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Last Glacial Maximum

The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), also referred
to as the Late Glacial Maximum, was the most
recent time during the Last Glacial Period that ice
sheets were at their greatest extent. Ice sheets covered
much of North America, Northern Europe, and Asia
and profoundly affected Earth's climate by causing
drought, desertification, and a large drop in sea
levels.[1] According to Clark et al., growth of ice sheets
commenced 33,000 years ago and maximum
coverage was between 26,500 years and 19–20,000
years ago, when deglaciation commenced in the
Northern Hemisphere, causing an abrupt rise in sea
level. Decline of the West Antarctica ice sheet A map of sea surface temperature changes and
occurred between 14,000 and 15,000 years ago, glacial extent during the last glacial maximum
consistent with evidence for another abrupt rise in the according to Climate: Long range Investigation,
sea level about 14,500 years ago.[2][3] Mapping, and Prediction.

The LGM is referred to in Britain as the Dimlington

Stadial, dated to between 31,000 and 16,000 years.[4][5] In the archaeology of Paleolithic Europe,
the LGM spans the Aurignacian, Gravettian, Solutrean, Magdalenian and Périgordian cultures.

The LGM was followed by the Late Glacial Interstadial.

Contents
Glacial climate
World impact
Africa and the Middle East
Asia
Australasia
Europe
North America
South America
See also
Notes
Further reading
External links

Glacial climate
According to Blue Marble 3000 (a video by the Zurich University of Applied Sciences), the average
global temperature around 19,000 BC (about 21,000 years ago) was 9 °C (48 °F).[7] This is about 6°C
(11°F) colder than the 2013–2017 average. This was confirmed in study published in 2020 which
found that the Last Glacial Maximum was ~6.1 °C colder than today. The study also found that the
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equilibrium climate sensitivity

was 3.4 °C, consistent with the
established consensus range of 2–
4.5 °C.[8][9]

According to the United States

Geological Survey (USGS),
permanent summer ice covered Evolution of temperatures in the Post-Glacial period according to
about 8% of Earth's surface and Greenland ice cores.[6]
25% of the land area during the
last glacial maximum.[10] The
USGS also states that sea level
was about 125 meters (410 feet)
lower than in present times
(2012).[10]

When comparing to the present,

the average global temperature
was 15 °C (59 °F) for the 2013–
2017 period.[11] Currently (as of Temperature proxies for the last 40,000 years.
2012), about 3.1% of Earth's
surface and 10.7% of the land area
is covered in year-round ice.[10]

The formation of an ice sheet or ice cap requires both prolonged cold and precipitation (snow).
Hence, despite having temperatures similar to those of glaciated areas in North America and Europe,
East Asia remained unglaciated except at higher elevations. This difference was because the ice sheets
in Europe produced extensive anticyclones above them.

These anticyclones generated air masses that were so dry on reaching Siberia and Manchuria that
precipitation sufficient for the formation of glaciers could never occur (except in Kamchatka where
these westerly winds lifted moisture from the Sea of Japan). The relative warmth of the Pacific Ocean
due to the shutting down of the Oyashio Current and the presence of large 'east-west' mountain
ranges were secondary factors preventing continental glaciation in Asia.

All over the world, climates at the Last Glacial Maximum were cooler and almost everywhere drier. In
extreme cases, such as South Australia and the Sahel, rainfall could have been diminished by up to
90% compared to the present, with flora diminished to almost the same degree as in glaciated areas
of Europe and North America. Even in less affected regions, rainforest cover was greatly diminished,
especially in West Africa where a few refugia were surrounded by tropical grasslands.

The Amazon rainforest was split into two large blocks by extensive savanna, and the tropical
rainforests of Southeast Asia probably were similarly affected, with deciduous forests expanding in
their place except on the east and west extremities of the Sundaland shelf. Only in Central America
and the Chocó region of Colombia did tropical rainforests remain substantially intact – probably due
to the extraordinarily heavy rainfall of these regions.

Most of the world's deserts expanded. Exceptions were in what is now the western United States,
where changes in the jet stream brought heavy rain to areas that are now desert and large pluvial
lakes formed, the best known being Lake Bonneville in Utah. This also occurred in Afghanistan and
Iran, where a major lake formed in the Dasht-e Kavir.

In Australia, shifting sand dunes covered half the continent, while the Chaco and Pampas in South
America became similarly dry. Present-day subtropical regions also lost most of their forest cover,
notably in eastern Australia, the Atlantic Forest of Brazil, and southern China, where open woodland
became dominant due to drier conditions. In northern China – unglaciated despite its cold climate –
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a mixture of grassland and

tundra prevailed, and even here,
the northern limit of tree growth
was at least 20° farther south
than today.

In the period before the Last

Glacial Maximum, many areas
that became completely barren
desert were wetter than they are
today, notably in southern
Australia, where Aboriginal
occupation is believed to
coincide with a wet period
between 40,000 and 60,000
years Before Present (BP, a
formal measurement of
uncalibrated radiocarbon years, A map of vegetation patterns during the last glacial maximum.
counted from 1950 CE).

World impact
During the Last Glacial Maximum, much of the world was cold, dry, and inhospitable, with frequent
storms and a dust-laden atmosphere. The dustiness of the atmosphere is a prominent feature in ice
cores; dust levels were as much as 20 to 25 times greater than now.[12] This was probably due to a
number of factors: reduced vegetation, stronger global winds, and less precipitation to clear dust
from the atmosphere.[12] The massive sheets of ice locked away water, lowering the sea level,
exposing continental shelves, joining land masses together, and creating extensive coastal plains.[13]
During the last glacial maximum, 21,000 years ago, the sea level was about 125 meters (about 410
feet) lower than it is today.[14]

Africa and the Middle East

In Africa and the Middle East, many smaller mountain glaciers formed, and the Sahara and other
sandy deserts were greatly expanded in extent.[13]

The Persian Gulf averages about 35 metres in depth and the seabed between Abu Dhabi and Qatar is
even shallower, being mostly less than 15 metres deep. For thousands of years the Ur-Shatt (a
confluence of the Tigris-Euphrates Rivers) provided fresh water to the Gulf, as it flowed through the
Strait of Hormuz into the Gulf of Oman.

Bathymetric data suggests there were two palaeo-basins in the Persian Gulf. The central basin may
have approached an area of 20,000 km2, comparable at its fullest extent to lakes such as Lake Malawi
in Africa. Between 12,000 and 9000 years ago much of the Gulf floor would have remained exposed,
only being flooded by the sea after 8,000 years ago.[15]

It is estimated that annual average temperatures in Southern Africa were 6 °C lower than at present
during the Last Glacial Maximum. This alone would however not have been enough to create a
widespread glaciation or permafrost in the Drakensberg Mountains or the Lesotho Highlands.[16]
Seasonal freezing of the ground in the Lesotho Highlands might have reached depths of 2 meter or
more below the surface.[17] A few small glaciers did however develop during the Last Glacial

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Maximum, in particular in south-facing slopes.[16] In the Hex River Mountains, in the Western Cape,
block streams and terraces found near the summit of Matroosberg evidences past periglacial activity
which likely occurred during the Last Glacial Maximum.[18]

Asia

There were ice sheets in modern Tibet (although scientists continue to debate the extent to which the
Tibetan Plateau was covered with ice) as well as in Baltistan and Ladakh. In Southeast Asia, many
smaller mountain glaciers formed, and permafrost covered Asia as far south as Beijing. Because of
lowered sea levels, many of today's islands were joined to the continents: the Indonesian islands as
far east as Borneo and Bali were connected to the Asian continent in a landmass called Sundaland.
Palawan was also part of Sundaland, while the rest of the Philippine Islands formed one large island
separated from the continent only by the Sibutu Passage and the Mindoro Strait.[19]

Australasia

The Australian mainland, New Guinea, Tasmania and many smaller islands comprised a single land
mass. This continent is now referred to sometimes as Sahul.

Between Sahul and Sundaland – a peninsula of South East Asia that comprised present-day Malaysia
and western and northern Indonesia – there remained an archipelago of islands known as Wallacea.
The water gaps between these islands, Sahul and Sundaland were considerably narrower and fewer in
number.

The two main islands of New Zealand, along with associated smaller islands, were joined as one
landmass. Virtually all of the Southern Alps were under permanent ice, with glaciers extending into
much of the surrounding high country.[20]

Europe

Northern Europe was largely covered by ice, the southern boundary of the ice sheets passing through
Germany and Poland. This ice extended northward to cover Svalbard and Franz Josef Land and
northeastward to occupy the Barents Sea, the Kara Sea and Novaya Zemlya, ending at the Taymyr
Peninsula.[21]

In northwestern Russia the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet reached its LGM extent 17 ka BP, five thousand
years later than in Denmark, Germany and Western Poland. Outside the Baltic Shield, and in Russia
in particular, the LGM ice margin of the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet was highly lobate. The main LGM
lobes of Russia followed the Dvina, Vologda and Rybinsk basins respectively. Lobes originated as
result of ice following shallow topographic depressions filled with a soft sediment substrate.[22]

Permafrost covered Europe south of the ice sheet down to present-day Szeged in Southern Hungary.
Ice covered the whole of Iceland.[23] Ice covered Ireland and almost all of Wales, with the southern
boundary of the ice sheet running approximately from the current location of Cardiff north-north-
east to Middlesbrough, and then across Doggerland to Denmark.[24]

North America

In North America, the ice covered essentially all of Canada and extended roughly to the Missouri and
Ohio Rivers, and eastward to Manhattan. In addition to the large Cordilleran Ice Sheet in Canada and
Montana, alpine glaciers advanced and (in some locations) ice caps covered much of the Rocky
Mountains further south. Latitudinal gradients were so sharp that permafrost did not reach far south
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of the ice sheets except at high elevations. Glaciers forced the early human populations who had
originally migrated from northeast Siberia into refugia, reshaping their genetic variation by mutation
and drift. This phenomenon established the older haplogroups found among Native Americans, and
later migrations are responsible for northern North American haplogroups.[25]

On the Island of Hawaii, geologists have long recognized deposits formed by glaciers on Mauna Kea
during recent ice ages. The latest work indicates that deposits of three glacial episodes since 150,000
to 200,000 years ago are preserved on the volcano. Glacial moraines on the volcano formed about
70,000 years ago and from about 40,000 to 13,000 years ago. If glacial deposits were formed on
Mauna Loa, they have long since been buried by younger lava flows.[26]

South America

During the Last Glacial Maximum valley glaciers in the southern Andes (38–43° S) merged and
descended from the Andes occupying lacustrine and marine basins where they spread out forming
large piedmont glacier lobes. Glaciers extended about 7 km west of the modern Llanquihue Lake but
not more than 2 to 3 km south of it. Nahuel Huapi Lake in Argentina was also glaciated by the same
time.[27] Over most Chiloé glacier advance peaked in 26,000 yrs BP forming a long north–south
moraine system along the eastern coast of Chiloé Island (41.5–43° S). By that time the glaciation at
the latitude of Chiloé was of ice sheet type contrasting to the valley glaciation found further north in
Chile.[28]

Despite glacier advances much of the area west of Llanquihue Lake was still ice-free during the Last
Glacial Maximum.[29][30] During the coldest period of the Last Glacial Maximum vegetation at this
location was dominated by Alpine herbs in wide open surfaces. The global warming that followed
caused a slow change in vegetation towards a sparsely distributed vegetation dominated by
Nothofagus species.[29][30] Within this parkland vegetation Magellanic moorland alternated with
Nothofagus forest, and as warming progressed even warm-climate trees begun to grow in the area. It
is estimated that the tree line was depressed about 1000 m relative to present day elevations during
the coldest period, but it rose gradually until 19,300 yr BP. At that time a cold reversal caused a
replacement of much of the arboreal vegetation with Magellanic moorland and Alpine species.[30]

Little is known about the extent of glaciers during Last Glacial Maximum north of the Chilean Lake
District. To the north, in the dry Andes of Central and the Last Glacial Maximum is associated with
increased humidity and the verified advance of at least some mountain glaciers.[31]

In the Southern Hemisphere, the Patagonian Ice Sheet covered the whole southern third of Chile and
adjacent areas of Argentina. On the western side of the Andes the ice sheet reached sea level as far
north as in the 41 degrees south at Chacao Channel. The western coast of Patagonia was largely
glaciated, but some authors have pointed out the possible existence of ice-free refugia for some plant
species. On the eastern side of the Andes, glacier lobes occupied the depressions of Seno Skyring,
Seno Otway, Inútil Bay, and Beagle Channel. On the Straits of Magellan, ice reached as far as Segunda
Angostura.[32]

See also
Climate: Long range Investigation, Mapping, and Prediction
Glacial period – Interval of time within an ice age that is marked by colder temperatures and
glacier advances
Ice age – Period of long-term reduction in temperature of Earth's surface and atmosphere
Last Glacial Period – The most recent glacial period with major glaciations of the northern
hemisphere (115 000 - 12 000 years ago)
Penultimate Glacial Period
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Mousterian Pluvial
Holocene glacial retreat – Global deglaciation
Oldest Dryas
Older Dryas
Middle Dryas
Bølling-Allerød warming
Bølling oscillation
Allerød oscillation
Younger Dryas – Time period
African humid period – Holocene climate period during which northern Africa was wetter than
today
8.2 kiloyear event
5.9 kiloyear event
4.2 kiloyear event
Older Peron
Piora Oscillation
Little Ice Age – A period of cooling after the Medieval Warm Period that lasted from the 16th to
the 19th century
Sea level rise – The current long-term trend for sea levels to rise mainly in response to global
warming
Black Sea deluge hypothesis – Hypothetical flood scenario
Timeline of glaciation – Chronology of the major ice ages of the Earth

Notes
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a752). Science. 325 (5941): 710–4. Bibcode:2009Sci...325..710C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/
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4. Ashton, Nick (2017). Early Humans. William Collins. p. 241. ISBN 978-0-00-815035-8.
5. "Radiocarbon dates from the site at Dimlington led Rose (1985) to designate this area as the UK
type site for the Late Devensian Chronozone or 'Dimlington' Stadial." Boston, Clare M. (2007) An
examination of the Geochemical properties of late devensian glacigenic sediments in Eastern
England, Durham theses, Durham E-Theses Online: etheses.dur.ac.uk/2609 (http://etheses.dur.a
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carbon-chronology-of-the-last-glacial-maximum.pdf) (PDF). Quaternary Science Reviews. 122:
233–249. Bibcode:2015QSRv..122..233M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015QSRv..122..23
3M). doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.05.027 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.quascirev.2015.05.027).
hdl:10533/148448 (https://hdl.handle.net/10533%2F148448).
31. Harrison, Stephan (2004). "The Pleistocene glaciations of Chile". In Ehlers, J.; Gibbard, P.L.
(eds.). Quaternary Glaciations – Extent and Chronology: Part III: South America, Asia, Africa,
Australasia, Antarctica. pp. 91–97.

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32. Rabassa, Jorge; Coronato, Andrea; Bujalesky, Gustavo; Salemme, Mónica; Roig, Claudio;
Meglioli, Andrés; Heusser, Calvin; Gordillo, Sandra; Roig, Fidel; Borromei, Ana; Quattrocchio,
Mirta (June 2000). "Quaternary of Tierra del Fuego, Southernmost South America: an updated
review". Quaternary International. 68–71 (1): 217–240. Bibcode:2000QuInt..68..217R (https://ui.a
dsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000QuInt..68..217R). doi:10.1016/S1040-6182(00)00046-X (https://doi.o
rg/10.1016%2FS1040-6182%2800%2900046-X).

Further reading
Developments in Quaternary Science Series
Gillespie, Alan R.; Porter, Stephen C.; Atwater, Brian F. (2003). The Quaternary Period in the
United States (https://books.google.com/books?id=ys2keOYC5AoC). Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-
444-51471-4.
Ehlers, Jürgen; Gibbard, Philip L. (2004). Quaternary Glaciations Extent and Chronology. 1.
Europe (https://books.google.com/books?id=rKsL8CFcdAoC). Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-444-
51462-2.
Ehlers, Jürgen; Gibbard, Philip L. (2004). Quaternary Glaciations: Extent and Chronology. 2.
North America (https://books.google.com/books?id=c0wnQqpIF-QC). Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-
444-51592-6.
Ehlers, Jürgen; Gibbard, Philip L. (2004). Quaternary Glaciations: Extent and Chronology. 3.
South America, Asia, Africa, Australia, Antarctica (https://books.google.com/books?id=2xpIEP
H7RW4C). Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-444-51593-3.
Šibrava, Vladimír (1986). Šibrava, V.; Bowen, D.Q; Richmond, G.M. (eds.). "Quaternary
Glaciations in the Northern Hemisphere" (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/0277379
1/5). Quaternary Science Reviews. 5: 1–514. Bibcode:1986QSRv....5....1S (https://ui.adsabs.harv
ard.edu/abs/1986QSRv....5....1S). doi:10.1016/0277-3791(86)90167-8 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2
F0277-3791%2886%2990167-8).

External links
Adams, J.M. (1997). "Global land environments since the last interglacial" (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20080116122058/http://www.esd.ornl.gov/projects/qen/nerc.html). Atlas of
Palaeovegetation: Preliminary land ecosystem maps of the world since the Last Glacial
Maximum. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, TN. Archived from the original (http://www.esd.ornl.go
v/projects/qen/nerc.html) on 2008-01-16.
"Map and GIS database of glacial landforms and features related to the last British Ice Sheet" (htt
p://www.sheffield.ac.uk/geography/staff/clark_chris/britice.html). BRITICE. Department of
Geology, University of Sheffield. 2004.
Dyke, A.S.; Moore, A.; Robertson, L. (2003). "Deglaciation of North America" (http://geopub.nrca
n.gc.ca/moreinfo_e.php?id=214399). Geological Survey of Canada Open File, 1574. (32 digital
maps at 1:7 000 000 scale with accompanying digital chronological database and one poster (two
sheets) with full map series.)
Manley, W.; Kuaffman, D. "Alaska PaleoGlacier Atlas: A Geospatial Compilation of Pleistocene
Glacier Extents" (http://instaar.colorado.edu/QGISL/ak_paleoglacier_atlas/index.html). INSTAAR.
University of Colorado.
Paleoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project (PMIP) PMIP Web Site (http://pmip.lsce.ipsl.fr/)
and 'Publications : Last Glacial Maximum. (https://web.archive.org/web/20070928001921/http://p
mip.lsce.ipsl.fr/publications/pub21k.shtml)
Paleoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project Phase II (PMIP2) PMIP2 Home page (http://pmip
2.lsce.ipsl.fr/) and PMIP 2 Publications. (http://pmip2.lsce.ipsl.fr/)
Osipov, Eduard Y.; Khlystov, Oleg M. "Glaciers and meltwater flux to Lake Baikal during the Last
Glacial Maximum" (http://ice.tsu.ru/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&i
d=43&Itemid=88&limitstart=5).
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