives of instruction that
involve intellectual skills

Stage 3: Entry Behaviors and Learner Characteristics

• Purpose : To determine which of the required enabling skills the
learners bring to the learning task
• Intellectual skills
• Abilities such as verbal comprehension and spatial orientation
• Personality traits

Stage 4: Performance Objectives

• Purpose : To translate the needs and goals into specific and
detailed objectives
• Functions : Determining whether the instruction is related to its
goals. Focusing the lesson planning upon appropriate conditions
of learning. Guiding the development of measures of learner
performance. Assisting learners in their study efforts.

Stage 5: Criterion-Referenced Test Items

• To diagnose an individual’s possessions of the necessary prerequisites
for learning new skills
• To check the results of student learning during the process of a lesson
• To provide document of students progress for parents or
administrators
• Useful in evaluating the instructional system itself (Formative/
Summative evaluation)
• Early determination of performance measures before development of
lesson plan and instructional materials
Stage 6: Instructional Strategy
• Purpose : To outline how instructional activities will relate to the
accomplishment of the objectives
• The best lesson design : Demonstrating knowledge about the learners,
tasks reflected in the objectives, and effectiveness of teaching
strategies e.g. Choice of delivering system.
Teacher-led, Group-paced vs. Learner-centered, Learner-paced

17
 3/18/2017

Stage 7: Instructional Materials

• Purpose : To select printed or other media intended to convey events
of instruction.
• Use of existing materials when it is possible
• Need for development of new materials, otherwise
• Role of teacher : It depends on the choice of delivery system

Stage 8: Formative Evaluation

• Purpose : To provide data for revising and improving instructional
materials
• To revise the instruction so as to make it as effective as possible for
larger number of students
• One on One : One evaluator sitting with one learner to interview

Stage 9: Summative Evaluation

• Purpose : To study the effectiveness of system as a whole

• Conducted after the system has passed through its formative
stage
• Small scale/ Large Scale
• Short period/ Long period

KEMP’S MODEL
• The Jerold Kemp instructional design method and model defines
nine different components of an instructional design and at the
same time adopts a continuous implementation/evaluation
model.
• Kemp adopts a wide view, the oval shape of his model conveys
that the design and development process is a continuous cycle
that requires constant planning, design, development and
assessment to insure effective instruction. The model is systemic
and nonlinear and seems to encourage designers to work in all
areas as appropriate (Steven McGriff).
• The model is particularly useful for developing instructional
programs that blend technology, pedagogy and content to
deliver effective, inclusive (reliable) and efficient learning.

18
 3/18/2017

According to McGriff, Kemp identifies nine key elements:

• Identify instructional problems, and specify goals for designing an

instructional program.
• Examine learner characteristics that should receive attention during
planning.
• Identify subject content, and analyze task components related to
stated goals and purposes.
• State instructional objectives for the learner.
• Sequence content within each instructional unit for logical learning.
• Design instructional strategies so that each learner can master the
objectives.
• Plan the instructional message and delivery.
• Develop evaluation instruments to assess objectives.
• Select resources to support instruction and learning activities.

Kemp’s Model

LESHIN, POLLOCK & REIGELUTH

MODEL

19

Smith & Ragan Model
ID THEORY VS ISD
INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
THEORY
• is a set of prescriptions for
determining appropriate instructional
strategies to enable learners to acquire
instructional goals.
• is founded in learning theory and
related disciplines. The emphasis is on
what works rather than on the steps to
carry out the design and development
process.
• is sometimes nested within ISD.
3/18/2017
INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS
DEVELOPMENT
• is a set of procedures for systematically
designing and developing instructional
materials. It has been described in a
number of sources (e.g. Dick & Carey,
1990; Gagné, Briggs, & Wager, 1988).
• is a set of procedural steps. The
emphasis is primarily on what to do,
rather than on how to do it, or why it
works.
• has many varieties but all involve five
basic phases: analysis, design,
development, implementation, and
evaluation.
• is not instructional design theory.
20