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Special Theory of relativity

Newtonian mechanics does not predict correct answers when applied to fast particles for
which . In macroscopic world in our daily experience the speed ‘u’ of moving objects is always
less c. For an electron accelerated to a 10MeV potential difference u = 0.9988c. If 10MeV is
increased by a factor of four that is 40MeV Newtonian classical relation ( ) predict ‘u’ to
become 1.9976 c and experiments show that it is only 0.9999 c. Similarly if 10MeV electron moves
at right angles to magnetic field of the classical relation shows that radius should
be 0.53 cm but it is still 1.8 cm. (Einstein 1905)

The theory under discussion is called special (or restricted) theory because it deals only with
inertial reference frames. Another theory was published by Einstein in 1916, which is concerned with
accelerated reference frames. It is called general theory of relativity. It provides a deeper
understanding of the gravitational force and, therefore, is of great importance in cosmology,.
However, in other areas like atomic, nuclear and high-energy physics and electromagnetism, only
the special theory is relevant.

Special Theory of relativity: deals with objects and systems which are moving at constant
speed with respect to each other.

Inertial frame of reference

Newtonian mechanics is based on three laws of motion. The first law is called law of inertia.
A reference frame in which the first law holds is called an inertial frame. In such a frame, a particle at
rest remains at rest and a particle in motion continues to move with a constant velocity if no
unbalanced force acts on it. Any other frame of reference that moves with a constant velocity
relative to an inertial frame is also an inertial frame. Now consider a reference frame which is
accelerating relative to an inertial frame. It is clear that a particle observed from this frame is also an
inertial frame will not obey Newton’s first law because the particle will appear to be accelerating
without net force acting on it.

A reference frame in which a body moves with a constant velocity if no force is applied to it.

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Inertial and gravitational masses.

z z’

vt

P(x,y,z,t),
S S’ P(x’,y’,z’,t’) x

y y’

Consider frame moving with respect to frame with velocity ‘v’ in +x direction.

Any given event can be represented in frame as and frame by .

Suppose the two observers adjust their clocks such that when x=x’=0, both t=t’ =0.

Galilean coordinate transformation

, , , (1)

It is assumed that time can be defined independently of any particular reference frame of
reference.

Measurement of velocity in Galilean transformation

, , (2)

Acceleration in Galilean transformation

, , (3)

The above discussion leads to the following principle: The laws of mechanics are the same in
all inertial frames of references.

Lorentz transformation

Postulates

1. All inertial frames of references are equivalent.

2. Light propagates in free space with constant velocity independent of the relative motion of
the source, medium or observer.
3. Space and time are homogenous and isotropic.

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Let us say that event has occurred as observed by S inertial frame with coordinates (x,y,z,t) and
same as observed in S’ with coordinates as (x’,y’,z’,t’). Lorentz transformation seeks a functional
relationship

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

The homogeneity assumption requires the transformation equations must be linear i.e. only
first power of the variable.

(7)

(8)

(9)

(10)

If the equations would not be linear then the homogeneous condition would be violated.

Let for example . Then the length of a rod say 5-2 =3 would be

But if same rod was measured at some other position say 6-3 then in the S’ it would be
.

Which means the measurement of length will depend upon where it is in free space.

Let us assume for simplicity

1. that x-axis coincides continuously with x’ axis.
y’ does not depend upon x or t hence
z’ does not depend upon x or t hence
2. Similarly, xy plane should always transform over x’y’ plane.
y’ does not depend upon z hence
z’ does not depend upon y hence
Point x’ =0 appears to move in the direction of +tive x axis with speed v, so no dependence
on y and z hence

The constants and can be argued to be =1 for if the same rod length is measured in
both the frame such that each one is at rest with respect to rod while measuring the length the
measurement should come same as the first postulates requires that these measurement be
identical for otherwise the frame would not be equivalent.

cannot depend upon y and z since then isotropy of space condition will be destroyed as clocks
placed symmetrically –y , +y axis or +z, -z axis will quote different times. Thus hence

(11)

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(12)

(13)

(14)

Thus the four equations for transformation are

(15)

(16)

(17)

(18)

Let us assume that in frame S a light source is at the origin then the equation of the
spherical wavefront emitted at time t=0 at any time t will be

(19)

Since, speed of light is independent of the motion of the observer, each observer will see a spherical
wave spreading out from his origin of coordinates.

Equation of spherical wavefront in S’ will be

(20)

Applying the transformation

(21)

Comparing the above with equation 20

Gives

(22)

(23)

(24)

For x’=0 equation 15 gives

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(25)

For x=0 equation 15 gives

(26)

But from equation 18

(27)

(28)

Thus we can write equation 26 as

(29)

(30)

Comparing equation 25 and 30

Thus equations 22-24 become

(31)

(32)

(33)

Substituting equation 25 as in equation 36

(34)

Substituting equation 22 as in equation 32 gives

(35)

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Thus all the four unknown constants are determined and equations 15-18 can be written as

(36)

(37)

(38)

(39)

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