NkD/ghf;rhpq;

Guhr]];
(MANUFACTURING PROCESSES)

(M–SCHEME)

e. Iadhug;gd;> M.E., M.I.S.T.E.

Kjy;th;
= NuZfhk;ghs; ghypnlf;dpf; fy;Y}hp
Ngh@h; - 606 907.
NkD/ghf;rhpq; Guhr]];
(Manufacturing Processes)
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Revised Edition : June 2017

Price : 168.00 For Contact :

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Vellore – 632 011

Type setting :
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Vellore – 632 011.
 KfTiu
Ntfkhf tsh;e;J tUk; mwptpay; kw;Wk; njhopy;
El;gj;ij Ghpe;J nfhs;s mjid mtuth; jha;
nkhopapy; gbg;gNj vspjhd topahFk;. ,jid fUj;jpy;
nfhz;L jkpopy; vOjg; gl;Ls;s “NkD/ghf;rhpq;
Guhr]];” vd;w ,e;j Gj;jfk; %d;whk; gUt
,ae;jputpay; khzth;fSf;fhd Gjpa ghlj;
jpl;lj;jpd;gb cUthf;fg; gl;Ls;sJ.

,g;Gj;jfj;jpy; cs;s midj;J gFjpfSk;

jFe;j tpsf;fg; glq;fSld; RUf;fkhfTk;>
njspthfTk; vOjg; gl;Ls;sd. Technical terms
Mq;fpyj;jpy; vOjg;gl;L cs;sjhy; khzth;fs;
Fog;gkpd;wp vspjpy; Ghpe;J nfhs;s KbAk;. xt;nthU
njhFjpapd; KbtpYk; cs;s thhpaj; NjHT tpdhf;fs;
khzth;fSf;F kpfTk; gaDs;sjhf ,Uf;Fk;.

,e;j Gj;jfj;ij rpwg;ghf ntspapl;Ls;s

fy; gjpgg ; fk; epWtdj;jhUf;F vdJ ed;wpia
njhptpj;Jf; nfhs;fpNwd;. ,g;Gj;jfj;ij gbf;Fk;
Mrphpa ngUkf;fs; kw;Wk; khzth;fs; jq;fspd; Mf;fg;
g+h;tkhd fUj;Jfis ey;fp vd;id NkYk;
Cf;Ftpf;FkhW Ntz;LfpNwd;.

e. Iadhug;gd;
(iyanarvlr1976@gmail.com)

“elg;g it ahTk; ed;wha; mika tho;j ;Jf;fs; ! ... ”

 32032 - MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
DETAILED SYLLABUS

Unit - I : Foundry Technology

Patterns: Definition – types of pattern – solid piece – split piece - loose piece – match
plate - sweep - skeleton – segmental – shell – pattern materials – pattern allowances.
Moulding: Moulding sand – constituents – types – properties of moulding sand –
moulding sand preparation – moulding tools - moulding boxes – types of moulds –
green sand mould – dry sand mould – loam mould – methods of moulding – moulding
machines – jolting – squeezing – sand slinger construction and working principle.
Cores: Essential qualities of core – materials – core sand preparation – core binders
– core boxes - CO2 process core making – types of core.
Metallurgy :– Introduction - Iron-carbon diagram.
Melting furnaces: Blast furnace – Cupola furnace – crucible furnace – types – pit
furnace – coke fired – oil fired – electric furnace – types – direct arc – indirect arc –
induction furnace – working principles.
Casting: Shell mould casting – investment casting – pressure die casting – hot
chamber die casting – cold chamber die casting – gravity die casting – centrifugal
casting – continuous casting - defects in casting – causes and remedies.

Unit - II : Welding Technology

Arc Welding: Definition – arc welding equipment – electrode types – filler and flux
materials - arc welding methods – metal arc - Metal Inert gas (MIG) - Tungsten inert
gas (TIG) - Submerged arc - Electro slag welding – resistance welding – spot welding
– butt welding – seam welding – Plasma arc welding – Thermit welding – Electron
beam welding – Laser beam welding – friction welding – ultrasonic welding – Induction
welding - working principle – applications – advantages and disadvantages.
Gas welding: Oxy-acetylene welding – advantages - limitations - gas welding
equipment - Three types of flames – welding techniques – filler rods. – Flame cutting
– soldering – brazing – difference between soldering and brazing. Types of welded
joints – merits and demerits of welded joints – inspection and testing of welded joints
– destructive and nondestructive types of tests – magnetic particle test – radiographic
and ultrasonic test - defects in welding – causes and remedies.

Unit - III : Forming Technology

Forging: Hot working, cold working – advantages of hot working and cold working–
hot working operations – rolling, forging, smith forging, drop forging, upset forging,
press forging – roll forging.
Press Working: Types of presses - mechanical and hydraulic presses - press tools
and accessories - press working operations - bending operations - angle bending -
channel bending – curling – drawing - shearing operations - blanking, piercing,
trimming – notching – lancing.
Powder Metallurgy: Methods of manufacturing metal powders – atomization,
reduction and electrolysis deposition – compacting – sintering – sizing – infiltration –
mechanical properties of parts made by powder metallurgy – design rules for the
power metallurgy process.

Unit - IV : Theory of metal cutting: Introduction – orthogonal cutting – oblique

cutting - single point cutting tool – nomenclature – types of chips – chip breakers –
cutting tool materials – properties – tool wears – factors affecting tool life – cutting
fluids – functions – properties of cutting fluid.
Centre Lathe: Introduction - specifications – simple sketch – principal parts – head
stock – back geared type – all geared type – feed mechanism - tumbler gear
mechanism – quick change gear box – apron mechanism – work holding device –
three jaw chuck – four jaw chuck – centres - faceplate – mandrel – steadyrest –
follower rest – machining operations done on lathe - straight turning – step turning -
taper turning methods: form tool – tailstock set over method – compound rest method
– taper turning attachment – knurling - Thread cutting – Facing – Boring – chamfering
–grooving – parting-off – eccentric turning - cutting speed – feed - depth of cut - metal
removal rate.
Semi-Automatic Lathes: Types of semi-automatic lathes – capstan and turret lathes
– Geneva indexing mechanism – bar feeding mechanism - difference between turret
and capstan – work holding devices – tool holders.

Unit - V : Drilling and Metrology

Drilling Machines: Drills - flat drills - twist drills – nomenclature of twist drill - types of
drilling machines - bench type - floor type - radial type - gang drill – multi spindle type
-principle of operation in drilling - methods of holding drill bit - drill chucks - socket and
sleeve –drilling operation – reaming - counter sinking - counter boring - spot facing –
tapping - deep hole drilling.
Metrology: Definition – need of inspection – precision – accuracy – sensitivity -
magnification – repeatability – calibration – comparator – Advantages – requirements
– mechanical comparator – optical comparator – electrical comparator – pneumatic
comparator – Principles – advantages and disadvantages.
Measuring instruments: Construction and principles only - Steel rule – Callipers:
outside calliper – inside calliper – jenny calliper – Combination set – Feeler gauge –
Pitch screw gauge – Vernier calliper – Digital calliper – Vernier height gauge –
Micrometer – Inside micrometer – Thread micrometer – Slip gauges – requirement –
Indian standard – care and use - Sine bar – types – uses – limitations – Working
principle of clinometers, autocollimator, angle dekkor.
 Contents
Units Page No.

Unit – I : Foundry Technology ……………........ 1.1 – 1.73

Unit – II : Welding Technology ………………... 2.1 – 2.44

Unit – III : Forming Technology ……………….. 3.1 – 3.50

Unit – IV : Theory of Metal Cutting , Centre

Lathe & Semi – Automatic Lathe …… 4.1 – 4.75

Unit – V : Drilling & Metrology …………..…… 5.1 – 5.64

 2 & 3 Marks Questions and Answers

 Board Examination Question Papers
 Unit – I
FOUNDRY TECHNOLOGY
1.1 Introduction
xU nghUis Njitahd tbtj;jpy; jahhpf;f gy;NtW
cw;gj;jp Kiwfs; cs;sd. Casting vd;gJ rpf;fyhd
tbtikg;G cila nghUs;fis mjpf mstpy; cw;gj;jp
nra;a gad;gLk; nray;Kiw MFk;. cUf;fpa metalI mould
cavityy; Cw;wp Fspu itj;J (solidification) fpilg;gJ casting
vdg;gLk;. PatternI gad;gLj;jp moulding sandy; Njitahd
tbtj;ij Vw;gLj;Jk; Kiw moulding vdg;gLk;. ,jd; %yk;
cUthf;fg;gLk; tbtk; mould my;yJ mould cavity MFk;.
Moulding, melting kw;Wk; casting eilngWk; ,lk; foundry vd;W
miof;fg;gLk;.

1.2 Pattern - Definition

Casting d; khjphp tbtk; (model) pattern MFk;. ,J wood,
metal kw;Wk; plasticMy; nra;ag;gl;;bUf;Fk;. PatternI
gad;gLj;jp moulding sandy; mould cUthf;fg;gLfpwJ.

1.2.1 Types of Patterns

nghJthf fPo;f;fz;l patternfs; foundryy; gad;gLfpd;wd>
1) Solid piece pattern 2) Split piece pattern
3) Loose pirce pattern 4) Match plate pattern
5) Sweep pattern 6) Skeleton pattern
7) Segmental pattern 8) Shell pattern
1) Solid piece or Single piece pattern

Fig.1.1 Solid piece pattern

1.1
 ,izg;Gfs; vJTk; ,y;yhky; single piecey;
jahhpg;gJ solid pattern MFk;. ,e;j pattern rpwpa kw;Wk; vspa
casting nra;a gad;gLfpwJ. Moulding sandy; ,Ue;J patternI
vspjhf vLf;fyhk;.
2) Split piece pattern
Top part

Bottom part
Dowel pin
Fig.1.2 Split piece pattern
xNu piecey; nra;ag;gl;bUf;Fk; rpy pattenfis mouldy;
,Ue;J vLf;f KbahJ. vdNt ,jw;F split piece patten
gad;gLfpwJ. ,uz;L gFjpfshf nra;J gphpf;Fk; tifapy;
nghUj;jg;gl;bUg;gJ split piece pattern MFk;. xU gFjp
mouldd; fPo; ghjpiaAk; kw;nwhU gFjp mouldd; Nky;
ghjpiaAk; cUthf;FfpwJ. ,e;j ,uz;L gFjpfSk; dowel
pin %yk; rhpahf nghUj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
rpf;fyhd tbtikg;G cs;s casting jahhpf;f %d;W
my;yJ ehd;F gFjpfSld; $ba split pattern gad; gLfpwJ.
Cylinders, spindles, pipes, shafts Nghd;w rkr;rPh; tbt casting
jahhpf;f splite piece pattern gad;gLfpwJ.
3) Loose piece pattern

Loose pieces

Fig.1.3 Loose piece pattern

1.2
 rpy patternfis mouldy; ,Ue;J xNu pieceMf vLf;f
KbahJ. vdNt solid pattern cld; loose piece patternfs;
vspjpy; gphpf;Fk; tifapy; nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;. Moulding
nra;j gpwF Kjypy; solid patternI ePf;f Ntz;Lk;. gpwF loose
piecefis mouldf;F Nrjk; Vw;glhky; vLf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,e;j
patternI gad;gLj;jp nghpa kw;Wk; rpf;fyhd tbtikg;G
cs;s casting jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
4) Match plate pattern

Match plate Patterns

Fig.1.4 Match plate patterin

,e;j patterny; mYkpdpaj;jhy; nra;ag;gl;l match plate
cs;sJ. mjd; ,U gf;fKk; split metal pattern
nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;. Patternd; xU gFjp match plated;; xU
gf;fk; nghUj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ. kWghjp Neh; vjpuhf match
plated; kWgf;fk; nghUj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,t;thW gy
patternfis math platey; nghUj;jyhk;. Runner kw;Wk; gate
mikf;fj; Njitg;gLk;; patternfs; plated; mbg;gFjpapy;
nghUj;jg;gLk;. Match plate patternfs; machine mouldingy;
gad;gLfpwJ. ,J rpwpa kw;Wk; Jy;ypakhd castingfis
mjpf msT cw;gj;jp nra;a Vw;wJ.
5) Sweep pattern
,jpy; ika mr;rpy; RoYk; tifapy; sweep board
cs;sJ. ,e;j sweep boardd; Kid castingd; ghjp msT
kw;Wk; tbtj;jpw;F Vw;g nra;ag;gl;bUf;Fk;. ,J sweep
pattern vd;W miof;fg;gLk;. Moulding boxy; pattern
itf;fg;gl;L kz;iz epug;gp ramming nra;ag; gLfpwJ.
1.3
 Spindle
Sweep board

Mould cavity
Green sand

Fig.1.5 Sweep pattern

PatternI mjd; mr;rpy; Rw;Wk; NghJ kz;

mfw;wg;gl;L Njitahd mould cavity cUthfpwJ. Sweep
pattern %yk; nghpa solid pattern gad;gLj;JtJ
jtph;f;fg;gLfpwJ. ,jdhy; pattern nryTfs; FiwfpwJ.
,e;j patternI gad;gLj;jp rkr;rPuhd (symmetrical) kw;Wk;
tl;l tbthd nghpa castingfs; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpd;wd.

6) Skeleton pattern
Loam sand Rib

Fig.1.6 Skeleton pattern

nghpa msT castingfSf;F patternI jahhpf;f mjpf

mstpy; kuk; Njitg;gLfpwJ. vdNt solid patternfSf;F
gjpyhf skeleton pattern gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. Kjypy;
kur;rl;lq;fs; kw;Wk; ribfSld; $ba frame Njitahd
tbtj;jpw;F jahh; nra;a Ntz;Lk.; ,e;;j mikg;G skeleton
MFk;. ,e;j framey; loam sand epug;gg; gLfpwJ.

1.4
 Strikle boardI gad;gLj;jp mjpfg;gbahd kz;
ePf;fg;gl;L Njitahd tbtj;jpw;F pattern fpilf;fpwJ.
Skeleton patternI gad;gLj;jp water pipes, pipe bends, valve
bodies Nghd;wit cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpd;wd.
7) Segmental pattern
,J part pattern vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;. Circular mouldI
cUthf;f ,e;j pattern gad;gLfpwJ. Pattern KO tbtj;jpy;
,Uf;fhJ. tl;l tbt patternd; xU gFjp segmental pattern
MFk;.

Pivot

A portion
of mould

Segmental
pattern

Fig.1.7 Segmental pattern

Kjypy; vertical spindleI mould boxd; ikaj;jpy;
nghUj;j Ntz;Lk;. Pattern MdJ pivot %yk; spindley;
nghUj;jg;gLfpwJ. Moulding sandI patternd; ntspg;gug;G
kw;Wk; cs; gug;gpy; epug;g Ntz;Lk;. Ramming nra;ag;gl;L
mouldd; xU gFjp cUthfpwJ. ,t;thW mouldd; gy
gFjpfs; (segments) cUthf;fg;gl;L KOikahd tl;l tbt
mould fpilf;fpwJ. ,e;j patternI gad;gLj;jp rings, wheel rims
Nghd;w tl;l tbt castingfs; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpd;wd.
8) Shell pattern
Shell pattern vd;gJ nky;ypa hollow pattern MFk;. ,J
,uz;L gFjpfshf metal My; nra;ag;l;L dowel pins %yk;
nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;. Patternd; ntspg;Gwk; mould
nra;tjw;Fk; cl;Gwk; core nra;tjw;Fk; gad;gLfpwJ.
1.5
 Parting

One half of
shell pattern Dowel pin

Fig.1.8 Shell pattern

,e;j patternI gad;gLj;jp nghpa pipe fittings, short

bends Nghd;wit cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpd;wd.

1.2.2 Pattern Materials

Pattern jahhpf;f fPo;f;fz;l nghUl;fs;; gad;gLfpd;wd.
1) Wood 2.Metal 3. Plaster 4. Plastic 5. Wax

1) Wood
Pattern jahhpf;f mjpf mstpy; wood gad;gLfpwJ.
Njf;F> mehogony, pine, rose wood Nghd;w kuq;fspy; ,Ue;J
pattern jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ. Pattern kPJ metal coating nfhLj;J
surface finish kw;Wk; life mjpfhpf;fyhk;.
Advantages
1) tpiy FiwT> vspjpy; fpilf;Fk;.
2) ntl;b tbtikg;gJ vspJ.
3) Fiwe;j vil cs;sjhy; ifahs;tJ vspJ.

Disadvantages
1) <uj;jhy; ghjpf;fg;gl;L cUtk; khWk.;
2) vspjpy; Nja;khdk; miltjhy; mjpf cw;gj;jpf;F
Vw;wjy;y.
3) Machine mouldingw;F Vw;wjy;y.

1.6
2) Metal
mjpf vz;zpf;ifapy; casting cw;gj;jp nra;tjw;F
metal pattern gad;gLfpwJ. kuj;jhyhd master patternI
gad;gLj;jp metal pattern jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ. Metal pattern
jahhpf;f cast iron, brass, aluminium, white metal Nghd;wit
gad;gLfpd;wd. Pattern jahhpf;f aluminium kpfr; rpwe;j metal
MFk;. rpwpa patternfSf;F brass Vw;wJ. rpf;fyhd tbt
pattern fSf;F white metal gad;gLj;jyhk;.

Advantages
1) cWjpahdJ. ePbj;J ,Uf;Fk;. msTfs; Jy;ypakhf
,Uf;Fk;.
2) <uj;jhy; cUtk; khwhJ.
3) Machine mouldingy; gad;gLj;jyhk;.
4) mjpf cw;gj;jpf;F Vw;wJ.
5) Metald; gug;G smoothMf ,Ug;gjhy; patternd; tbtk;
mouldy; ed;whf mikAk;.

Disadvantages
1) fdkhdJ kw;Wk; tpiy mjpfk;.
2) Machining nra;tJ fbdk;.
3) Master pattern Njit.
4) Repair nra;tJ fbdk;.

3) Plaster
Gypsum cement MdJ plaster vdg;gLk;. Plaster cld;
jz;zPh; fye;J master patterny; epug;gp pattern
jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ. ,J kpfr; rpwpa pattern kw;Wk; core box
jahhpf;fg; gad;gLfpwJ>
Advantages
1) rpf;fyhd tbtj;ij vspjpy; jahhpf;fyhk;.
2) Compressive strength mjpfk;.
3) kypthdJ.
4) tbtikg;gJ vspJ.

Disadvantages
1) nghpa patternfs; jahhpf;f Vw;wjy;y.
1.7
4) Plastics
Plastic pattern
MdJ kuj;jhyhd master patterny;
,Ue;J jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ. ,jw;F thermo setting plastic kw;Wk;
thermoplasitic gad;gLfpwJ. mjpf cw;gj;jpf;F thermo setting
plasticy; nra;ag;gl;l patternk;> Fiwe;j cw;gj;jpf;F thermo
plasticy; nra;ag;gl;l patternk; gad;gLfpwJ>

Advantages
1) vil FiwT kw;Wk; cWjpahdJ.
2) tpiy FiwT.
3) <uj;jhy; ghjpf;fhJ.
4) Nja;khd vjph;G cilaJ.
5) msTfs; Jy;ypakhf ,Uf;Fk;.

5) Wax
Parafifin wax, shellac wax kw;Wk; bees wax Nghd;wtw;wpy;
,Ue;J wax pattern jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ. Wax cld; jz;zPh;
fye;J split dieapy; nrYj;jg;gLfpwJ. gpd;dh; Fsph;tpf;fg;gl;L
wax pattern fpilf;fpwJ.
Advantages
1) Pattern kpf Jy;ypakhf nra;ayhk;.
2) Mouldd; gug;G smooth Mf ,Uf;Fk;.
3) Investment castingf;F Vw;wJ.

1.2.3 Factors for selecting pattern materials

fPo;f;fz;l fhuzpfisg; nghWj;J pattern material
Njh;e;njLf;fg;gLfpwJ.
1) cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; castingd; vz;zpf;if.
2) Castingd; juk;.
3) Castingd; msT kw;Wk; tbtk;.
4) Moulding kw;Wk; casting nra;Ak; tpjk;.
5) Castingd; surface finish.
6) Castingd; Jy;ypak;.

1.2.4 Pattern allowances

Patternfs; castingd; rhpahd mstpw;F
jahhpf;fg;gLtjpy;iy. Castingd; msit tpl rw;W nghpa
mstpy; patternfs; nra;ag; gLfpd;wd. Patternf;F
1.8
nfhLf;fg;gLk; ,e;j rw;W mjpf msT allowance vdg;gLk;.
Metal shrinkage Vw;gLtij epth;j;jp nra;aTk;> metal
distortionI jtph;f;fTk;> patternI mouldy; ,Ue;J vspjpy;
ntspNa vLf;fTk; pattern allowance nfhLf;fg;gLfpwJ.
fPo;f;fz;l gy;NtW pattern allowancefs; cs;sd.
1) Shrinkage allowance 2) Machining allowance
3) Draft allowance 4) Distortion allowance
5) Rapping allowance

1) Shrinkage allowance or contraction allowance

Mouldy; cUf;fpa metalI Cw;Wk; NghJ Fsph;e;J jpl
epiyia milfpwJ. FspUk; NghJ metal RUq;fp msT
FiwfpwJ. ,ij epth;j;jp nra;a pattern MdJ casting
msit tpl rw;W nghpjhf nra;ag;gLfpwJ. ,J shrinkage
allowance MFk;. gy;NtW metalfSf;F nfhLf;fg;gLk;
shrinkage allowance :
Cast iron – 10mm / metre, Steel –15 mm / metre
Brass – 14mm / metre, Aluminium –18 mm / metre

2) Machining or finishing allowance

nghJthf castingfs; surface finish ngwTk;> mjpfg;
gbahd metalI ePf;fTk; machining nra;ag;gLfpwJ. Castingy;
machining nra;a Ntz;ba mstpw;F Vw;g patternI nghpjhf
nra;a Ntz;Lk;. Patternf;F nfhLf;fg;gLk; ,e;j mjpf
msthdJ machining allowance MFk;. Iron, steel Nghd;w
ferrous metalfSf;F 3mm kw;Wk; aluminium, brass Nghd;w non-
ferrous metalfSf;F 1.5 mm vd machining allowance
nfhLf;fg;gLfpwJ.

3) Draft allowance
PatternI mouldy; ,Ue;J ntspNa vLf;Fk; NghJ
mouldd; Kidfs; Nrjkilayhk;. ,ijj; jtph;f;f patternd;
nrq;Fj;Jg; gf;fq;fs; rw;W rhpthf nra;ag;gl Ntz;Lk;.
,J draft allowance MFk;. ,J degrees my;yJ mmy;
Fwpf;fg;gLk;. nghJthf draft allowance 3 mm / metre vd
nfhLf;fg;gLfpwJ.
1.9
 Draft Draft

Fig.1.9 Draft allowance

4) Distortion or camber allowance

Fig.1.10 Distortion allowance

rpy castingfs; Fsph;tilAk; NghJ mjd; tbtj;jpy;

rpwpJ khWjy; Vw;gLk;. ,J castingd; msT> tbtk;>
thicknesI nghWj;J ,Uf;Fk;. ,e;j tbt khw;wj;ij jtph;f;f
pattern vjph;jpirapy; rw;W tisj;J nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
cjhuzkhf> U tbt castingMdJ Fsph;e;j gpd;G mjd;
Kidfs; rw;W tphpe;J tbtk; khWfpwJ. ,ij jtph;f;f
patterny; Kidfs; vjph; jpirapy; rpwpJ tisf;fg;gLk;.
,jdhy; casting Fsph;tilAk;NghJ Kidfs; rhpahd
tbtj;jpw;F fpilf;fpwJ.
5) Rapping or shake allowance
Mouldy; ,Ue;J ntspNa vLf;Fk; Kd;> patternI Kd;Dk;
gpd;Dk; vy;yh gf;fq;fspYk; mirf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,jdhy;
mouldd; msT rpwpJ mjpfkhFk;. vdNt castingI tpl rw;W
rpwpa mstpy; patternI nra;a Ntz;Lk;. mjhtJ negative
allowance nfhLf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,J rapping allowance MFk;.
1.10
1.3 Moulding
MouldI cUthf;Fk; nray;Kiw moulding MFk;.
,jpy; pattern itj;J kz; epug;GtJ> ramming nra;tJ>
patternI ntspNa vLg;gJ> runner, riser, gate Nghd;wtw;iw
mikg;gJ> vent holes Vw;gLj;JtJ Mfpait mlq;Fk;.

1.4 Moulding sand

Foundryy; moulding sand kpf Kf;fpakhdJ MFk;. ,J
cUfpa metald; mjpf ntg;gepiyia jhq;f ty;yJ. cUfpa
metal cld; tpid GhptJ ,y;iy. cUf;fpa metalI Cw;Wk;
NghJ mouldy; ,Ue;J ePuhtp kw;Wk; thAf;fis ntspNa
nry;y mDkjpf;fpwJ. ,j;jifa gz;Gffshy; casting
nra;tjw;F moulding sand gad;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ>

1.4.1 Constituents of moulding sand

Moulding sand-y; fPo;f;fz;lit mlq;fpAs;sd.
1) Sand 2) Binder 3) Additive
1) Sand
Sandy;
kzy; (silica), fspkz; (clay)kw;Wk; <ug;gjk;
mlq;fpAs;sJ. Sandy; 80 Kjy; 90% tiu mlq;fpAs;s silica
ntg;gk; jhq;Fk; jd;ikiaf; nfhLf;fpwJ. 5 Kjy; 20%
tiu cs;s clay %yk; sandf;F binding strength fpilf;Fk;. 2
Kjy; 8% tiu Nrh;f;fg;gLk; ePh; sandf;F <ug;gjj;ijf;
nfhLf;fpwJ.
2) Binder
Moulding sand xl;Lk; jd;ik (cohesiveness)
ngWtjw;F binder Nrh;f;fg;gLfpwJ. Binder MdJ kzy;
Jfs;fis xd;Wld; xd;W gpizj;J mouldw;F typik
nfhLf;fpwJ. fPo;f;fz;l %d;W tif binderfs; cs;sd.
a) Clay type binders : Bentonite, kalvanite Mfpait clay type
binderfs; MFk;.
b) Organic binders : kuk;> resin, linseed oil, dextrin kw;Wk;
molasses Mfpait organic binderfs; MFk;.
c) Inorganic binders : Portland cement kw;Wk; sodium silicate
Mfpait inorganic binderfs; MFk;.

1.11
3) Additives
Strength, permeability, ntg;gk; jhq;Fk; jd;ik Nghd;w
gz;Gfis Nkk;gLj;j moulding sandy; additive Nrh;f;fg;gLk;.
fPo;f;fz;l %d;W tifahd additives gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
a) Reducing agents : ,t;titahd additive Mf;irLfs;
cUthtij jLf;fpwJ. Mould surfacey; cs;s rpwpa
Jisfis milf;fpwJ. Casting surface finishI
Nkk;gLj;JfpwJ. Coal dust, fuel oil, sea coal Nghd;wit
reducing agentfs; MFk;.
b) Fibrous material : ,t;tif additive cyh;e;j gug;G mouldy;
cUthtij jLf;Fk;. NkYk; mouldd; cilAk; jd;ik
(collapsibility)ia Nkk;gLj;JfpwJ. Wood flour, straw, cow
dung, asbestos kw;Wk; saw dust Nghd;wit fibrous
materialfs; MFk;.
c) Special additives : Mouldd; dry strength, cilAk; jd;ik
Nghd;w gz;Gfis mjpfhpf;f rpy special additives
Nrh;f;fg;gLfpwJ. NkYk; mouldd; vspjpy; cyUk;
jd;ikia Fiwf;fpwJ. Dextrin kw;Wk; molasses
Mfpait special additives MFk;.
1.4.2 Classification of Moulding sand
Moulding sand fPo;f;fz;lthW tifg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
1) Natural sand 2) Synthetic sand 3) Special sand
1) Natural sand or Green sand
,t;tif sand Mw;Wg; gLiffspy; fpilf;fpwJ.
,jpy; 80 Kjy; 90% tiu silica, 5 Kjy; 10% tiu alumina
my;yJ clay kw;Wk; Fiwe;j mstpy; lime, magnesia Mfpait
fye;Js;sd.
Application
Ferrous kw;Wk; non-ferrou metalfspd; castingis
jahhhpf;fg; gad; gLfpwJ.
Advantages
1) vspjpy; fpilf;ff; $baJ.
2) tpiy FiwT
3) gy;NtW tbtq;fisAk; msTfisak; cila grains
,Uf;Fk;.
1.12
Disadvantages
1) ,J cUfpa metal cld; fye;J tpLk;.
2) tphptilAk; jd;ik mjpfk;.
2) Synthetic sand
Njitahd gz;Gfisg; ngWtjw;fhf natural sand
cld; NkYk; rpy nghUl;fis Nrh;j;J synthetic sand
jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ. Bentonite, ePh;> iron oxide, calcium kw;Wk;
magnesium Nghd;wit sand cld; fyf;fg;gLfpwJ.
Application
Machine moulding kw;Wk; high pressure mouldingy;
synthetic sand gad;gLfpwJ.

Advantages
1) vspjpy; mould nra;ayhk;.
2) mjpf ntg;gk; jhq;Fk; jd;ik.
3) gz;Gfis vspjpy; fl;Lg;gLj;jyhk;.
4) kpff; Fiwe;j binder NghJkhdJ.
3) Special sand
ntg;gk; jhq;Fk; jd;ik> mjpf ntg;gk; flj;Jk;
jd;ik> Fiwthf tphptiljy; Nghd;w Fwpg;gpl;l
gz;Gfisg; ngWtjw;nfd jahhpf;fg;gLgit special sands
MFk;. ,jd; %yk; Jy;ypakhf surface finish cs;s jukhd
castingfs; cUthf;fyhk;. mjpf mstpy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;
rpy special sands fPNo nfhLf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
Olivine sand : ,J gr;ir epwj;jpy; ,Uf;Fk;. eLj;jukhd
ntg;gk; jhq;Fk; jd;ik cilaJ. rpf;fyhd tbtk; cs;s
non-ferrous castingfs; nra;ag; gad;gLfpwJ.

Zircon sand : ,J cream epwj;jpy; ,Uf;Fk;. mjpf ntg;gk;

flj;Jk; jpwd;> ntg;gk; jhq;Fk; jd;ik kw;Wk; mjpf
mlh;j;jp Nghd;w gz;Gfs; cilaJ. Brass kw;Wk; bronze
castingfSf;F Njitg;gLk; core nra;ag; gad;gLfpwJ.

Chromite sand : mjpfntg;gk; flj;Jk; jpwd;> ntg;gk;

jhq;Fk; jd;ik cilaJ. Chilled casting nra;tjw;Fk; facing
sand MfTk; gad;gLfpwJ.
1.13
1.4.3 Types of moulding sand
Moulding sand fPo;f;fz;l tifg;gLk;.
1) Green sand 2) Dry sand 3) Loam sand
4) Facing sand 5) Parting sand 6) Core sand

1) Green sand
,J <ug;gjj;Jld; ,Uf;Fk;. Silica sand cld; 18 Kjy;
30% clay, 6 Kjy; 8% ePh; Nrh;e;jpUg;gJ green sand MFk;. rpwpa
kw;Wk; eLj;ju castingfs; jahhpf;f green sand mould
gad;gLfpwJ.
2) Dry sand
Mould nra;j gpd;G sandI cyu itj;J my;yJ
ntg;ggLj;jp fpilg;gJ dry sand MFk;. Dry sandy; <ug;gjk;
,y;yhjjhy; blow holes Nghd;w FiwghLfs; tuhJ. nghpa
msT castingfs; jahhpf;f dry sand mould gad;gLfpwJ.
3) Loam sand
Loam sandy; 50% tiu caly fye;J ,Uf;Fk;. cyh;e;j
gpd; ,J fbdkhfp tpLk;. Loam sand mouldI gad;gLj;jp
nghpa msT castingfs; jahhpf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
4) Facing sand
Fine silica sand, clay kw;Wk; coal dust Nrh;e;jJ facing
sand MFk;. ,e;j sand MdJ mould cavityia #o;e;J 20
Kjy; 30 mm tiu epug;gg; gl;bUf;Fk;. ,jw;F cUfpa metal
cld; Neub njhlh;G ,Ug;gjhy; mjpf gyk; kw;Wk; ntg;gk;
jhq;Fk; jd;ik ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
5) Parting sand
,J clay fye;jpUf;fhj sand MFk;. ,J pattern cld;
green sand xl;bf; nfhs;tij jLf;fpwJ. Cope kw;Wk; drag
boxy; cs;s sand xd;Wld; xd;W xl;bf; nfhs;shky;
gphpf;fpwJ.
6) Core sand
Core jahhpf;f core sand gad;gLfpwJ. Silica sand
cld; core oil fye;J fpilg;gJ core sand MFk;.

1.14
1.4.4 Properties of moulding sand
xU rpwe;j moulding sand fPo;f;fz;l gz;Gfisg;
ngw;wpUf;f Ntz;Lk;.
1) Porosity 2) Plasticity 3) Adhesiveness
4) Cohesiveness 5) Refractoriness 6) Collapsibility
1) Porosity or Permeability
ePuhtp kw;Wk; thAf;fis ntspNa nry;y
mDkjpf;Fk; mould sandd; jd;ik porosity MFk;. Mouldy;
,Ue;J thA kw;Wk; ePuhtp ntspNawhtpl;lhy; blow holes
Nghd;w casting FiwghLfs; Vw;gLk;. Mould sand Jfspd;
msT kw;Wk; tbtj;ij nghWj;J porosity ,Uf;Fk;.
2) Plasticity or Flowability
Patternd; tbtj;ijg; ngw;W mouldy; epiyepWj;jr;
nra;Ak; sandd; jd;ik plasticity vdg;gLk;. ,j;jd;ikapdhy;
mouldy; rhpahd tbtk; ngwg;gLfpwJ. Mould sandy; cs;s
clay kw;Wk; <ug;gjj;ijg; nghWj;J ,j;jd;ik ,UfFk;
3) Adhesivensess
Mould sandJfs;fs; kw;w nghUl;fSld; xl;bf;
nfhs;Sk; jd;ik adhesiveness MFk;. ,jdhy; moulding
boxd; Xuq;fspy; sand xl;bf; nfhs;Sk;. Moulding boxI
J}f;Fk; NghJ sand fPNo tpohky; ,Uf;Fk;.
4) Cohesiveness
Moulding sand Jfs;fs;
xd;Wld; xd;W xl;bf;
nfhs;Sk; jd;ik cohesiveness MFk;. Sandd; ,e;j
jd;ikapdhy; mould cWjpahf cs;sJ.
5) Refractoriness
cUfpa metald; mjpf ntg;gj;ijj; jhq;Fk; jd;ik
refractoriness MFk;. Quartz fye;j moulding sandf;F
,j;jd;ik mjpfk;. Iron oxide, calcium, sodium fye;j sandf;F
,j;jd;ik FiwT. Sandd; ntg;gk; jhq;Fk; jd;ik casting
nra;a Ntz;ba metalI nghWj;J ,Uf;Fk;.
6) Collapsibility
Moulding sandd; nehWq;Fk; jd;ik collapsibility MFk;.
Casting FspUk; NghJ mstpy; RUq;FfpwJ. ,jw;F Vw;g
collapsibility gz;G nfhz;l sand ciltjhy; castingy; crack
Vw;gLtJ jtph;f;fg;gLfpwJ.
1.15
1.4.5 Moulding sand preparation
Moulding sand fPo;ff
; z;l gbepiyfspy; jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
1) Mixing of sand 2) Tempering of sand 3) Conditioning of sand
1) Mixing of sand
Clay, lime, magnesia, potash, cowdung, coal dust kw;Wk; ePh;
Mfpait sand Jfs;fSf;F ,ilNa xNu rPuhf gutp
,Uf;FkhW fyf;f Ntz;Lk;. Fiwe;j msT sand
Njitg;gLk;NghJ showelI gad;gLj;jp fyf;fg;gLfpwJ.
mjpf msT sand Njitg;gLk; NghJ muller vdg;gLk;
machiney; fyf;fg;gLfpwJ. Mixing nra;Ak; Kd;G Mzp> rpW
gprph;fs; Nghd;w Njitaw;w nghUl;fis magnetic seperator
kw;Wk; ry;yil nfhz;L ePf;f Ntz;Lk;.
2) Tempering of sand
Mould sand cld; Njitahd msT jz;zPh; Nrh;g;gJ
tempering MFk;. Mullery; mixing eilngWk;NghJ jz;zPh;
njspf;fg; gl;L sand cld; rPuhf fyf;fg;gLfpwJ.
3) Conditioning of sand
Sand cld; binderI rPuhf fyg;gJ sand conditioning
MFk;. Mullery; fyf;fg;gl;l sandI air blaster gad;gLj;jp
Jfs;fshf gphpf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,jdhy; sandd; flowability
jd;ik mjpfhpj;J ramming nra;a Vw;wjhf ,Uf;Fk;.
1.5 Moulding tools
Foundryy; fPo;f;fz;l moulding toolfs; gad;gLj;jg;
gLfd;wd.
1) Shovel
,J ePskhd kug;gpbAld; cs;s kz;ntl;b MFk;.
,J kz;iz ed;whf fyg;gjw;Fk; moulding boxy;
epug;Gtjw;Fk; gad; gLfpwJ.
2) Riddle
,J tl;l my;yJ rJu tbt kur; rl;lj;jpd; mbapy;
nghUj;jg; gl;Ls;s fk;gp tiy ry;yil MFk;. ,J
kz;zpy; fye;Js;s Mzp> rpwpa cNyhfj; Jz;Lfs;> fw;fs;
Nghd;w Njitaw;w nghUl;fis ePf;fp moulding sandI
Rj;jg;gLj;jg; gad;gLfpwJ.
1.16
 Butt end

Riddle

Sprue pin

Peen end Swab

Shovel

Draw spike

Vent rod

Fig.1.11 Moulding tools

1.17
3) Rammer
Moulding boxy; kz;iz mOj;jp epug;Gtjw;F rammer
gad; gLfpwJ. ,J kuk; my;yJ cast iron My;
nra;ag;gl;bUf;Fk;. ,jpy; butt end, peen end vd ,U
Kidfs; cs;sd. Butt end cUis tbtpYk;> peen end
MdJ wedge Nghd;w tbtpYk; ,Uf;Fk;.
4) Trowel
,J kug;gpbAld; nghUj;jg;gl;Ls;s metal blade
MFk;. ,J mouldd; gug;ig smooth Mf khw;wTk;
Nrjkile;j gFjpia rhp nra;aTk; gad;gLfpwJ. Bladed;
Kid rJu my;yJ tl;l tbtpy; ,Uf;Fk;.
5) Slick
,J spoon Nghd;W tise;j ,uz;L Kidfis
cilaJ. ,J mouldd; gug;Gfis rPuhf;fTk;> tl;l tbt
Kidfis rhp nra;aTk; gad;gLfpwJ.
6) Lifter
Lifter
vd;gJ ePskhd steel jfl;bd; xU Kid
nrq;Fj;jhf tisf;fg;gl;bUg;gJ MFk;. ,J gy;NtW ePsk;
kw;Wk; mfyq;fspy; ,Uf;Fk;. Mouldy; cs;s cjphp kz;iz
ntspNa vLf;fTk;> mouldI rhp nra;aTk; gad;gLfpwJ.
7) Strike off bar
,J Neuhd tpspk;ig cila wood my;yJ metal
piece MFk;. Ramming nra;j gpwF moulding boxy; ,Ue;J
mjpfg;gbahd kz;iz mfw;w gad;gLfpwJ. ,jdhy; rPuhd
kl;lk; fpilf;fpwJ.
8) Sprue pin
,J kuj;jhy; nra;ag;gl;l $k;G tbt cUis MFk;.
,J runner kw;Wk; riser Jisfis mouldy; cUthf;fg;
gad;gLfpwJ. Sprue pin msT mouldd; mstpw;F Vw;g
khWgLk;.
9) Bellows
mOj;jj;Jld; fhw;iw nrYj;jp mouldy; cs;s cjphp
kz;iz ntspNaw;Wtjw;F bellows gad;gLfpwJ.
1.18
 Strike off bar Mallet

Finishing trowel Square trowel

Slick Gate cutter Bellows

Lifter
Fig.1.12 Moulding tools
10) Swab
,J rpwpa brush MFk;. Mouldy; ,Ue;J patternI
vLg;gjw;F Kd; patternI Rw;wp rpwpjsT jz;zPh; nrYj;j
swab gad;gLfpwJ. NkYk; ,ijg; gad;gLj;jp moulding
gug;gpy; coating nra;ayhk;.
11) Gate cutter
,J $h;ikahd Kid cs;s steel piece MFk;. ,J
mouldy; gate ntl;Ltjw;F gad;gLfpwJ. Gate MdJ runner
JisiaAk; mouldIAk; ,izf;fpwJ.

12) Draw spike

Draw spike vd;gJ $h;ikahd Kid cs;s ePskhd
steel rod MFk;. ,jd; kw;nwhU Kidapy; tisak; cs;sJ.
,J mouldy; ,Ue;J patternI ntspNa vLg;gjw;F
gad;gLfpwJ.
13) Vent rod
,J ifg;gpb cs;s ePskhd steel fk;gp MFk;. ,J
mouldy; rpW Jthuq;fis Vw;gLj;jg; gad;gLfpwJ. Casting
nra;Ak; NghJ ,e;j Jthuq;fs; topNa ePuhtp kw;Wk; thA
ntspNaWk;.
1.19
14) Mallet
,J kuj;jhy; nra;ag;l;l Rj;jp MFk;. ,J draw
spikeI patterny; mbj;Jg; nghUj;jg; gad;gLfpwJ>

1.6 Moulding boxes

,J moulding flask vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLk;. Moulding
boxI gad;gLj;jp sand mould jahhpf;fg; gLfpwJ. ,J wood
my;yJ metalMy; nra;ag;gl;l frame MFk;. Moulding box
MdJ NkYk; fPOk; jpwe;Js;s ngl;b tbtkhdJ.
Moulding ,uz;L ngl;bfspy; nra;ag;gl;lhy;> Nky;
cs;s ngl;b cope vd;Wk; fPo; cs;s ngl;b drag vd;Wk;
miof;fg;gLk;. ,uz;L ngl;bfSk; dowel pin %yk; rhpahfg;
nghUj;jg;gLfpwJ. Moulding %d;W ngl;bfspy; nra;ag;
gl;lhy; ,ilapy; cs;s ngl;b cheeck vdg;gLk;.
Moulding flask fPo;f;fz;l ,uz;L tifg;gLk;.
1) Snap flask 2) Tight or box flask

1) Snap Flask
Cope

Drag

Fig.1.13 Snap flask

,J kpfr; rpwpa mouldfis mjpf mstpy; jahhpf;f

gad;gLfpwJ. ,e;j flask MdJ moulding nra;j gpwF vspjpy;
gphpj;njLf;Fk tifapy; hinge kw;Wk; lock cld;
mikf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. xU moulding boxI gad;gLj;jp mjpf
vz;zpf;ifapy; mould nra;ayhk;.
1.20
2) Tight or box flask
Cope

Drag

Fig.1.14 Box flask

,J rpwpa kw;Wk; eLj;ju mouldfis jahhpf;fg;

gad;gLfpwJ. ,J metal my;yJ kuj;jpdhy;
nra;ag;gl;bUf;Fk;. Moulding Kbe;j gpd;G ,e;j boxI
gphpj;njLf;f KbahJ. vdNt ,J permanent flask vdTk;
miof;fg;gLk;.

1.7 Gating System

Riser
Casting

Pouring cup

Sprue

te
Ga
te
Ga

Runner

Fig.1.15 Gating system

Gating system y; pouring cup, sprue, runner, gate kw;Wk;
riser Mfpait cs;sd.

1.21
 Pouring cup: ,J sprue holed; Nky; Gdy; tbtpy; ,Uf;Fk;.
,jd; topNa cUf;fpa metalI vspjpy; Cw;wyhk;
 Sprue: ,J pouring cupI runner cld; ,izf;Fk; Jis
MFk;. ,jd; topNa cUf;fpa metal MdJ runnerf;F
nry;fpwJ.
 Runner: ,J spruey; ,Ue;J tUk; cUf;fpa metalI
gatef;F nrYj;JfpwJ.
 Gate: ,J runner kw;Wk; mouldI ,izf;fpwJ. cUf;fpa
metal MdJ gate topNa mouldf;F nry;fpwJ.
 Riser: ,J cope gFjpapy; cs;s Jis MFk;. Mouldy;
cUfpa metal epuk;gpaTld; riser topNa Nky; Nehf;fp
tUk;. ,J castingy; shrinkage Vw;gLk; NghJ cUfpa
metalI nfhLj;J rhpahd msT fpilf;fr; nra;fpwJ.

1.8 Types of mould

Mouldfs; fPo;f;fz;lthW tifg;gLj;jg; gLfpd;wd.
 Temporary moulds : ,j;jifia mouldfs; cilf;fg;gl;L
castingfs; gphpj;njLf;fg; gLfpd;wd. Example : Sand moulds.
 Permanent moulds : ,j;jifa mouldfs; jpUk;g jpUk;g
gad;gLj;jg; gLfpd;wd. Castingfis gphpj;njLj;jg; gpd;G
,it cilf;fg; gLtjpy;iy. Example : Metallic moulds.
fPo;f;fz;l tifahd mouldfs; nghJthf
gad;gLj;jg; gLfpd;wd.:
1) Green sand mould 2) Dry sand mould
3) Skin - dry sand mould 4) Loam mould
5) Metal mould
1) Green sand mould : ,J gree sandMy; nra;ag;gl;l mould
MFk;. Green sand vd;gJ kzy;> fspkz; kw;Wk; jz;zPh;
Mfpait Nrh;e;j fyit MFk;;. ,j;jifa mouldy;
<ug;gjk; fye;jpUg;gjhy; “green” vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
2) Dry sand mould : epiyg;Gj; jd;ikia cUthf;f <ug;gjk;
Njitg;glhj kz;izf; nfhz;L jahhpf;fg;gLtJ dy
sand mould MFk;. Mouldf;fhd epiyg;Gj; jd;ikiaf;
1.22
 nfhLf;f binder kw;Wk; additive gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.
,j;jifa mouldI overy; #LgLj;jp cWjpahd mould
ngwg;gLk;.
3) Skin-dry sand mould : MouldI #o;e;J dry sandIAk; kw;w
,lq;fspy; green sandIAk; epug;gp ,j;jifa mouldfs;
jahhpf;fg; gLfpd;wd. Mould cUthf;fpa gpd;G mould
gs;sj;jpid Rw;wp #lhf;fg;gLk;.
4) Loam sand mould : ,J loam sand My; cUthf;fg;gl;l
mould MFk;. Loam sand vd;gJ silica sand, fire clay kw;Wk;
graphite Nrhe;j fyit MFk;. ,jw;F mjpf ,lk;
Njitg;gLk;. nghpa mstpyhd xU castingI kl;Lk;
jahhpf;f ,J gad;gLk;.
5) Metal moulds : ,it die casting nray;Kiwapy; gad;gLk;
epue;ju tif mouldfs; MFk;. Fiwe;j cUFepiy
cNyhff; fyitfisf; nfhz;L castingfis jahhpf;f
metal mouldfs; rpwe;jit MFk;.

1.9 Methods of moulding

fPo;f;fz;l mouliding Kiwfs; cs;sd.
1) Green sand moulding 2) Dry sand moulding 3) Loam moulding
4) Bench moulding 5) Floor moulding. 6) Pit moulding
7) Sweep moulding 8) Plate moulding 9) Machine moulding

1.9.1 Green sand moulding

Green sandI gad;gLj;jp mould jahhpg;gJ green sand
moulding MFk;. Mould nra;jTld; cUf;fpa metalI Cw;wp
casting cUthf;fyhk;.

Split patternI gad;gLj;jp green sand mould jahhpf;Fk;

nray; Kiw gpd;tUkhW.
1) Patternd; xU ghjpia gyif kPJ itf;f Ntz;Lk;.
2) Drag boxI gyifapd; kPJ jiyfPohf itj;J parting
sand J}t Ntz;Lk;. (Refer fig. 1.16)
3) Boxy; facing sandI 20mmf;F epug;gpa gpd;G moulding sand
epug;g Ntz;Lk;.
1.23
 Pattern
Drag

Moulding board Moulding sand

Alignment pin
(a) (b)
Pouring
Riser pin Sprue pin Riser basin
Vents
Cope

Gate

(c) (d)
Fig. 1.16 Green sand moulding

4) RammerI gad;gLj;jp rPuhf kz;iz ,Wf;f (ramming)

Ntz;Lk;.
5) Strike off bar %yk; mjpfg;gbahd sandI ePf;fp kl;lk;
nra;a Ntz;Lk;.
6) Vent holes Vw;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;. Parting sand J}tp drag
boxI jiy fPohf itf;f Ntz;Lk;.

7) Patternd; kWghjp kw;Wk; cope boxI rhpahf nghUj;j

Ntz;Lk;. gpd;G parting sand J}t Ntz;Lk;.
8) Copey; runner pin kw;Wk; riser pinI rhpahd ,lj;jpy;
itf;f Ntz;Lk;. gpd;dh; facing sand kw;Wk; moulding
sand epug;g Ntz;Lk;.

9) kz;iz rPuhf ramming nra;a Ntz;Lk;. Vent holes

Vw;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;.
10) Runner pin kw;Wk; riser pinI vLj;J tpl;L pouring cup
cUthf;f Ntz;Lk;.

1.24
 11) PatternI ntspNa vLf;Fk; tifapy; cope kw;Wk; drag
ngl;bia gphpj;J itf;f Ntz;Lk;. PatternI Rw;wp rpwpJ
jz;zPh; njspf;f Ntz;Lk;.
12) Draw spikeI
patterny; mbj;J> vy;yh gf;fq;fspYk;
mirj;J nkJthf patternI ntspNa vLf;f Ntz;Lk;.
13) Dragy; runner kw;Wk; gate mikf;f Ntz;Lk;.

14) Core Njitg;gl;lhy; mouldy; nghUj;j Ntz;Lk;.

15) Cope kw;Wk; drag ngl;bfis rhpahf nghUj;j

Ntz;Lk;. Cope kPJ weight itf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,e;j
green sand mouldy; cUf;fpa metalI Cw;wp casting
jahhpf;fyhk;.

Application
rpwpa kw;Wk; eLj;ju msT castingfis cUthf;f
green sand mould gad;gLfpwJ. Ferrous kw;Wk; non-ferrous
alloyfisf; nfhz;L midj;J tifahd castingfis
nra;tjw;Fk; ,J gad;gLfpwJ.

Advantages
1) Fiwe;j nryT.
2) mjpf flexibility.
3) Distortion FiwT.
4) cUthf;f MFk; Neuk; FiwT.
5) Hot tear FiwghL mjpfk; Vw;glhJ.

Disadvantages
1) kz;zpd; jd;ikia fl;Lg;gLj;JtJ fbdk;.
2) rpf;fyhd tbtk; nfhz;l castingfis cUthf;f KbahJ.
3) Mouldf;F mjpf typik ,Uf;fhJ.
4) ifahSk;NghJ cile;J tplyhk;.
5) Surface finish kw;Wk; dimensional accuracy FiwT.
6) mjpf ehl;fSf;F Nrkpj;J itf;f ,ayhJ.

1.25
1.9.2 Dry sand moulding
Green sand mouldI R+LgLj;jpa gpwF fpilg;gJ dry
sand mould MFk;. Green sand mouldI Nghd;Nw dry sand mould
jahhpf;fg; gLfpwJ. nghpa mouldfis oxy-acetylene flame
%yk; R+LgLj;j Ntz;Lk;. rpwpa mouldfis oveny;
R+LgLj;jyhk;.
Application
Engine cylinders, engine blocks kw;Wk; mill rolls Nghd;w
nghpa castingfs; nra;a dry sand mould gad;gLfpwJ.
Advantages
1) Green sand mouldI tpl cWjpahdJ.
2) ifahSk; NghJ cilahJ.
3) msTfs; Jy;ypakhf ,Uf;Fk;.
4) Surface finish ed;whf fpilf;Fk;
5) Blow holes Nghd;w FiwghLfs; ,Uf;fhJ.
Disadvantages
1) R+LgLj;j Ntz;Lk;.
2) Neuk; mjpfk;.
3) nryT mjpfk;.

1.9.3 Loam moulding

kpfg; nghpa castingfs; jahhpg;gjw;F pattern kw;Wk;
moulding boxf;fhd nryT mjpfkhFk;. vdNt loam sand
moulding gad;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ. ,jw;F solid pattern kw;Wk;
moulding box Njitapy;iy. Silica, clay(50%) kw;Wk; fire clay
Mfpait Nrh;e;jJ loam sand MFk;. ,e;j sandI
gad;gLj;jp loam mould jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
Kjypy; nrq;fy; kw;Wk; ,Uk;Gj; Jz;L cgNahfpj;J
Njhuhakhd cUtk; nra;ag;gLk;. gpwF ,jd; cl;Gwj;jpy;
loam sand epug;gg;gLk;. Sweep pattern my;yJ skeleton
patternIf; nfhz;L mould cUthf;fg;gLfpwJ. ,e;j loam
mould cyh;j;jpa gpd;G gad;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ>
Application
nghpa cylinder, bells, gears, ,ae;jpug; gFjpfs;
Nghd;wit loam mouldingy; jahhpf;fg; gLfpd;wd.
1.26
 Sweep
pattern
Loam
sand

Mould
cavity

Fig.1.17 Loam moulding

Advantages
1) ey;y surface finish fpilf;Fk;.
2) Moulding box Njitapy;iy.
3) msTfs; Jy;ypakhf fpilf;Fk;.

Disadvantages
1) Neuk; mjpfk;.
2) rpwpa castingfSf;F Vw;wjy;y.
3) jpwikahd gzpahsh; Njit.

1.9.4 Bench moulding

Benchd; kPJ itj;J mould cUthf;FtJ bench
moulding MFk;. Moulding sand, tools, cores, moulding box
Nghd;wtw;iw itg;gjw;Nfw;g bench tbtikf;fg; gl;bUf;Fk;.
,jpy; green sand kw;Wk; dry sand mould jahhpf;fyhk;. rpwpa
kw;Wk; fdkw;w mould nra;tjw;F ,k;Kiw Vw;wJ.

1.9.5 Floor moulding

nghpa kw;Wk; eLj;ju mouldfis ifahs;tJ fbdk;.
vdNt nghpa castingfis jahhpf;f foundry jiuapy; moulding
nra;ag;gLk;. mNj ,lj;jpy; cUf;fpa metaI Cw;wp casting
jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ. ,k;Kiwapy; green sand kw;;Wk; dry sand
mould nra;ayhk;.
1.27
1.9.6 Pit moulding
Pouring
Riser basin
Cope
Floor
Vent pipe
level

Vent Mould cavity

holes

Coke &
straw

Fig.1.18 Pit moulding

Moulding boxy; jahhpf;f Kbahj nghpa castingfis
pit mouldingy; nra;ayhk;. ,k;Kiwapy; jiuapy; Fop(pit)
ntl;lg;gLk;. ,J mouldd; drag gFjpahFk;. Cope gFjp
jdpahf nra;ag;gl;L jiu kl;lj;jpy; itf;fg;gLfpwJ. Pitd;
Xuq;fs; refractory bricksMy; fl;lg;gLk;. thAf;fis
ntspNaw;w vent pipe itf;fg;gLk;. Pity; kz; epug;g Ntz;Lk;.
Sweep pattern gad;gLj;jp mould cavity cUthf;fg; gLfpwJ.

1.9.7 Sweep moulding

Sweep patternI gad;gLj;jp ngl;bapy; my;yJ
jiuapy; mould cUthf;FtJ sweep moulding MFk;. ,J
rkr;rPh; tbtk; nfhz;l castingfs; jahhpf;fg; gad;gLfpd;wd>
ngl;bapy; kz; ,Wf;fkhf epug;gp sweep patternI Rw;Wk;
NghJ mould cUthfpwJ. ,k;Kiw nghpa kw;Wk; eLj;ju
castingfis jahhpf;f Vw;wJ.
1.9.8 Plate moulding
Match plate patternI gad;gLj;jp mould cUthf;FtJ
plate moulding MFk;. gy patternfis match platey;
nghUj;jyhk;. Runner kw;Wk; gate mikf;fj; Njitg;gLk;
patternfs; plated; mbg;gFjpapy; nghUj;jg;gLk;. Match plate
patternfs; machine mouldingy; gad;gLfpwJ. ,J rpwpa kw;Wk;
Jy;ypakhd castingfis mjpf msT cw;gj;jp nra;a Vw;wJ>
1.28
1.9.9 Machine moulding
Hand moulding nkJthd nray;Kiw MFk;. Fiwe;j
msT castingfis kl;Lk; nra;a Vw;wJ. Mould nra;Ak;
NghJ ramming rPuhf ,Uf;fhJ. cw;gj;jp Neuk; mjpfkhFk;.
vdNt xNu khjphpahd castingfis mjpf mstpy; cw;gj;jp
nra;a machine moulding rpwe;jJ. Moulding machineI
gad;gLj;jp mouldfis NtfkhfTk; Jy;ypakhfTk;
jukhfTk; jahhpf;fyhk;. NkYk; cw;gj;jp nryT FiwT.
kz;iz ramming nra;jy;> moulding boxI jpUg;Gjy;>
patternI ntspNa vLj;jy; Nghd;w Ntiyfis moulding
machine nra;fpwJ. nghJthf fPo;f;fz;l moulding
machinefs; gad;gLj;jg; gLfpd;wd.
1) Squeezer machine
a) Top squeezer machine
b) Bottom squeezer machine
2) Jolt machine
3) Sand slinger
1) Squeezer machine
Moulding boxy; cs;s kz;iz table kw;Wk; squeezer
headf;F ,ilNa mOj;jp mould cUthf;fg;gLfpwJ.
a) Top squeezer machine

Squeezer
head Platen
Sand frame

Pattern
Mould
board
Table

Fig.1.19 Top squeezer machine

1.29
 ,jd; table kPJ mould board kw;Wk; moulding box
nghUj;jg; gLfpwJ. Moulding boxy; pattern itf;fg;gLk;.
Boxd; Nky; gf;fk; sand frame itf;fg;gL;s;sJ. Boxy;
moulding sand epug;g Ntz;Lk;. ,jpYs;s table lift mechanism
%yk; table NkNy cah;j;jg; gLfpwJ. Squeezer heady; cs;s
platen kz;iz nkJthf mOj;JfpwJ. Squeezing Kbe;j
gpwF table fPNo tUk;.

,e;j machine rpwpa mouldfSf;F Vw;wJ. ,k;Kiwapy;

patternI Rw;wp kz; mlh;j;jp Fiwe;Jk; Nky;Gwj;jpy; mlh;j;jp
mjpfkhfTk; ,Uf;Fk;.

b) Bottom squeezer machine

Squeezer
head
Box

Frame

Pattern

Mould
board
Table

Fig.1.20 Bottom squeezer machine

,jpy; moulding board MdJ table kPJ

nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;. Moulding boardy; pattern
itf;fg;gLfpwJ> Framed; Nky; moulding box itf;fg;l;L kz;
epug;g Ntz;Lk;. Lift mechanism %yk; table NkNy
cah;j;jg;gLfpwJ. Boxy; cs;s moulding sand MdJ
squeezer head kw;Wk; tablef;F ,ilapy; mOj;jg;gLfpwJ.
Squeezing Kbe;j gpwF table fPNo tUk;.

1.30
2) Jolt machine

Pattern

Table Hose

Plunger
Air channel
Cylinder

Opening

Spring

Fig.1.21 Jolt machine

,jpy; table kPJ cs;s moulding boxy; pattern

itf;fg;gLfpwJ. Boxy; moulding sand epug;g Ntz;Lk;. Plungerd;
fPo;g; gFjpapy; mjpf mOj;jj;Jld; fhw;W nrYj;Jg;gLk;
NghJ table Nky; Nehf;fp cah;j;jg;gLfpwJ. Table Rkhh; 80 mm
cauk; nrd;wTld;> opening topNa fhw;W ntspNaWfpwJ.
vdNt table jpBnud fPo;Nehf;fp tpOfpwJ. ,jdhy; patternI
Rw;wpAs;s kz; rPuhf ,Wf;fg;gLfpwJ (ramming). Tabled;
mjph;T kw;Wk; rj;jj;ijf; Fiwf;f springs gad;gLfpwJ. ,e;j
machiney; cope kw;Wk; drag box Mfpait jdpj;jdpahf ramming
nra;ag;gLk;. gpd;G ,izf;fg;gl;L mould cUthf;fg;gLfpwJ.
3) Sand slinger
Moulding boxy; impeller %yk; kz; mjpf Ntfj;jpy;
tPrg;gLfpwJ. Impellery; cs;s bladefs; mjpf Ntfj;jpy;
Rw;Wk;. Conveyor buckety; ,Ue;J impellerf;F tUk; sand
MdJ bladefs; %yk; mjpf Ntfj;Jld; (500 kg/minute)
moulding boxy; tPrg;gLfpwJ. ,jdhy; patternI Rw;wp sand
ed;whf ramming nra;ag;gLk;. Moulding sandd; mlh;j;jp
impeller Ntfj;ijg; nghWj;J khWgLk;. ,e;j machiney; kz;
rPuhf ,Wf;fg;gLfpwJ.
1.31
 opening
Blade

Housing

Moulding
Outlet sand

Mould Pattern
box

Fig.1.22 Sand slinger

,J eLj;ju kw;Wk; nghpa mouldfis nra;a Vw;wJ
MFk;. Raamming tpiuthf eilngWk;. Muk;g nryT mjpfk;.

1.10 Cores
Core
Castingy; cs;sPlw;w (hollow)mikg;G kw;Wk; Jis
Vw;gLj;j gad;gLtJ core MFk;. ,J core sand gad;gLj;jp
nra;ag; gl;bUf;Fk;. Castingy; Vw;gLj;j Ntz;ba cavityd;
tbtj;jpw;F Vw;g cored; tbtk; ,Uf;Fk;. Core MdJ
mouldy; itf;fg;gl;L casting nra;ag;l;l gpwF
mfw;wg;gLfpwJ.

Core print
Patterny; Vw;gLj;jg;gLk; projection MdJ core print
MFk;. Mouldy; core seatI cUthf;f core print gad;gLfpwJ.
Casting nra;Ak;NghJ ,e;j core seaty; core rhpahf
nghUj;jg;gLfpwJ.

1.10.1 Essential qualities of core

cUf;fpa metalI mouldy; Cw;Wk; NghJ mJ coreI
#o;e;J epuk;GfpwJ. vdNt core sand fPo;f;fz;l gz;Gfisg;
ngw;wpUf;f Ntz;Lk;.
1.32
 1) cUf;fpa metal-d; mjpf ntg;gj;ij jhq;Fk; jd;ik
(refractoriness) ngw;wpUf;f Ntz;Lk;.
2) cUf;fpa metalI Cw;Wk; NghJ Vw;gLk; ePuhtp kw;Wk;
thAf;fis vspjpy; ntspNaw;Wk; jd;ik (permeability)
ngw;wpUf;f Ntz;Lk;.
3) Core MdJ cUf;fpa metald; mOj;jj;ij jhq;Fk;
tifapy; typikahfTk; fbdkhfTk; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
4) Core epiyg;Gj; jd;ik(stability)Ald; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
,jdhy; cavity rhpahd tbtj;jpy; fpilf;Fk;. cUf;fpa
metald; ntg;gj;jhy; tphptilaNth my;yJ RUq;fNth
$lhJ.
5) Casting nra;j gpwF vspjpy; cilj;J ePf;Fk;gb
(collapsibility) ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.

1.10.2 Core sand

Silica sand kw;Wk; binder Nrh;e;jJ core sand MFk;.
,ij ntg;gg;gLj;jp Njitahd typik ngwg;gLfpwJ.
kz;zpy; 5%f;F Nky; fspkz; ,Ue;jhy; core nra;a
Vw;wjy;y. $h;ikahd Jfs;fs; fye;j kz; gpize;J
typikahd core fpilf;Fk;. tl;l tbt Jfs;fs; fye;j kz;
thAf;fis vspjpy; ntspNaw;Wk; jd;ik (permeability)
ngw;wpUf;Fk;. Cored; msT kw;Wk; cUf;fpa metald;
ntg;gepiyia nghWj;J core sand Njh;e;njLf;fg;;gLfpwJ.

1.10.3 Core binders

kz; Jfs;fis xd;Nwhnlhd;W ed;F gpizg;gjw;Fk;>
coref;F typik kw;Wk; fbdj; jd;ikia nfhLg;gjw;Fk;>
core <ukhtijj; jLg;gjw;Fk; gpizg;ghd;fs; (binders) core
sand cld; Nrh;f;fg;gLfpwJ. nghJthf fPo;f;fz;l core
binderfs; gad;gLfpd;wd.
1) Oil binders
Linseed oil MdJ oil binder Mf gad;gLfpwJ. ,J
kz; Jfs;fis Rw;wp nky;ypa glykhf mikfpwJ. CoreI
ntg;gg;gLj;Jk; NghJ oil fbdkhfp kz; Jfs;fis
xd;Wld; xd;W ed;F gpizf;fpwJ.
1.33
2) Water soluble binders
Starch, dextrin Nghd;wit rpwpjsT jz;zPhpy; fye;J
water soluble binderfshf gad;gLfpd;wd. ,ij core sand cld;
Nrh;j;J ntg;gg; gLj;Jk; NghJ core fbdj;jd;ik ngWfpwJ.
3) Resin binders
Phenol formaldehyde, urea Nghd;wit resin binderfshf
gad; gLfpd;wd. typik nfhLg;gjw;Fk;> thA cUthtij
Fiwg;gjw;Fk;> cilAk; jd;ik nfhLg;gjw;Fk; resin
binderfs; core sand cld; Nrh;f;fg;gLfpd;wd.

1.10.4 Core boxes

CoreI jahhpf;f gad;gLk; ngl;b core box MFk;. ,J
kuk; my;yJ cNyhfj;jhy; nra;ag;gl;bUf;Fk;. Cored;
tbtj;jpw;F Vw;g fPo;f;fz;l gy;NtW core boxfs;
gad;gLfpd;wd.
1) Half core box 2) Dump core box 3) Split core box
4) Strickle core box 5) Gang core box

1) Half core box

Symmetrical tbt cored; ghjp gFjpia jahhpf;f half
core box gad;gLfpwJ. KOikahd coreI ngWtjw;F
,uz;L ghjp gFjpfisAk; ntg;gg;gLj;jp gpd; ,izf;f
Ntz;Lk;.

2) Dump core box

,J half core boxI Nghd;wJ MFk;. xU ngl;bapy;
KOikahd core jahhpf;f dump core box gad;gLfpwJ.
,ijg; gad; gLj;jp rJu my;yJ nrt;tf tbtpy; corefis
jahhpf;fyhk;.
3) Split core box
,e;j ngl;b xNu khjphpahd ,uz;L gFjpfis
cilaJ. ,uz;L gFjpfisAk; dowel pin %yk; rhpahf
nghUj;jyhk;. kz;iz epug;gp ramming nra;j gpwF
ngl;bfs; gphpf;fg;gLfpwJ. gpd; KOikahd core fpilf;fpwJ.

1.34
 Core

Core

1. Half core box 2. Dump core box

Dowel
Core

3. Split core box

Strickle
board

Sand

Core box

4. Strickle core box

5. Gang core box

Fig.1.23 Core boxes

4) Strickle core box
Njitahd Fwpg;gpl;l tbtj;jpy; corefis jahhpf;f
,J gad;gLfpwJ. ngl;bapy; core sand epug;gp raming nra;a
NtzLk;. Strickle boardI gad;gLj;jp kz; mfw;wg;gl;L
Njitahd tbtj;jpy; core fpilf;fpwJ. Cored; tbtj;jpw;F
Vw;g strickle boardd; tbtk; ,Uf;Fk;.
1.35
5) Gang core box
xNu Neuj;jpy; mjpf corefis jahhpf;f gang core box
gad;gLfpwJ. Gang core boxy; cs;s core cavityfspd;
vz;zpf;iff;F Vw;g corefs; jahhpf;fyhk;.
1.7.5 Core making
fPo;f;fz;l gbepiyfspy; core jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
1) Core sand preparation 2) Core moulding
3) Baking 4) Core finishing
Core print

Core
Pattern

Core seat

Mould
cavity

Fig.1.24 Core making

1) Core sand preparation
Core sand cld; binder, additives Nghd;wtw;iw Nrh;j;J
rPuhf fyf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,jdhy; coref;F rPuhd typik
fpilf;fpwJ. Core sand fyitahdJ roller mill my;yJ core
mixer cjtpAld; fyf;fg;gLfpwJ.
2) Core moulding
Core boxIgad;gLj;jp core jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ. Core
sandI core box y;
epug;gp ramming nra;aNtz;Lk;. gpwF core
boxI gphpj;J core ntspNa vLf;fg;gLfpwJ. ,J green sand
core MFk;. ,J typikaw;wjhf ,Uf;Fk;. nghpa corefs;
cilahky; ,Uf;f fk;gpfs; cs;Ns itj;J
jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ. ifapdhNth my;yJ machine
%ykhfNth core cUthf;fg;gLfpwJ.
1.36
3) Core baking
o o
CoreI oveny; itj;J Rkhh; 15 C Kjy; 400 C tiu
ntg;gg; gLj;j Ntz;Lk;. ,jdhy; corey; cs;s <uk;
mfw;wg;gLfpwJ. NkYk; binder fbdkhfp coref;F typik
fpilf;fpwJ. Core MdJ binderd; tif> cored; msT
Mfpatw;iwg; nghWj;J tifg; gLj;jg;gLk;.
4) Finishing
ntg;gg; gLj;jpa corey; cs;s Njitaw;w Kidfs;>
nrhu nrhug;ghd gug;G Mfpait filing nra;J finishing nra;ag;
gLfpwJ. Silica my;yJ graphite powderI cored; kPJ coating
nra;a Ntz;Lk;. ,jdhy; cUfpa cNyhfk; corey; cl;GFtJ
jLf;fg;gLfpwJ. NkYk; castingd; gug;G smoothMf fpilf;Fk;.

1.10.6 CO2 process of core making

CO2 gas
Seal

Core
Core box

Seal
Fig.1.25 CO2 process of core making
,k;Kiwapy; core jahhpf;fg;gl;L fbdkhf;fg;
gLfpwJ. Core sand cld; sodium silicate MdJ binder Mf
Nrh;f;fg; gLfpwJ. NkYk; core sand cld; kuj;J}s; my;yJ
graphite Nghd;w additives Nrh;f;fg;gLfpwJ. ,e;j fyitia
sand mullery; ed;whf fyf;f Ntz;Lk;. jahhpf;fg;l;l core
sandI core ngl;bapy; epug;gp ramming nra;a Ntz;Lk;. gpd;G
coreDs; CO2 thAit 1.5 kg/cm² mOj;jj;jpy; 30 tpdhbfs;
nrYj;j Ntz;Lk;. ,J gassing vd;W miof;fg;gLk;.
1.37
 CO2 thAthdJ core sandy; cs;s sodium silicate cld;
tpid Ghpe;J silica gel cz;lhfpwJ. ,e;j silica gel kpf
fbdkhf ,Ug;gjhy; coref;F fbdj;jd;ik fpilf;fpwJ.
gpwF coreI cldbahf gad; gLj;jyhk;.
Advantages
1) Core fbdkhf ,Uf;Fk;.
2) ntg;gg;gLj;j Njitapy;iy.
3) vspa kw;Wk; Ntfkhd nray;Kiw.
4) CoreI ePz;l ehs; Nrfhpj;J itf;fyhk;.

Disadvantages
1) cgNahfpj;j sandI kPz;Lk; gad;gLj;j KbahJ.
2) Binderd; tpiy mjpfk;.
3) Additives Njitg;gLfpwJ>

1.0.7 Types of cores

fPo;f;fz;l gy;NtW tifahd corefs; cs;sd.
1) Green sand core 2) Horizontal core 3) Vertical core
4) Balanced core 5) Hanging core 6) Drop core

1) Green sand core

PatternI gad;gLj;jp mouldy; core cUthf;FtJ green
sand core MFk;. ,e;j core jahhpf;f core box kw;Wk; core
sand Njitapy;iy. Core MdJ moulding sandy;
jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ. ,J nrq;Fj;jhf cs;s JisfSf;F
kl;Lk; Vw;wJ.

2) Horizontal core
,e;j core MdJ mouldy; fpilkl;lkhf itf;fg;gL
fpwJ. ,J cUis tbtpy; ,Uf;Fk;. Cored; Kidfs; core
seaty; nghUe;jp ,Uf;Fk;. ,J mj;pf mstpy; gad;gLfpwJ.

3) Vertical core
,e;j core nrq;Fj;jhf mouldy; nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;
cored; Kidfs; cope kw;Wk; dragy; cs;s core seaty;
nghUe;jp ,Uf;Fk;. Cored; ngUk; gFjp dragy; ,Uf;Fk;.

1.38
 Mould cavity Core

1. Green sand core 2. Horizontal core

3. Vertical core 4. Balanced core

5. Hanging core 6. Drop core

Fig.1.26 Types of cores
4) Balanced core
,e;j cored; xU Kid kl;Lk; mouldy; nghUe;jp ,Uf;Fk;.
Core rhpahd epiyapy; fpilkl;lkhf ,Uf;FkhW mouldy;
ePskhd core seat mikf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,e;j coreI gad;gLj;jp
castingd; xU gFjpapy; kl;Lk; Jis cUthf;f KbAk;.

5) Hanging core
,e;j core MdJ copey; jhq;fg;gl;L nrq;Fj;jhf
njhq;Fk; epiyapy; ,Uf;Fk;. Dragy; vt;tpj supportk;
,Uf;fhJ. cUf;fpa metalI Cw;w corey; Jis cs;sJ.
,J cover core vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLk;.
6) Drop core or wing core
Castingd; ika Nfhl;bw;F Nky; my;yJ fPo; Jis
Vw;gLj;j drop core gad;gLfpwJ. Core MdJ mouldy; vspjhf
nghUj;;Jtjw;F Vw;g rhpahd msT kw;Wk; tbtj;jpy;
,Uf;Fk;. ,J tail core kw;Wk; chain core vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLk;.
1.39
1.10.8 Core ovens
CoreI R+LgLj;jp NghJkhd fbdj;jd;ikia
ngWtjw;F fPo;f;fz;l ovenfs; gad;gLfpd;wd.
1) Batch type ovens
2) Continuous type ovens
3) Dielectric type ovens

1) Batch type ovens

,e;j tif oveny; ntt;NtW msTila rpwpa
corefis batch Mf itj;J ntg;gg;gLj;jyhk;. Corefis
itg;gjw;F ,e;j oveny; gy rack my;yJ shelf ,Uf;Fk;.
Coal, oil my;yJ gas Mfpatw;iw vhpg;gjd; %yk; oven
ntg;g %l;lg;gLfpwJ.

2) Continuous type ovens

Furnace

Unload

Load

Fig.1.27 Continous type oven

,e;j tif oveny; corefs; njhlh;r;rpahf nrYj;jg;

gl;L ntg;gg; gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. Ovend; xU gf;fj;jpy;
conveyor kPJ corefs; itf;fg;gLk;. Oveny; conveyor nkJthf
efUk; NghJ corefs; ntg;gg; gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. Ovend;
kWgf;fj;jpy; corefs; ntspNa vLf;fg;gLfpd;wd. Conveyord;
Ntfj;ij khw;wp ntg;gg;gLj;Jk; Neuj;ij fl;Lg;gLj;jyhk;.
Gas, oil my;yJ kpd;rhuj;jhy; oven ntg;g %l;lg;gLfpwJ.
,e;j oven MdJ mass productionf;F Vw;wJ.

1.40
3) Dielectric baking ovens

Baking chamber Upper electrode

(adjustable)

Lower
electrode
Core Core
Loading Unloading

Conveyor

Fig.1.28 Dielectric baking oven

Corefis tpiuthf ntg;gg;gLj;j ,e;j tif oven

gad;gLfpwJ. ,jpy; cs;s ,uz;L ,izahd
electrodefSf;F ,ilNa conveyor %yk; core nrYj;jg;
gLfpwJ. Aluminium plate MdJ upper electrode MfTk;
Conveyor MdJ lower electrode MfTk; nray;gLk;.
ElectrodefSf;F A.C. supply nfhLf;Fk; NghJ cUthFk;
mjpf ntg;gj;jhy; corefs; xNu rPuhf ntg;gg;gLj;jg;
gLfpd;wd.

1.11 Metallurgy
Metallurgy vd;gJ cNyhfq;fs;> cNyhff; fyitfs;
kw;wk; ,tw;wpw;F ,ilg;gl;l fyitfs; Mfpatw;wpd;
,aw;gpay; kw;Wk; Ntjpapay; gz;Gfisg; gw;wp gbf;Fk;
mwptpaypd; xU gphpT MFk;. cNyhfk; kw;Wk; cNyhff;
fyitfspd; Fwpg;gpl;l gz;Gfis Njitf; Nfw;g khw;wp
mikj;Jf; nfhs;s cjTk; KiwNa heat treatment vdg;gLk;.
jpl epiyapy; cs;s cNyhfk; kw;Wk; cNyhff; fyitfis
ntt;NtW ntg;gepiyf;F R+LgLj;jp> mij Fwpg;gpl;l
tPjj;jpy; Fspur; nra;tjd; %yk; mjd; gz;Gfs;
Nkk;gLj;jg; gLfpd;wd.

1.41
 cjhuzkhf> steelI ntg;gg;gLj;Jk; NghJ mjd;
crystal structure
khwpf; nfhz;Nl ,Uf;Fk;. Steely; cs;s
fhh;gd; msT> ntg;gepiy kw;Wk; Fsph;tilAk; tPjk;
Mfpatw;iwg; nghWj;J mjd; micro structure mikg;G
khWgLk;. mjw;Ngw;g steeld; gz;GfSk; khw;wk; ngWk;.

1.11.1 Iron-Carbon equilibrium diagram

D
1600 + Liq
1539 A
B L i qu
i du
iron
1400
E So l s
li Liquid
ne
id

+ Aus
us

Liq + Aus
l in
Temperature (° C)

Liq + Cem
1200 C
e

Aus (
G 1130 ° C H
e
n
li

1000
T
UC

910 I + Aus Aus + Cem + Lede

Aus +
800
iron K Cem
M
L 723 ° C

Eutectoid point Lower critical

600
temperature line

400
Pear + Pear + Pear + Cem + Lede
Fer Cem

200

6.67
Hypo 0.8 1 Hyper 2 3 4 4.3 5 6
eutectoid eutectoid

Steel Cast iron

% Carbon

Fig.1.29 Iron-Carbon equilibrium diagram

1.42
 ,Uk;ig ntg;gg;gLj;Jk;NghNjh my;yJ Fsph;tilar;
nra;Ak;NghNjh> ,Uk;gpy; cs;s fhh;gd; msT kw;Wk;
ntg;gepiyia nghWj;J ,Uk;gpd; epiyfspy; Vw;gLk;
khw;wj;ijf; fhl;Lk; tiuglNk iron-carbon equilibrium diagram
vdg;gLk;. ntt;NtW heat treatment nray; KiwfSf;F cfe;j
cNyhff; fyitfs;> mjpy; ,Uf;f Ntz;ba fhh;gd; msT
kw;Wk; me;j nray;Kiwf;F Vw;w ntg;gepiy Mfpatw;iw
njhpe;J nfhs;s ,e;j tiuglk; nghpJk; gad;gLfpwJ.
fhh;gd; msit X – mr;rpYk;> ntg;gepiyia Y–mr;rpYk;
vLj;Jf; nfhz;L ,e;j tiuglk; tiuag;gLfpwJ.

Description of the diagram

glj;jpy; ABCD vd;w NfhL liquidus line vdg;gLfpwJ.
,e;j Nfhl;bw;F Nky; cs;s ntg;gepiyapy; ,Uk;ghdJ
jput epiyapy; ,Uf;Fk;. A vd;w Gs;sp (1530ºC)apy; J}a
,Uk;ghdJ. ciwa Muk;gpf;fpwJ. Gs;sp A apypUe;J C
tiu NfhL fPo;Nehf;fp nry;tjhy;> ,Uk;gpy; fhh;gd; msT
mjpfhpf;Fk;NghJ mjd; ciwepiy ntg;gk; Fiwe;J
nfhz;Nl nry;fpwJ vd;gij mwpayhk;.

Gs;sp C MdJ 4.3% fhh;gd; fye;j ,Uk;gpd;

ciwepiy ntg;gj;ij (1130ºC) fhl;LfpwJ. fhh;gd; msT
4.3%f;F Nky; mjpfhpf;Fk; NghJ ,Uk;gpd; ciwepiy
ntg;gk; mjpfhpj;Jf; nfhz;Nl nry;tij NfhL CD
fhl;LfpwJ.

AGCH vd;w NfhL solidus line vdg;gLfpwJ. ,e;j

Nfhl;bw;F fPo; cs;s ntg;gepiyapy; ,Uk;ghdJ jpl
epiyapy; ,Uf;Fk;.

fhh;gd; fye;Js;s msitg; nghWj;J> ,e;j

tiuglkhdJ ,uz;L gFjpfshf gphpf;fg; gLfpwJ. 2%
tiu fhh;gd; nfhz;l gFjp steel range vdTk; 2%f;F Nky;
fhh;gd; nfhz;l gFjp cast iron range vdTk;
miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

1.43
 0.8%f;Fk; Fiwthf fhh;gd; fye;Js;s steel MdJ
hypo-eutectiod steel vdg;gLk;. rhpahf 0.8% fhh;gd; fye;Js;s
steel MdJ eutectoid steel vdTk;> 0.8% Kjy; 2% tiu
fhh;gd; fye;Js;s steel MdJ hyper eutectoid steel vdTk;
miof;fg;gLk;.
NkYk; 0.2%f;F Fiwthf fhh;gd; cs;s steelI low
carbon steel vdTk;. 0.2% Kjy; 0.8% tiu fhh;gd; cs;s
steelI medium carbon steel vdTk;> 0.8% Kjy; 2% tiu
fhh;gd; cs;s steelI high carbon steel vdTk; miof;fyhk;.

Critical temperatures
cNyhfq;fspd; micro structurey; khw;wk; Vw;glj;
njhlq;Fk; ntg;gepiy critical temperature vdg;gLk;. cUfpa
epiyapy; cs;s cNyhfj;ij Fsph;tilar; nra;Ak;NghJ
mjd; microstructurey; khw;wk; Vw;glj; njhlq;Fk; ntg;gepiy
Upper Critical Temperature (UCT) vdg;gLk;. Micro structure
KotJkhf khw;wk; milAk; ntg;gepiy Lower Critical
Temperature (LCT) vdg;gLfpwJ. glj;jpy; NfhL IKG MdJ
Uppper Critical Temperature line vdTk;> NfhL LKM (723ºC)
MdJ Lower Critical Temperatre line vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ.
0.8% fhh;gd; fye;Js;s eutectoid steelf;F lower critical
temperature kw;Wk; upper critical temperature ,uz;Lk; (Gs;sp
K) xd;whfNt ,Uf;Fk;.

1.11.2 Sturcture transformation in steel

0.4% kw;Wk; 1.2% fhh;gd; fye;Js;s ,uz;L tif
steel I vLj;Jf; nfhs;Nthk;.

glj;jpy; t1 kw;Wk; t2 Mfpait KiwNa 0.4% fhh;gd;

fye;js;s steel d; LCT kw;Wk; UCT MFk;. t2 ntg;gepiyf;F
Nky; ,e;j steel MdJ austenite structurey; ,Uf;Fk;.
t2 ntg;gepiyapy; austenite MdJ ferrite Mf khWk;.
t1 ntg;gepiyapy; ferrite MdJ pearliteMf khWfpwJ. ,e;j
,uz;L ntg;gepiyfSf;Fk; ,ilapy; austenite kw;Wk; ferrite
fye;j fyitahf ,Uf;Fk;. t1f;F Fiwthd ntg;g epiyapy;
pearlite kw;Wk; ferrite fye;j fyitahf steel ,Uf;Fk;.

1.44
 Upper critical
temp.line
1000

910

800 t2 Aus + Cem

Fer +
Aus
t4
Temperature (° C)

t1 t3
600 Lower critical temperature line

400
Pear + Fer Pear + Cem

200

0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2

Hypoeutectoid Hyper eutectoid
steel steel

% Carbon
Fig.1.30 Structure transformation in steel

glj;jpy; t3 kw;Wk; t4 Mfpait KiwNa 1.2% fhh;gd;

fye;Js;s steeld; LCT kw;Wk; UCT MFk;. ,e;j tif steel
MdJ t4 ntg;gepiyf;F Nky; austeniteMf ,Uf;Fk;. t4 ntg;g
epiyapy; cementiteMf khWk;. t3 ntg;gepiyapy; pearliteMf
khWk;. ,e;j ,uz;L ntg;gepiyfSf;F ,ilapy; austenite
kw;Wk; cementite fye;j fyitahf ,Uf;Fk;. t3 f;F
Fiwthd ntg;gepiyapy; pearlite kw;Wk; cementite fye;j
fyitahf ,Uf;Fk;.

1.45
1.12 Melting furnces
MetalI mjd; cUF epiyf;F Nky; ntg;gg;gLj;jp
cUf;f gad;gLtJ furnace MFk;. Coal, oil, gas, kpd;rhuk;
Mfpatw;why; furnace ntg;gg; gLj;jg;gLk;. cUf;f Ntz;ba
metald; tif> msT Mfpatw;iwg; nghWj;J fPo;f;fz;l
gy;NtW tif furnacefs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
1) Blast furnace 2) Cupola furnace
3) Crucible furnace 4) Electric furnace
i) Pit type furnace i) Direct arc furnace
ii) Coke fired stationary furnace ii) Indirect arc furnace
iii) Oil fired tilting furnace iii) Induction furnace

1.12.1 Blast furnace

,Uk;G jhJtpy; ,Uf;Fk; ,Uk;G Mf;irLfis
cUf;Fjy; kw;Wk; xLf;Fjy; Kiwapy; pig iron Mf
khw;Wtjw;F blast furnace gad;gLfpwJ.

Construction
Blast furnace MdJ steel My; nra;ag;gl;l Rkhh;
30 kPl;lh; cauk; nfhz;l xU mikg;G MFk;. ,jd; cl;Gwk;
2000oC tiu ntg;gj;ij jhq;ff; $ba fire brickfshy; fl;lg;
gl;bUf;Fk;. ,jd; mbg;gFjpapy; jbkdhd xU plate
,Uf;Fk;. cUfpa cNyhfj;ij ntspNaw;w tap hole cs;sJ.
,jw;F vjph;g; Gwj;jpy; rw;W Nky; slag hole cs;sJ.

Furnaced; mbg;gFjpf;F mUfpy;> copper nozzlefs;

%yk; Fsph;tpf;fg; gLk; tuyers vdg;gLk; jpwg;Gfs; cs;sd.
,jd; topahf> #lhf;fg;gl;l fhw;W ntbj;Jr; rpjWk;
tifapy; (blast of air) mjpNtfj;jpy; nrYj;jg;gl;L
furnacef;Fs; cs;s ,Uk;G jhJ fyit #lhf;fg;gLfpwJ.
%yg;nghUl;fis Nrkpj;J itf;f furnaced; Nkw;gFjpapy;
xU stack house cs;sJ. Fwpg;gpl;l mstpy; %yg;nghUl;fis
furnacef;Fs; nrYj;J tjw;F xU hopper gad;gLj;jg;
gLfpwJ. #lhd thAf;fs; ntspNaWtjw;F furnaced;
Nkw;Gwj;jpy; Foha;fs; cs;sd.

1.46
 Charge
(Iron ore, Coke
& Limestone)

Hot waste gas Hot waste gas

Steel lined with

fire bricks
250°C
Reduction
of iron ore
700°C
CO2 reacts
with coke
850°C
Formation
Hot air reacts of slag
with coke
1500°C
Hot air blast Hot air blast

Slag

Molten metal

Fig.1.31 Blast furnace

Preparation
Blast furnaced; cl;Gwk; GJg;gpf;fg;gLk; tiu Rkhh;
10 Mz;Lfs; njhlh;r;rpahf ,Uk;G gphpj;J vLj;jy;
eilngWk;. Furnaced; cl;Gwk; cs;s slag kw;Wk; Njitaw;w
nghUl;fis ePf;fp Rj;jk; nra;ag;gLk;. cl;Gwk; cile;j
brickfis rhp nra;a Ntz;Lk;. Bottom plate
nghUj;jg;gLfpwJ. Tap hole kw;Wk; slag hole Vw;gLj;jg;gLk;.
Firing nra;AKd; furnace ed;F cyh;j;jg;gl Ntz;Lk;.

1.47
Operation
Coke, lime stone flux kw;Wk; ,Uk;G jhJ (iron oxide)
Mfpait mlq;fpa %yg;nghUshdJ hopper topahf xU
Jy;ypakhd epug;G thpirapy; furnacef;Fs; nrYj;jg;gLfpwJ.
mbg;gf;fk; cs;s tuyerfs; topahf #lhd fhw;W
mjpNtfkhf furnacef;Fs; nrYj;jg; gLfpwJ.
,e;j #lhd fhw;W cokeI vhpa itj;J mjpf ntg;g
epiyia cUthf;FfpwJ. Coke fhw;Wld; tpidGhpe;J carbon
monoxide thAit cUthf;FfpwJ. ,e;j thAthdJ
,Uk;Gj; jhJtpy; cs;s ,Uk;G Mf;iril xLf;fp ,Uk;ghf
khw;WfpwJ.
Iron oxide + Carbon monoxide  Iron + Carbon dioxide
Fe2O3 + 3 CO  2 Fe + 3 CO2
mjpf ntg;gepiyapy;> lime stone (Calcium carbonate)
MdJ calcium oxide Mf rpijtilfpwJ. ,e;j oxide MdJ
(silica, alumina, magnesia, calcia Nghd;w) mkpy mRj;jq;fSld;
tpidGhpe;J slag (frL) Mf khWfpwJ.
Calcium carbonate (lime stone)  Calcium oxide + Carbon dioxide
CaCO3  CaO + CO2

Calcium oxide + Silica (sand)  Calcium silicate (slag)

CaO + SiO2  CaSiO3

cUfpa pig irond; Nkw;gug;gpy; ,e;j slag kpjf;Fk;.

cUfpa pig iron kw;Wk; slag Mfpait Fwpg;gpl;l ,ilntsp
fspy; furnacey; ,Ue;J ntspNaw;wg;gLk;. Furnacef;Fs;
nrYj;jg;gLk; fhw;wpid ntg;gg; gLj;Jtjw;F> furnacey;
,Ue;J ntspNaWk; #lhd fhw;W gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.

Application
,Uk;G jhJtpy; ,Ue;J pig ironI gphpj;J vLg;gjw;F
blast furnace gad;gLfpwJ. Cast iron kw;Wk; steel cUthf;F
tjw;fhd %yg;nghUshf pig iron gad;gLfpwJ.

1.48
Advantages
1) mjpf cw;gj;jp tPjk;.
2) Fiwthd ,af;fr; nryT.
3) Fiwthd guhkhpg;Gr; nryT.
4) kpf ePz;l ehl;fSf;F njhlh;r;rpahf ,af;fyhk;.

Disadvantages
1) mjpf metal oxidation Vw;gLk;.
2) Fiwthd efficiency.
3) mjpf ,;lg;gug;G Njit.

1.12.2 Cupola furanace (Melting of Cast Iron)

Cast ironI cUf;Ftjw;F cupola furnace gad;gLfpwJ.

Construction
,J steel plateMy; nra;ag;gl;l hollow cylinder MFk;.
,jd; cl;Gwk; refractory brickMy; fl;lg;gl;L fire clay G+rg;gl;L
,Uf;Fk;. Concretey; nghUj;g;gl;l cast iron J}z;fshy; cupola
jhq;fg; gl;bUf;Fk; Cuploatpd; mbapy; jbkdhd plate
cs;sJ. ,jw;F Nky; cUfpa metal vspjhf
ntspNaWtjw;F Vw;g rha;thf sand bed mikf;fg;
gl;bUf;Fk;. cUfpa cNyhfj;ij ntspNaw;w tap hole
cs;sJ. Clay plug %yk; tap holeI %lyhk;. ,jw;F vjph;g;
Gwj;jpy; rw;W Nky; slag hole cs;sJ. Tuyers (jpwg;Gfs;)
topahf fuel vhptjw;F Njitahd fhw;W nrYj;jg; gLfpwJ.
Furnacef;Fs; fhw;iw nrYj;j wind box cs;sJ. NkYk;
cupolatpy; metal kw;Wk; fuelI nrYj;Jtjw;F charging door
kw;Wk; platform cs;sJ.

Preparation
Cupolatpy; cs;s slag kw;Wk; Njitaw;w nghUl;fis
ePf;fp Rj;jk; nra;a Ntz;Lk;. cl;Gwk; cile;j bricksI rhp
nra;a Ntz;Lk;. Bottom plate nghUj;jg;gLfpwJ. Tap holeI
Nehf;fp rhpthf sand bottom mikf;fg;gLk;. Tap hole kw;Wk;
slag hole Vw;gLj;jg;gLk;. Firing nra;AKd; cupola ed;F
cyh;j;jg;gl Ntz;Lk;.
1.49
 Spark arrester

Refractory
lining
Steel shell
Charging door
Stack
Stage zone

3
2
1
3 Preheating
zone
2
1
Tuyers
3 Melting zone
Wind box
2
Air 1
Tap hole
Slag hole
Sand bed
Bottom plate 1 - Coke
2 - Flux
3 - Metal

Fig.1.32 Cupola furnace

Operation
Firing : Sand bedd; kPJ kuj; Jz;Lfs; itj;J gw;w
itf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,g;NghJ furnacef;Fs; fhw;W
nrYj;jg;gLk;. kuj; Jz;Lfs; vhpa Muk;gpj;jTld; rpwpJ
rpwpjhf cokeI epug;g Ntz;Lk;. Coke vhpa Muk;gpj;jJk;>
tuyers opening tiu NkYk; cokeI epug;g Ntz;Lk;. Coke bed
Rkhh; miu kzp Neuk; vhpe;jTld; charging nra;ayhk;.
1.50
 Charging : Charging door topahf pig iron, iron scrap, flux
kw;Wk; coke Mfpatw;iw KiwNa mLf;fhf furnacey; epug;g
Ntz;Lk;. Iron kw;Wk; coked; msT 10:1 vd;w tpfpjj;jpy;
,Uf;Fk;. SlagI mfw;Wtjw;F lime stoneI fluxMf Nrh;f;f
Ntz;Lk;. Iron kw;Wk; lime stoned; msT 25:1 vd;w tpfpjj;jpy;
,Uf;Fk;.

Melting : nkJthf fhw;iw nrYj;jp Rkhh; 45 epkplk;

iron ntg;gg;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ. gpd;G blower %yk; fhw;W
Ntfkhf nrYj;jg; gLfpwJ. rpy epkplq;fspy; metal cUfp
sand bedy; te;J NrUk;. Slag hole topNa slag ntspNaWk;.
Tap hole jpwf;fg;gl;L cUfpa cNyhfk; ladley;
gpbf;fg;gLfpwJ. ,e;j cUfpa cNyhfj;ij mouldy; Cw;wp
casting jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ.

Advantages
1) vspa mikg;G.
2) Muk;g nryT FiwT.
3) Fiwe;j ,lk; NghJkhdJ.
4) ,af;FtJ kw;Wk; guhkhpg;G vspJ.
5) njhlh;e;J gy kzp Neuk; ,af;fyhk;.

1.12.3 Crucible furnace (Melting of non-ferrous metals)

Non-ferrous metalfis cUf;Ftjw;F crucible furnace
gad;gLfpwJ. ,jpy; cNyhfj;ij vhpnghUSld; Nrh;f;fhky;
jdpahf cUf;fg; gLfpwJ. ,jd; nfhs;ssT 30 Kjy; 150
kg tiu ,Uf;Fk;. ,jpy;; fPo;f;fz;l tiffs; cs;sd.
1) Pit furnace
2) Coke fired stationary furnace
3) Oil fired tilting furnace

1) Pit furnace
jiu kl;lj;jpw;F fPNo ntl;lg;gl;l Fop (pit)apy;
crucible itf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. Fuel vhptjw;F Njitahd fhw;W
natural my;yJ forced draft %yk; ngwg;gLfpwJ. Furnaced;
fPo;g;gFjpapy; grate kw;Wk; ash pit cs;sJ. Furnaced; cl;Gwk;
fire brickMy; fl;lg;gl;bUf;Fk;.
1.51
 Chimney
Fire brick Lid
Steel shell

Coke
Crucible

Pit

Natural or
forced draught

Fig.1.33 Pit furnace

cUf;f Ntz;ba cNyhfj;ij curcibey; itf;f
Ntz;Lk;. CrucibleI Rw;wp coke epug;gg;gl;L vhpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
cNyhfk; cUfpa gpd;G tongs %yk; crucible ntspNa
vLf;fg;gLk;. gpd;G cUfpa cNyhfj;ij mouldy; Cw;wp
casting jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
2) Coke fired stationary furnace
Cover

Coke
Blower Crucible

Fig.1.34 Coke fired stationary furnce

1.52
 Fiwe;j mstpy; non-ferrous metalfis cUf;f ,e;j
furnace gad;gLfpwJ. ,e;j tif furnace jiu kl;lj;jpw;F
Nky; mikf;fg; gLk;. Fire brickMy; fl;lg;gl;l miwapy;
crucible itf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. Fuel vhptjw;F Njitahd
fhw;iw nrYj;j blower cs;sJ.
cUf;f Ntz;ba cNyhfj;ij crucibley; itf;f
Ntz;Lk;. CrucibleI Rw;wp coke epug;gp vhpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
cNyhfk; cUfpa gpd;G tongs %yk; crucible ntspNa
vLf;fg;gLk;. gpd;G cUfpa cNyhfj;ij mouldy; Cw;wp
casting jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ.

3) Oil fired tilting furnace

Cover

Fire brick

Hand wheel
Crucible

Pipe line Burner

Stand

Fig.1.35 Oil fired tilting furnace

jiukl;lj;jpw;F Nky; mikf;fg;gl;Ls;s ,e;j furnace
,uz;L. standfshy; jhq;fg;gLk;. Fire brickMy; fl;lg;gl;l
miwapy; crucible itf;fg; gl;Ls;sJ. cUf;fpa metalI
Cw;Wtjw;F> geared hand wheel %yk; furnaceI rha;f;fyhk;.
vhpf;fj; Njitg;gLk; kerosene my;yJ waste oil MdJ 6 m
cauj;jpy; itf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. Nozzle topahf air kw;Wk; oil
NghJkhd mOj;jj;Jld; burnerf;F nrYj;jg;gLk;. Oil
vhpf;fg;gl;L crucible ntg;gg;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ. Fiwe;j mstpy;
non-ferrous metalfis cUf;f ,e;j furnace gad;gLfpwJ.

1.53
Advantages
1) Melting rate mjpfk;.
2) Njitg;gLk; NghJ furnace I vspjpy; epWj;jyhk;.
3) ntg;gepiyia fl;Lg;gLj;JtJ vspJ.
4) Fiwe;j ,lk; NghJkhdJ.

1.12.4 Electric furnaces (Melting of steel)

fPo;f;fz;l electric furnacnefs; cs;sd.
1) Direct arc furnace
2) Indirect arc furnace
3) Induction furnace

1) Direct arc furnace

Roof Electrodes

Arc

Molten
metal

Spout
Refractory
lining
Ladle

Rollers

Fig.1.36 Direct are furnace

,e;j furnaced; fPo;g;gFjp Nfhs tbtj;jpy; steelMy;

nra;ag; gl;Ls;sJ. ,jd; cl;Gwk; fire brickfshy;
fl;lg;gl;bUf;Fk;. ,jd; Nky; gFjpapy; roof cs;sJ. ,jpy;
%d;W graphite electrodefs; efUk; tifapy; nghUj;jg;
gl;bUf;Fk;. Raw material nrYj;Jtjw;F charging door kw;Wk;
cUfpa metalI ntspNaw;w Jis cs;sJ. FurnaceI
rha;g;gjw;F mjd; mbg;gFjpapy; rollers nghUj;jg;
gl;bUf;Fk;.

1.54
 Steel scrap kw;Wk; pig ironI charging door topNa
nrYj;j Ntz;Lk;. Power supply nfhLj;jTld; electrodefs;
kw;Wk; metalf;F ,ilapy; electric arc cUthfpwJ. Arcd;
ntg;gj;jpdhy; metal cUf;fg; gLfpwJ. Rollerfs; %yk;
furnaceI rha;j;J cUfpa cNyhfk; ladley; epug;gg;gLfpwJ.
Arc cUthFk; tifapy; electrodefspd; cauk; automaticMf
adjust nra;ag;gLk;. ,e;j furnaced; capacity 80 tonfs; MFk;.

Application
Steel kw;Wk; alloy steelfis cUf;Ftjw;F gad;gLfpwJ.
Advantages
1) Rj;jkhd cNyhfk; fpilf;Fk;
2) Furnaced; thermal efficiency mjpfk;.
3) Pig iron kw;Wk; steel scrapy; ,Ue;J Neubahf steel
fpilf;fpwJ.
2) Indirect arc furnace
Steel shell
Refractory
lining

Charging door
Arc
Electrodes

Molten metal

Tilting
mechanism

Fig.1.37 Indirect arc furnace

,e;j furncacey; electrode kw;Wk; arc cld; metal
njhlh;G ,Uf;fhJ. vdNt indirect arc furnace vd miof;fg;
gLfpwJ. ,e;j furnace cl;Gwk; refractory G+rg;gl;l steel shell
MFk;. ,jpy; Neh; vjpuhf> ,uz;L electrodefs; nghUj;jg;
gl;bUf;Fk;. Furnaced; ikaj;jpy; chagging door cs;sJ.
1.55
 Pig iron kw;Wk; steel scrapI charging door topNa
nrYj;j Ntz;Lk;. Power supply nfhLj;jTld; ,uz;L
electrodefSf;F ,ilapy; electric arc cUthfpwJ. ,e;j arcd;
ntg;gj;jpdhy; metal cUf;fg;gLfpwJ. Tilting mechanism %yk;
furnaceI rha;j;J cUfpa cNyhfk; ladley; epug;gg;gLfpwJ.

Application
Steel, copper kw;Wk; copper alloyfis cUf;Ftjw;Fg;
gad;gLfpwJ.
Advantages
1) Metal composition rPuhf ,Uf;Fk;.
2) Metal oxide cUthfhJ.
3) MetalI nrYj;JtJ kw;Wk; ntspNaw;WtJ vspJ.

3) Induction furnace
Molten metal Crucible
Induction coil
(Copper tubing)
Steel shell

Insulation

Water Power
Fig.1.38 Induction furnace
,jpy; steel shelld; cl;Gwk; ntg;gk; jhq;Fk; crucible
itf;fg; gl;bUf;Fk;. Crucibley; copper tube coil Rw;wg;gl;L
,Uf;Fk;. Copper tube topNa ePh; nrYj;jp Fsph;tpf;fg;gLk;.
Copper tube kw;Wk; cruciblef;F ,ilNa insulation
mikf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;.
,e;j furnaceMdJ transformerd; jj;Jtj;jpy;
,aq;FfpwJ. ,jpy; copper tubeMdJ primary coil MfTk;>
1.56
crucibley; cs;s cUf;f Ntz;ba cNyhfk; secondary coil
MfTk; nray;gLk;. Primary coil topNa A.C. current
nrYj;jg;gLk;. ,J secondary coil (cUf;f Ntz;ba metal)y;
kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij (induction current) J}z;Lk;. ,jdhy;
cUthFk; ntg;gj;jhy; metal cUFfpwJ. CrucibleI rha;j;J
cUfpa cNyhfk; ladley; epug;gg;gLfpwJ. ,e;j furnacey; 500
Kjy; 2500 Hz tiu cs;s kpd;Ndhl;lk; nrYj;jg;gLk;.
,jd; capacity 10 tonfs; MFk;.
Application
Steel kw;Wk; alloy steelfis cUf;Ftjw;F gad;gLfpwJ.
Advantages of induction furnace
1) Electrode Njitapy;iy
2) Ntfkhd nray; Kiw
3) J}a;ikahd cNyhfk; fpilf;Fk;.

Advantages of electric furnaces

1) mjpf ntg;gepiyia (2000oC) cUthf;fyhk;.
2) ntg;gepiyia fl;Lg;gLj;JtJ vspJ.
3) Metal Ntfkhf cUf;fg;gLfpwJ.
4) Thermal efficiency mjpfk;
5) Air kw;Wk; impurities %yk; cNyhfk; ghjpf;fhJ.
6) Steel cld; chromium, nickel Nghd;wtw;iw Nrh;f;fyhk;.

1.13 Casting
cUf;fpa metalI mouldy; Cw;wp Fspu itj;J
fpilg;gJ casting MFk;. ,jpy; metalI cUf;FtJ> mouldy;
Cw;WtJ> Fspu itg;gJ Mfpait mlq;Fk;. Mouldd;
tbtj;jpw;F vw;g casting ,Uf;Fk;.
fPo;f;fz;l casting Kiwfs; cs;sd.
1) Sand cating 5) Continuous casting
2) Gravity die casting 6) Chilled casting
3) Pressure die casting 7) Malleable casting
i) Hot chamber die cating 8) Shell mould casting
ii) Cold chamber die casting 9) Investment casting
4) Centrifugal casting

1.57
1.13.1 Sand casting
cUfpa cNyhfk; Fsph;e;J jpl epiyia mile;j
gpd; mouldI gad;gLj;jp casting nra;tJ green sand casting
MFk;. ,J rpwpa kw;Wk; eLj;ju castingfs; nra;a Vw;wJ.
Dry sand mouldI gad;gLj;jp casting nra;tJ dry sand casting
MFk;. ,jpy; nghpa castingfis nra;ayhk;. ,e;j castingy;
blow holes Nghd;w FiwghLfs; ,Uf;fhJ. Sand mouldy; xU
casting kl;Lk; nra;a KbAk;. kPz;Lk; ,ij gad;gLj;j
KbahJ. vdNt cw;gj;jp Neuk; kw;Wk; nryT mjpfkhFk;.

1.13.2 Gravity die casting

,J permanent mould casting vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLk;.
Sand mouldI cilj;J casting ntspNa vLf;fg;gLfpwJ.
Sand mouldy; kPz;Lk; casting nra;a KbahJ. vdNt permanent
mouldI gad;gLj;jp mjpf mstpy; castingfis
cUthf;fyhk;. ntg;gj;ij jhq;Fk; cast iron, alloy steel, graphite
Nghd;wtw;iw gad;gLj;jp permanent mould jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
Core
Runner Riser

Die cavity
Fig.1.39 Gravity die casting
Castingfis vspjpy; vLg;gjw;F permanent mould gy
gFjp fshf nra;ag;gl;bUf;fFk;. Pouring cup, runner, riser
Mfpait mouldd; Nky; gFjpapy; mikf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. Core
itf;fg; gl;L ,e;j gFjpfs; rhpahf nghUj;jg;gLfpwJ.
Mould my;yJ die cavity ntg;gk; jhq;Ftjw;F Vw;g coating
nra;ag;l;bUf;Fk;. cUf;fpa cNyhfj;ij Cw;Wk; NghJ
1.58
gravity %yk; diey; epuk;Gk;. cUfpa cNyhfk; jpl epiyia
mila Muk;gpf;Fk; Kd; coreI ePf;f Ntz;Lk;. Fsph;e;j
gpd;G die gphpf;fg;gl;L casting ntspNa vLf;fg;gLfpwJ.
Application
Carburettor body, hydraulic brake cylinder Nghd;witfis
jahhpf;ffg; gad;gLfpwJ.
Advantages
1) Ntfkhd nray;Kiw MFk;.
2) msTfs; Jy;ypakhf fpilf;Fk;.
3) Surface finish ed;whf fpilf;Fk;.
4) Fiwfsw;w casting fpilf;Fk;.
5) Fiwe;j ,lk; NghJkhdJ.
6) cw;gj;jp nryT FiwT.
Disadvantages
1) Died; tpiy mjpfk;.
2) rpf;fyhd tbt castingfis jahhpf;f Vw;wjy;y
3) CastingI ntspNa vLg;gJ fbdk;.
4) Mass pridductionf;F kl;Lk; Vw;wJ.

1.13.3 Pressure die casting

cUf;fpa cNyhfj;ij dieapy; mOj;jj;Jld; nrYj;jp
casting jahhpg;gJ pressure die casting MFk;. Die ,uz;L
gFjpfshf nra;ag;l;bUf;Fk;. xU gFjp epiyahfTk;
kw;nwhU gFjp efUk;gbAk; ,Uf;Fk;. MetalMy; nra;ag;gl;l
permanent mould MdJ die vd;W miof;fg;gLk;.
,k;Kiwapy; lead, magnesium, tin, zinc, brass Nghd;w
catingfis jahhpf;fyhk;.
Die cating ,U tifg;gLk;.
1) Hot chamber die cating
2) Cold chamber die casting
1) Hot chamber die casting
,e;j machiney; metalI cUf;Ftjw;F heating chamber
cs;sJ. ,e;j chamber MdJ burner %yk; ntg;gg;gLj;jg;
gLk;. Goose neck vessel (injector) cUfpa cNyhfj;jpy; %o;fp
,Uf;Fk;. ,jd; Nky;; gFjpapy; plunger cs;sJ.
1.59
 Movable die
Fixed die
Plunger Goose neck vessel
(injector)
Port
Molten
metal

Burner

Heating chamber

Fig.1.40 Hot chamber die casting

Plunger Nky; Nehf;fp efUk; NghJ port topNa cUfpa
metal, vesself;F nry;fpwJ. Plunger fPo; Nehf;fp tUk;NghJ
cUfpa metal, die-y; mOj;jj;Jld; (15 MN / m²) nrYj;jg;
gLfpwJ. Die jz;zPuhy; Fsph;tpf;fg;gLtjhy; diey;
epug;gg;gl;l cUfpa cNyhfk; cldbahf Fsph;e;J jpl
epiyia milfpwJ. Movable die efh;j;jg;gl;L ejector %yk;
casting ntspNa vLf;fg;gLfpwJ. Plunger kw;Wk; movable die
MdJ hydraulic Kiwapy; ,af;fg; gLfpwJ.

2) Cold chamber die casting

Movable die Fixed die

Molten metal
Ejector pin

Cylinder Piston
Die cavity

Fig.1.41 Cold chamber die casting

1.60
 ,e;j machiney; metalI cUf;Fk; heating chamber
,y;iy. Metal ntspNa furnacey; jdpahf cUf;fg;gl;L
ladley; nfhz;L tug; gLfpwJ. fpilkl;lj;jpy; cs;s plunger
kw;Wk; movable die MdJ hydraulic Kiwapy;
,af;fg;gLfpwJ. cUf;fpa metalI cylindery; Cw;w Ntz;Lk;.
Plunger ,lJ gf;fk;; efUk; NghJ cUfpa metalI
mOj;jj;Jld; diey; epuk;GfpwJ. Die jz;zPuhy;
Fsph;tpf;fg;gLtjhy; diey; cs;s cUfpa cNyhfk;
cldbahf Fsph;e;J jpl epiyia milfpwJ. Movable die
efh;j;jg;gl;L ejector %yk; casting ntspNa vLf;fg;gLfpwJ.

Application of pressure die casting

Carburettor body, crank case, fuel pump parts, sound horn,
wiper Nghd;wit jahhpf;fyhk;. NkYk; toys, cameras, clocks,
wahing machine parts Nghd;wtw;iw jahhpf;fg; gad;gLfpwJ.

Advantages of pressure die casting

1) mjpNtf cw;gj;jp.
2) Mass productionf;F Vw;wJ.
3) Surface finish ed;whf ,Uf;Fk;.
4) Jy;ypakhd casting fpilf;Fk;.
5) Died; MAl;fhyk; mjpfk.
6) Fiwe;j ,lk; NghJkhdJ.
7) nky;ypa castingfis nra;ayhk;.
8) Casting defects FiwT.
9) Metal wastage FiwT.

Disadvantages
1) Died; tpiy mjpfk;.
2) nghpa castingfSf;F Vw;wjy;y.
3) Mass productionf;F kl;Lk; Vw;wJ.

1.13.4 Centrifugal casting

,jpy; metal mould MdJ Rw;Wk; tifapy; trollyy;
nghUj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;. Trolly efh;tjw;F rails cs;sJ.
cUf;fpa metal ePskhd spouty; Cw;wg;l;L mouldI
milfpwJ. Mould Rw;wg;gl;L ePsthf;fpy; efh;fpwJ. ika
1.61
tpyf;F tpirahy; cUfpa metal ikaj;ij tpl;L tpyfp
mouldd; gf;fq;fspy; xl;b rPuhf gbAk;. Mouldd; ntspg;gf;fk;
jz;zPhpy; Fsph;tpf;fg;gLk;. ,jdhy; cUfpa metal Fsph;e;J
cldbahf jpl epiyia milfpwJ. Mould MdJ horizontal
my;yJ vertical Mf Rw;wg;gLk;. Mould gphpf;fg;gl;L casting
ntspNa vLf;fg;gLfpwJ. ,jpy; coreI gad;gLj;jhky;
hollow castingfis cUthf;fyhk;. ,k;Kiw cylindrical kw;Wk;
rkr;rPh; tbt castingfs; jahhpf;fg; gad;gLfpwJ.
Laddle
Long ingate (Spout) Metal mould (Die)
Water jacket Pipe being cast

Fig.1.42 Centrifugal casting

Application
Water pipes, gun barrels, flywheel, bush bearings, gears
kw;Wk; brake drum Nghd;w castingfis jahhpf;fg;
gad;gLfpwJ.

Advantages
1. Ntfkhd cw;gj;jp.
2. msTfs; Jy;ypakhf fpilf;Fk;.
3. nky;ypa castingfis nra;ayhk;.
4. Core Njitapy;iy.
5. Casting FiwghLfs; FiwT.

Disadvantages
1. rkr;rPuhd castingfSf;F kl;Lk; Vw;wJ.
2. Equipmentd; tpiy mjpfk;.
3. jpwikahd gzpahsh; Njit.
4. tpgj;J elf;f tha;g;Gs;sJ.
1.62
1.13.5 Continuous Casting (ASARCO PROCESS)

Furnace
Molten metal
Cooling
water

Metal die

Casting
Rollers

Saw

Fig.1.43 Continuous casting

,jpy; ePskhd vertical mouldy; cUf;fpa cNyhfk;

njhlh;r;rpahf Cw;wg;gl;L casting cUthf;fg; gLfpwJ. ,e;j
mould MdJ brass my;yJ graphite My; nra;ag;gl;bUf;Fk;.
,k;Kiw brass, bronze, copper, aluminium Nghd;wtw;wpw;F
Vw;wJ MFk;.
,jpy; mouldf;F rw;W Nky; cs;s furnacey; metal
cUf;fg;gLfpwJ. cUfpa cNyhfk;> valve topNa nrq;Fj;J
mould(die)y; njhlh;r;rpahf nry;fpwJ. Mould jz;zPuhy;
Fsh;tpf;fg;gLk;. ,jdhy; cUfpa cNyhfk; cldbahf
Fsph;e;J jpl epiyia milfpwJ. fPNo cs;s ,uz;L
rollerfs; castingI ,Of;fg; gad;gLfpd;wd. RollerfSf;F
fPNo cs;s saw Njitahd ePsj;jpw;F castingI Jz;Lfshf
ntl;LfpwJ.
Application
Round, square, hexagon Nghd;w tbtKila ePskhd
bar my;yJ rodfis ,k;Kiwapy; jahhpf;fyhk;. NkYk; pipes,
slabs, flats Nghd;wtw;iw jahhpf;fTk; gad;gLfpwJ.
1.63
Advantages
1) Surface finish ed;whf ,Uf;Fk;.
2) Automatic Mf eilngWk;. vdNt cw;gj;jp Ntfk; mjpfk;.
3) gzpahsh; nryT FiwT.
Disadvantages
1) Equipment kw;Wk; mouldd; tpiy mjpfk;
2) nray;Kiw kw;Wk; guhkhpg;G nryT mjpfk;.

1.13.6 Chilled Casting

Mould cavity
Core

Chills
Fig.1.44 Chilled casting

Metald; gug;ig Ntfkhf Fsph;tpg;gJ chilling MFk;.

,jdhy; fbdkhd kw;Wk; Nja;khd vjph;g;Gj; jpwd; cila
gug;G fpilf;fpwJ. cldbahf Fsph;tila mouldy; chills
(rpW cNyhfj; Jz;Lfs;) itf;fg; gLfpwJ. Castingd;
fbdkhf;fg;gl Ntz;ba surfacef;F Vw;g mouldd;
ntspg;gf;fk; chills itf;f Ntz;Lk. cUfpa cNyhfk; chills
cs;s ,lj;jpy; tpiuthf Fsph;tilAk;. kpf Ntfkhf
Fsph;tpg;gjhy; castingy; cs;s free carbon fbdkhd iron
carbidefshf khWfpwJ. ,jdhy; castingd; me;j gug;G
fbdkhFk;. Castingd; cl;Gwj;ij fbdkhf;f core chillfis
mouldy; itf;f Ntz;Lk;.
Application
Railway brake shoes, wheel rims, crusher jaws, machine slide
ways Nghd;wit ,k;Kiwapy; jahhpf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
1.64
 1.13.7 Malleable Casting
fbdkhd castingfis vspjpy; machining nra;a
KbahJ. ,tw;wpy; toughness kw;Wk; strength Fiwthf
,Uf;Fk;. ,e;j jd;ikfis mjpfhpf;f castingI annealing
nra;a Ntz;Lk;. ,jdhy; kpUJthd casting fpilf;fpwJ.
CastingI steel boxy; itj;J kz; epug;g Ntz;Lk;. Rkhh;
o
90 Cf;F ntg;gg;gLj;jp mNj ntg;gepiyapy;; 3 my;yJ
o
4 ehl;fs; itj;jpUf;f Ntz;Lk;. gpd;dh; mit kzpf;F 10 C
vd;w tPjj;jpy; nkJthf miw ntg;g epiyf;F Fsph;tpf;fg;
gLfpwJ. ,jdhy; castingy; cs;s iron carbideMdJ free
carbonfshf khwp malleable casting fpilf;fpwJ. ,jpy; tensile
strength kw;Wk; machinability jd;ik mjpfhpj;J ,Uf;Fk;.
Application
Wagon wheel hub, door hinges, pipe fittings, locks, levers,
cranks, textile machine parts Nghd;wtw;iw jahhpf;f ,k;Kiw
gad;gLfpwJ.

1.13.8 Shell mould casting

,J Nkk;gLj;jg;gl;l xU sand casting tif MFk;.
,jpy; Fiwe;j jbkd; nfhz;;l shell MdJ mould cavitiyI
cUthf;FfpwJ. Nkw;nfhz;L machining Njitg;glhj kpfj;
Jy;ypakhd castingfis cUthf;f ,k;Kiw gad;gLfpwJ.
Half shell mould
Dump box Flask
Sand-resin Mould
mixture cavity
Hot pattern
Backing

(a) (b) (c)

Fig.1.45 Shell mould casting
Mould jahhpf;fg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; fyitahdJ
investig material vdg;gLk;. Phenolic-resin kw;Wk; dry silica sand
Mfpatw;iw alcohol cld; fye;J ,f;fyit jahhpf;fg;
gLfpwJ. Pattern MdJ grey cast iron, aluminium my;yJ brass
My; nra;ag;gl;bUf;Fk;. ,e;j patternfs; Jy;ypakhf machining
nra;ag;gl;L kpf Neh;j;jpahd gug;gpidf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
1.65
 Shell mould casting nray;Kiwapy; fPo;f;fz;l
gbepiyfs; cs;sd:
1) 200 Kjy; 300oC ntg;gepiyf;F pattern #LgLj;jg;
gLfpwJ.
2) Silica sand kw;Wk; resin fyitahdJ patternd; kPJ
epug;gg;gLk;.
3) Patternd; kPJs;s ntg;gj;jpdhy;> mjid #o;e;Js;s
resin cUfp gpd;G nfl;bahfp tpLk;. mg;NghJ resin
MdJ kzy; Jfs;fis kpf neUf;fkhfTk;
cWjpahfTk; gpizf;fpwJ. ,r;nray; 20 Kjy; 30
nehbfspy; eilngWfpwJ. ,e;j fhy ,ilntsp
dwell time vdg;gLk;.
4) jw;NghJ sand-resin fyitahdJ xU mLf;fhf
patternd; kPJ ,Wf;fkhf gbe;J tpLk; ,t;thW Rkhh;
6mm tiu jbkd; nfhz;l shell cUthfpwJ. Dwell
timeI khw;wp mikj;J shelld; jbkidf; fl;Lg;
gLj;jyhk;. Shell cavityy; Cw;wg;gLk; cUfpa metald;
viliag; nghWj;J shelld; jbkd; jPh;khdpf;fg;gLk;.
5) gpd;G dump boxMdJ jiyfPohf jpUg;gg;gLk;.
mg;NghJ> ghjpf;fglhj kw;Wk; xl;bf;nfhs;shj
kzy; Jfs;fs; fPo;Nehf;fp tpOe;J tpLk;.
6) Pattern cld; Nrh;e;j shell mould MdJ 250 – 350oC
ntg;gepiyapy; 15 Kjy; 60 nehbfSf;F oveny;
itj;J #LgLj;jg;gLk;. ,e;j fhy ,ilntsp curing
time vdg;gLk;. ,g;NghJ shell mould cWjpahfp tpLk;.
7) Patterny; nghUj;jg;gl;l ejector pin cjtpahy; pattern
ePf;fg;gLfpwJ.
8) ,t;thW mouldd; xU ghjp cUthf;fg;gLfpwJ.
,NjNghd;W mouldd; kw;nwhU ghjpAk; cUthf;fg;
gLk;. ,e;j ,U ghjp mouldfSk; clamp nra;ag;gLk;
KOikahd shell mould cavity cUthf;fg;gLk;.
9) cUfpa metal ,e;j mould cavityy; Cw;wg;gl;L gpd;G
Fsph;tpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
10) jplepiyia mile;jTld;> shellfs; cilf;fg;gl;L
casting gphpj;njLf;fg; gLfpwJ.
1.66
Applications
Cylinder head, connecting rod, gear housing, brake drum,
cam, cam shaft, piston, piston ring, engine block water jacket Nghd;w
mjpfj; Jy;ypak; Njitg;gLk; ,aejputpay; ghfq;fis
jahhpg;gjpy; shell moulding casting nray;Kiw gad;gLfpwJ.

Advantages
1) kpfj; Jy;ypakhd castingfis cUthf;fyhk;.
2) kpf Neh;j;jpahd surface finish fpilf;Fk;.
3) CastingI Rj;jk; nra;tJ kw;Wk; machining
nra;tjw;fhd nryT FiwfpwJ.
4) cw;gj;jp tpfpjk; mjpfk;.
5) Njitg;gLk; fhyk; tiumouldI Nrfhpj;J
itf;fyhk;.
6) rpf;fyhf tbtq;fisAk; vspjhf cUthf;fyhk;.
7) Fiwthf jpwik nfhz;l gzpahsh; NghJkhdJ.
8) jhdpaq;fp nray;Kiwahf vspjpy; khw;wyhk;.

Disadvantages
1) Metal pattern kw;Wk; ,ju cgfuzq;fspd; nryT mjpfk;.
2) Resin binderfspd; tpiy mjpfk;.
3) nghpa castingfis cUthf;f KbahJ.
4) Fwpg;gpl;l metalfSf;F kl;LNk ,k;Kiw Vw;wJ.

1.13.9 Investment casting

Metal flask Investment
slurry
Mould
cavity
Molten
wax Wax
paterns

Master
dies Sprue

(a) (b) Pattern tree (c)

Fig.1.46 Investment casting
Investment casting nray;KiwahdJ precision casting
my;yJ lost wax casting nray;Kiw vdTk; toq;fg;gLk;.
Investment vd;gJ mouldI cUthf;Fk;NghJ mjidr; #o;e;J
1.67
epug;gg;gLk; refractory nghUl;fis Fwpg;gJ MFk;. kpfj;
Jy;ypakhd msTfs; kw;Wk; kpf Neh;j;jpahd Nkw;gug;gpid
nfhz;l castingfs; ,k;Kiwapy; cUthf;fg; gLfpd;wd..

Investment casting nray;Kiw fPo;f;fz;l

gbepiyfisf; nfhz;lJ :
1) Patternd; tbtj;jpw;F Vw;w gs;sq;fis nfhz;l
master diefshJ machining nray;Kiw %yk; metaly;
cUthf;fg; gLfpwJ.
2) ,uz;L ghjp master diefSk; xd;whf clamp nra;ag;gL
fpwJ. cUfpa wax my;yJ plastic MdJ
mOj;jj;Jld; die cavityy; nrYj;jg; gLfpwJ.
jplepiyia mile;jTld; wax pattern MdJ diey;
,Ue;J ePf;fg;gLfpwJ.
3) xU ika sprue cld; $ba gating mikg;gpy; gy rpwpa
wax patternfs; nghUj;jg;gLfpd;wd. ,e;j mikg;G
pattern tree vdg;gLk;. nray;Kiwapd; cw;gj;jp
tpfpjj;ij ,J mjpfhpf;fpwJ.
4) ,e;j pattern tree MdJ investment slurryf;Fs; mkpo;j;jp
vLf;fg;gLk;. ,e;j slurry MdJ ethyl silicate my;yJ
gypsum fiurypy; Ez;zpa silica sand I fye;J
jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ. ,e;j Kjd;ikahd coating
cyh;e;jTld;> tpiy kypthd slurry MdJ ,jidr;
#oe;J epug;gg; gLfpwJ.
5) Mould MdJ fhw;wpy; cyu itf;fg;gLfpwJ. gpd;G
90oC Kjy;150oC ntg;gepiyf;F #LgLj;jg; gLfpwJ.
jw;NghJ wax patternfs; cUfp sprue topahf
ntspNawp tpLk;. ,t;thW mould cavityfs; cUthf;fg;
gLfpd;wd.
6) cUfpa metal ,e;j mould cavityy; Cw;wg;gl;L gpd;G
Fsph;tpf;fg;gLfpwJ. jplepiyia mile;jTld;>
mould ; cilf;fg;gl;L casting gphpj;njLf;fg; gLfpwJ.

1.68
Advantages
1) kpfj; Jy;ypakhd castingfis cUthf;fyhk;.
2) kpf Neh;j;jpahd surface finish fpilf;Fk;.
3) kpf Ez;zpa tbtq;fisAk; cUthf;fyhk;.
4) xd;wpw;Fk;Nkw;gl;l castingfis xNu Neuj;jpy;
cUthf;fyhk;.
5) Machining nra;a ,ayhj cNyhff; fyitfisf;
nfhz;l castingfis cUthf;fyhk;.
6) Undercut kw;Wk; rpf;fyhd tbtikg;G nfhz;l
castingfis cUthf;fyhk;.

Disadvantages
1) nray;Kiwf;fhd nryT mjpfk;.
2) nghpa castingfis nra;a KbahJ.
3) MouldI jpUk;gTk; gad;gLj;j ,ayhJ.
4) cl;Gwkhf Jisfs; cs;s castingfis cUthf;FtJ
fbdk;.

Applications
fPo;f;fz;ltw;iw cwgj;jp nra;a ,k;Kiw gad;gLfpwJ:
 myq;fhu eiffs;.
 Computer kw;Wk; electronics cgfuzq;fspd; ghfq;fs;.
 Mfha tpkhdk;> ,ae;jpuq;fs; Nghd;wtw;wpw;fhd
cjphp ghfq;fs;.
 Gas turbiney; gad;gLk; nozzle, bucket, vane kw;Wk;
bladefs;.
 Radar wave guidefs; Nghd;wit.

1.69
 1.14 Defects in castings – causes and remedies
Defect Causes Remedies
1) Blow holes: ePuhtp Blow holes 1. kz;zpd; mjpf <uj; jd;ik 1. <uj;jd;ikia fl;Lg;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;.
kwWk; thA 2. Slab
mjp fkhf ramming nra;tJ 2. Kiwahf raming nra;a Ntz;Lk;.
ntspNawh tpl;lhy; Vent holes Fiwthf ,Ug;gJ. 3. NghJkhd msT vent holes
castingy; Vw;gLk; Vw;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;.
Jisfs;
Blow holes
2) Slabs: Castingy; 1. Ramming rPuhf nra;ahky; Swab
1. Ramming rPuhf nra;a Ntz;Lk;.
Slab
cs;s Njitaw;w ,Ug;gJ. 2. cUf;fpa metalI nkJthf Cw;w
projection fs; 2. Mouldd; xU gFjp rhpe;J Ntz;
Tear Lk;.
tpLtJ.
Blow holes Slab
3) Honey combing: 1. cUfpa metalI rhp ahf
Swab 1. cUf;fpa metalI rPuhf Cw;w
Casting gug;gpy; cs;s Blow holes Cw;whky; ,Ug;Airgpocket
J. Ntz;Lk;.
rpwpa Fopfs; Slab
2. Gating rhpahf mikf; fhjJ.
Tear 2. Gating rhpahf mikf;f NTz;Lk;.
4) Swells: Castingd; Ramming nkJthf nra;tJ
1.Swab 1. rhpahf ramming nra;a Ntz;Lk;
Nkw;gug;G nghpjhfp 2. Ntfkhf metal I Cw;WtJ. 2. rPuhf metalI Cw;w Ntz;Lk;.
tpLtJ Fins
Air Mould rhpahf support
3. Tear
pocket 3. Mouldf;F NghJkhd support
nra;
Run ahky; ,Ug;gJ
out nfhLf;f Ntz;Lk;.
Swab
Swell
5) Shifts: Castingd; Air pocket 1. PatternI rhpahf nghUj;jhjJ 1. Patternfis rhpahf nghUj;j
gFjpfs; jtwhf 2. Cope kw;Wk; drag rhpahf Ntz;Lk;.Tear
nghUe;
Fins jp ,Ug;gJ. nghUj;jhjJ 2. Cope kw;Wk; drag rhpahf nghUj;j
Run out 3. Core jtwhd ,lj;jpy; Ntz;Lk;.
Fins
nghUj;jg; gLtJ.Air pocket 3. Core rhpahd ,lj;jpy; nghUj;j
Run out Ntz;Lk;.

1.70
Fins
Run out
 Blow holes Slab

Swab
Defect Causes Remedies
6) Cold shuts: Mould 1. Fiwthd ntg;gepiyapy;
Tear 1. rhpahd ntg;gepiyapy; metalI
cavity rhpahf epug;gg; metalI Cw;WtJ. Cw;w Ntz;Lk;
glhky; ,Ug;gJ 2. Gating rhpahf mikf;fhjJ 2. Gating rhpahf mikf;f Ntz;Lk;
Metal
3. Air I nkJthf Cw;WtJ
pocket 3. MetalI rPuhf Cw;w Ntz;Lk;.
7) Internal air pockets: 1. nfhjpf;Fk; metal I Cw;WtJ 1. rhpahd ntg;gepiyapy; metal I
Castingd; cl;Gwj;jpy; 2. Ntfkhf metal I Cw;WtJ Cw;w Ntz;Lk;
rpwpa Jisfs; 2. rPuhf metal I Cw;w NtzLk;
,Ug;gJ Air pocket
Fins
8) Hot tears: Castingd; 1. Casting gFjpfspd; tbtk; 1. Pattern tbtikg;ig Nkk;gLj;j
ntspg;Gwk; my;yJ Run out jpBnud khWtJ. Ntz;Lk;
Tear
cl;Gwj;jpy; 2. Cornery; tisT ,y;yhky; 2. Corner y; tisT mikf;f
njhlh;r;rpaw;W ,Ug;gJ. Ntz;Lk;.
,Ug;gJ 3. Fiwthd ntg;gepiyapy; 3. rhpahd ntg;gepiyapy; metal I
metalI Cw;WtJ Cw;w Ntz;Lk;.
9) Fins: ,izAk; 1. Mould kw;Wk; core rhpahf 1. Mould kw;Wk; core I rhphf
gFjpapy; cs;s nghUe;jhjJ. nghUj;j Ntz;Lk;.
nky;ypa projection 2. Moulding boxI rhpahf clamp 2. Moulding box I rhpahf clamp
Fins nra;ahjJ. nra;aNtz;Lk;.

10) Run out: Mouldy; 1. jtwhd moulding 1. rhpahf moulding nra;a Ntz;Lk;
,Ue;J cUfpa metal 2. jtwhd moulding box 2. rhpahd msT moulding box
ntspNaWtJ 3. nghpa msT pattern gad;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;.
3. rhpahd msT patternI gad;gLj;j
Run out Ntz;Lk;.

1.71
 R e vi e w Qu e s t i o n s

5 marks questions
1) State the various factors considered for selecting the pattern
materials.
2) List out the various types of pattern and explain any two of them.
3) Name the common pattern materials and state their advantages.
4) State the different pattern allowances used while making patterns
and explain the needs.
5) Classify the moulding sand.
6) State the properties of moulding sand.
7) Briefly explain the sand additives used in moulding.
8) How the mould sand is prepared?
9) Describe any four moulding tools with sketches.
10) Briefly explain various types of moulding boxes.
11) What are the ingredients of moulding sand? State the purpose of
using each.
12) Define moulding and casting.
13) Briefly explain the various types of moulds.
14) List out the methods of moulding.
15) What is loam moulding?
16) What is core? State the function of a core print?
17) What are the requirements of a good core?
18) Describe the various types of core boxes used.
19) Describe the CO2 process of core making.
20) Describe the different types of cores used.
21) Briefly explain pressure die casting.
22) Describe briefly the hot chamber die casting.
23) State the advantages of die casting.
24) Describe briefly the centrifugal casting.
25) Describe briefly the chilled casting.
26) Describe briefly the malleable casting process.
1.72
10 marks questions
1) Enumerate the properties of moulding sand and explain any five
of it in detail.
2) With neat sketches describe the uses of different tools used in
moulding.
3) With suitable sketches, describe the step by step procedure of
making a green sand mould using a split pattern.
4) Explain the complete procedure of dry sand moulding with an
example.
5) State the different machine moulding process. Explain any one.
6) Briefly explain the following: a) Core sands b) Core binders
7) Briefly explain the procedure for core making.
8) Describe the iron – carbon equilibrium diagram with simple
sketch.
9) Explain the construction and working of blast furnace with neat
sketch.
10) Draw a simple cross section view of a cupola and explain briefly
the operation of cupola.
11) Explain the construction and working of any one type of crucible
furnace.
12) Sketch and explain the operation of induction furnace. State its
advantages.
13) Describe the process of die casting with a neat sketch.
14) Describe the cold chamber die casting process with a neat sketch.
15) With a neat diagram explain any one method of centrifugal casting
process. State the advantages and applications of centrifugal
casting.
16) Describe continuous casting process with a neat sketch.
17) Explain the process of shell mould casting with neat sketch.
18) Describe the investment casting process with a neat sketch.
19) What are the defects that occur in castings? State their causes
and remedies.


1.73
 Unit – II

2.1 Welding
xNu khjphpahd my;yJ NtWgl;l ,uz;L
cNyhfq;fis ntg;gg;gLj;jp ,izg;gJ welding vdg;gLk;.
Pressure nfhLj;Njh my;yJ nfhLf;fhkNyh welding
nra;ayhk;. NkYk; filler material gad;gLj;jpNah my;yJ
gd;gLj;jhkNyh welding nra;ayhk;. Welding nra;Ak; NghJ
metald; Kidfs; plastic epiyf;F my;yJ cUfpa epiyf;F
ntg;gg;gLj;jg; gLfpd;wd. Welding %yk; epiyahd
,izg;G Vw;gLfpwJ.
Automobile bodies, air craft, machine frame, boilers, ship
building, railway wagons Nghd;wtw;iw fabrication nra;tjw;F
welding gad;gLfpwJ.

2.1.1 Types of welding

nghJthf welding ,uz;L tifg;gLk;.
1) Plastic welding my;yJ pressure welding,
2) Fusion welding my;yJ non – pressure welding.
Plastic welding
MetalI plastic epiyf;F ntg;gg;gLj;jp Njitahd
mOj;jk; nfhLj;J ,izg;gJ plastic welding my;yJ
pressure welding vdg;gLk;.
cjhuzk;; : Electric resistance welding.
Fusion welding
MetalI cUfpa epiyf;F ntg;gg;gLj;jp mOj;jk;
nfhLf;fhky; filler material gad;gLj;jp ,izg;gJ fusion
welding my;yJ non-pressure welding vdg;gLk;.
cjhuzk; : Electric arc welding, gas welding.
2.2 Arc welding or metal arc welding
Workpieced; Kidfis electric arc %yk; ntg;gg; gLj;jp
cUf itj;J ,izg;gJ arc welding vdg;gLk;. ,U kpd;
flj;jpfSf;F ,ilNa rpwpa ,ilntsp (2 – 4 mm) ,Uf;Fk;
NghJ electric arc cUthfpwJ. Work piece xU kpd; flj;jpahfTk;
electrode kw;nwhU kpd;flj;jpahfTk; nray;gLk;.
2.1
 WELDING

Resistance Related Thermit Solid state Modern

Arc welding Gas welding
welding processes welding welding Welding
1.Carbon arc 1.Oxy-acetylene 1.Butt 1.Oxygen 1.Friction 1.Electron beam
2.Metal arc 2.Air- acetylene 2.Spot cutting 2.Ultrasonic 2.Laser beam
3.Metal inert gas 3.Oxy-hydrogen 3.Seam 2.Flame cutting 3.Diffusion

2.2
4.Tungsten 4.Projection 3.Arc cutting 4.Explosive
inert gas 5.Percussion 4.Hard facing
5.Atomic 5.Bronze
hydrogen arc welding
6.Plasma arc 6.Soldering
7.Submerged arc 7.Brazing
8. Electro slag
 Electrode
holder

Wire electrode
Coating
Slag covering Gaseous
shield
A.C.
Arc stream or
D.C.
Parent supply
metal

Weld metal

Molten crater
Fig.2.1 Arc welding

kpd;rhuk; nrYj;Jk;NghJ workpiece kw;Wk;

electrodef;F ,ilapy; cUthFk; arcd; ntg;ggepiy 4000oC
Kjy; 7000oC tiu ,Uf;Fk;. ,e;j mjpf ntg;ggepiyapy;
workpieced; Kidfs; kw;Wk; electrode cUFfpwJ. cUfpa
,uz;L metal piecefs; xd;W Nrh;e;J Fspe;J epiyahd
,izg;G (weld) cz;lhFk;. Joint Vw;gLj;Jk; NghJ electrode
MdJ filler materialMf gad;gLfpwJ. Transformer my;yJ
generator %yk; kpd;rhuk; ngwg;gLfpwJ.

2.2.1 Arc welding equipments

Generator Electrode holder

Electrode or
Welding rod

Deposited
metal

Work piece

Fig.2.2 Arc welding equipments

2.3
 Arc welding nra;tjw;F fPo;f;fz;l equipments gad;gLfpwJ.
1) Welding generator(D.C) 6) Protective shield
or transformer(A.C) 7) Gloves
2) Electrode holder 8) Apron
3) Electrode 9) Chipping hammer
4) Welding cables 10) Wire brush
5) Earthing clamps
Power sources : D.C arc welding machinefs; xU electric
motor My; ,af;fg;gLk; D.C. generatorfs; MFk;. fduf
NtiyfSf;F nghJthf D.C. welding gad;gLfpwJ. A.C.
welding machinefs; transformerIf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;. Main
sypplyy; ,Ue;J tUk; kpd;rhuj;ij arc welding nra;tjw;F
Vw;g khw;wp mDg;GtJ ,jd; Ntiy MFk;. midj;J
tifahd cw;gj;jp kw;Wk; fl;Lkhd Ntiyfspy; A.C. welding
gad;gLfpwJ.

Electrode holder : Welding cable cld; ,izf;fg;

gl;bUf;Fk; electrode holder topahf electrodef;F kpd;Ndhl;lk;
flj;jg; gLfpwJ. ,jpy; cs;s insulation nra;ag;gl;l handle
cjtpahy; electode rhpahd ghijapy; efh;j;jg; gLfpwJ.
ntt;NtW msTfspy; electrode holderfs; fpilf;fpd;wd.
Electrodes : Arc weldingd;NghJ, workpiece topahf
kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij nrYj;jp> ,izf;f Ntz;ba gFjpia
cUfr; nra;tjw;F electrode cjTfpwJ. Welding
nray;Kiwf;F Vw;g consumable my;yJ non-consumable
electrode gad;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ. Bare, fluxed kw;Wk; heavily
coated electrode Mfpait nghJthd tifs; MFk;.

Welding cables : Welding cablefs;

kpfTk; flexible
MfTk;> mjpf ntg;gj;ij jhq;Fk; tifapy; insulation
nra;agl;Lk; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. Cable ,izg;Gfspy; mjpf
resistance cUthfhjthW soldering my;yJ ed;F crimping
nra;ag;gl Ntz;Lk;. Voltage drop mjpfk; ,y;yhky;
kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij flj;Jtjw;F NghJkhd jbkdpy; cable
,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
2.4
 Earthing clamp : Earth cableI workpiece cld;
,izg;gjw;F earthing clamp gad;gLfpwJ. ,J Neubahf
workpiece clNdh my;yJ workpiece itf;fg;gl;Ls;s table
clNdh ,izf;fg; gl;bUf;Fk;.
Safety equipment : Weldingd; NghJ cUthFk;
ultraviolet kw;Wk; infrared fjph;tPr;Rfspy; ,Ue;J ghJfhf;f>
protective shield, gloves kw;Wk; apron Nghd;w ghJfhg;G
ftrq;fs; cjTk;.
Cleaning equipment : Workpieced; Nkw;gug;ig Rj;jk;
nra;tjw;F wire brush gad;gLfpwJ. Welding Kbe;j gpd;G
workpiecey; cs;s weld beadfis ePf;Ftjw;F chipping hammer
gad;gLk;.

2.2.2 Types of electrodes

nghJthf welding nra;ag; gad;gLk; electrodefs;
fPo;f;fz;l ,uz;L tifg;gLk; :
i) Non-consumable electrodes
ii) Consumable electrodes.

 Non-consumable electrode MdJ carbon, graphite kw;Wk;

tungsten Nghd;w tw;why; nra;ag;gLfpwJ. Welding
nra;Ak;NghJ electrode cUf;fg;glhjjhy;> filler material
jdpahf nrYj;jg;Lk;.

 Consumable electrode MdJ fuller materialIAk;

toq;FfpwJ. Welding nra;Ak;NghJ mit cUfp filler
materialIj; jUfpwJ. Consumable electrodey; fPo;f;fz;l
tiffs; cs;sd.
1) Bare electrodes: flux G+rg;gl;bUf;fhJ.
2) Lightly coated electrodes: nky;ypa layer Mf flux G+rg;
gl;bUf;Fk;.
3) Heavily coated electrodes: 1 Kjy; 3 mm tiuapyhd
jbkDf;F flux G+rg;gl;bUf;Fk;.

2.5
2.2.3 Functions of flux
Electroded; kPJ G+rg;gl;Ls;s fluxd; nray;fs; gpd;tUkhW:
1) Flux MdJ cUfpa metalI Rw;wp gas shieldI Vw;gLj;Jk;.
,jdhy; fhw;wpy; cs;s oxygen kw;Wk; nitrogen MdJ
cUfpa cNyhfj;Jld; tpidGhptJ jLf;fg;gLfpwJ.
2) Flux MdJ cUfpa metaly; cs;s mOf;Fld; Nrh;e;J
slagMf khWfpwJ. cUfpa metalI Rw;wp glh;e;jpUf;Fk;
,e;j slag MdJ metalI nkJthf FspUk;gb
nra;fpwJ.
3) cUfpa metalI Rw;wpapUf;Fk; oxidefs; kw;Wk; ,ju
mRj;jq;fis ePf;FfpwJ.
4) Weld metal rpjWtij jLf;fpwJ.
5) Deoxidizer Mf nray;gLfpwJ.
6) Deposition efficiencyI mjpfhpf;fpwJ.

2.2.4 Filler and flux materials

Filler materials
Arc weldingd;NghJ> mjpf ntg;gepiyapy; filler material
cUfp base metalfSf;F ,ilNaAs;s ,ilntspia
epug;GfpwJ. gy;NtW metalfisf; nfhz;L filler material
jahhpf;fg; gLfpwJ. Mdhy; ,J base metalfspd;
jd;ikiaf; nfhz;bUf;f Ntz;Lk;. Consumable electrodefs;
filler materialfshfTk; gad;gLfpd;wd.

Flux materials
nghJthf gad;gLj;jg;gLk; flux materialfs; :
 Slag forming ingredients : Asbestos, mica, silica, fluorspar,
titanium dioxide, magnesium carbonate, calcium carbonate, etc.
 Arc stabilising ingredients : Potassium silicate, calcium oxide,
magnesium oxide, feldspar, etc.
 Deoxidizing ingredients : Cellulose, dolo-mite, starch, dextrin,
wood flour, graphite, aluminium, etc.
 Binding materials : Sodium silicate, pottasium silicate, etc.

2.6
2.3 Arc welding methods
nghJthfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; arc welding Kiwfs; :
1) Metal arc welding
2) Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding
3) Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Welding
4) Submerged arc welding
5) Electro slag welding

2.3.1 Metal arc welding

Carbon
electrode Power
supply
D.C.

Electric arc
Work piece

Fig.2.3 Metal arc welding

,k;Kiwapy; D.C. supply gad;gLj;jp carbon electrode
%yk; welding nra;ag;gLfpwJ. ElectrodeI negative(-ve)
clDk; workpieceI positive(+ve) clDk; ,izf;f Ntz;Lk;.
D.C. Supply nfhLf;Fk; NghJ cUthFk; electric arcMy;
workpiece MdJ electrodeI tpl mjpfkhf ntg;gg;gLj;jg;
gLfpwJ. ,jdhy; workpieced; Kidfs; cUfp xd;w Nrh;e;J
gpd;G Fsph;e;J weld cz;lhfpwJ.
Application
Steel sheets, copper alloys, brass, aluminium kw;Wk; bronze
Nghd;wit ,k;Kiwapy; weld nra;ag;gLfpd;wd.
Advantages
1) Weld nra;j ,lj;jpy; blow holes Vw;glyhk;;.
2) mjpf power Njitg;gLk;.

2.7
2.3.2 Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding
,e;j tif arc weldingy; gad;gLk; consumable electrode
njhlh;r;rpahf nrYj;jg;gLfpwJ. ,e;j electrode MdJ arc
cUthf;fTk; filler metal MfTk; gad;gLfpwJ. D.C. supply
nfhLf;Fk; NghJ consumable electrode kw;Wk; workpiecef;F
,ilapy; electric arc cUthfpwJ. Welding eilngWk; ,lj;jpy
argon my;yJ helium Nghd;w ke;j thAthdJ nozzle topahf
nrYj;jg;gLk;. ,jdhy; electric arcI Rw;wp Vw;gLk gas shield
MdJ cUfpa metal ntspf; fhw;Wld; tpidGhptij
jLf;fpwJ. Electric arcd; ntg;gj;jpdhy; work pieced; Kidfs;
kw;Wk; electrode cUfp xd;W Nrh;e;J weld cz;lhFk;.
Application
Aluminium, stainless steel, magnesium, nickel alloys Nghd;w
tw;iw weld nra;a ,k;Kiw gad;gLfpwJ.
Advantages
1) Flux Njitapy;iy.
2) Welding speed mjpfk;.
3) jukhd welding joint fpilf;Fk;.
4) Non-ferrous metalfisAk; welding nra;ayhk;.

Power Power
supply supply
Consumable electrode
Non-consumable
Wire feed rolls electrode
Welding head

Inert gas Inert gas

Gas shield
Arc
Work piece

Fig.2.4 MIG welding Fig.2.5 TIG welding

2.8
 2.3.3 Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Welding
,e;j tif welding MdJ MIG weldingI Nghd;wJ
MFk; ,jpy; non-consumable tungsten electrode gad;gLj;jg;
gLfpwJ. ,J electric arcI kl;Lk; Vw;gLj;Jk;. NkYk; filler metal
Mf gad;gLtjpy;iy. Electrode holdery; tungsten electrode
nghUj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;. Power supply nfhLf;Fk; NghJ tungsten
electrode kw;Wk; workpiecef;F ,ilapy; electric arc cUthfpwJ.
Welding eilngWk; ,lj;jpy argon my;yJ helium Nghd;w ke;j
thAthdJ nozzle topahf; nrYj;jg;gLk;. ,jdhy; electric
arcI Rw;wp Vw;gLk; gas shield, cUfpa metal ntspf;fhw;Wld;
tpidGhptij jLf;fpwJ. Electric arcd; ntg;gj;jpdhy;
workpieced; Kidfs; cUfp xd;W Nrh;e;J weld cz;lhFk;.
Welding nra;Ak;NghJ electrode cUFtjpy;iy.

Application
Aluminium, cast iron, steel, magnesium Nghd;wtw;iw
welding nra;a ,k;Kiw gad;gLfpwJ.
Advantages
1) Flux Njitapy;iy.
2) Welding speed mjpfk;.
3) jukhd welding joint fpilf;Fk;.
4) Ferrous kw;Wk; non-ferrous metalfis ,izf;fyhk;.

2.3.4 Submerged arc welding

Feed
Traverse A.C. or D.C. supply

Flux feed tube Bare electrode

Unfused flux

Prepared Solidified fused flux

plate

Fused flux
Molten
weld metal Weld
Fig.2.6 Submerged arc welding
2.9
 ,e;j tif arc weldingy; njhlh;r;rpahf nrYj;jg;gLk;
bare electrode kw;Wk; workpiecef;F ,ilapy; electric arc
cUthf;fg; gLfpwJ. Workpieced; welding nra;Ak; ,lj;jpy;
flux powder njhllh;r;rpahf nfhl;lg;gLfpwJ. Arc cUfp metal
kw;Wk; electroded; Kid Mfpait flux powderMy;
%lg;gl;bUf;Fk;. vdNt arc kw;Wk; welding eilngWtJ
ntspNa njhpahJ. NkYk; cUfpa metal ntspf;fhw;Wld;
tpidGhptJ jLf;fg;gl;L FiwghLfs; ,y;yhj weld
fpilf;fpwJ.

cUfpa flux mOf;Fld; Nrh;e;J weld d; kPJ slag Mf

gbfpwJ. ,jdhy; metal nkJthf Fsph;e;J weld joint
cz;lhfpwJ. Electrode kw;Wk; flux MdJ automatic Kiwapy;
njhlh;r;rpahf nrYj;jg;gLfpwJ.
Application
Low carbon steel, alloy steel Nghd;wtw;iw weld nra;a
gad;gLfpwJ. NkYk; pressure vessel, boiler Nghd;wtw;iw
fabrication nra;a ,k;Kiw gad;gLfpwJ.
Advantages
1) Welding speed mjpfk;.
2) jukhd welding joint fpilf;fpwJ.
3) mjpf thickness kw;Wk; ePsk; nfhz;l workpiecefis
vspjpy; welding nra;ayhk;.
4) ghJfhg;ghd nray;Kiw MFk;.

Disadvantages
1) Weld eilngWtij ghh;f;f Kbahjjhy; electroldeI
rhpaf nrYj;JtJ fbdk;.
2) rha;thf kw;Wk; nrq;Fj;jhf weld nra;a ,ayhJ.

2.3.5 Electro Slag welding

cUfpa slag topahf kpd;rhuk; nrYj;Jk; NghJ
Vw;gLk; mjpf ntg;gj;jpdhy; ,uz;L fdkhd metalfis
cUf;fp ,izg;gJ electro slag welding vdg;gLk;. Weld nra;a
Ntz;ba ,uz;L workpiecefs; rPuhd ,ilntspAld; bottom
plated; kPJ epWj;jg;gl;L tack weld nra;ag;gLfpwJ. ,uz;L

2.10
sliding platefs; workpiecefspd; ,uz;L gf;fj;jpYk; efUk;
tifapy; nghUj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ. Workpiece kw;Wk; sliding
platef;F ,ilapy; flux epug;g Ntz;Lk;. ,e;j ,ilntspapy;
electrode itf;fg;gLfpwJ.
Electrodes

Molten slag

Molten metal

Water cooled
plates Work piece

Fig.2.7 Electro slag welding

Workpiece kw;Wk; electrodef;F power supply nfhLf;Fk;

NghJ flux kw;Wk; electrodef;F ,ilapy; electric arc cUthfpwJ.
,jdhy; flux cUfp 2 Kjy; 3 mm jbkDf;F slag cz;lhFk;.
gpwF arc epd;WtpLk;. ,g;NghJ electrodey; ,Ue;J slag topahf
workpiecef;F Neubahf kpd;rhuk; flj;jg;gLtjhy; mjpf
resistance Vw;gLfpwJ. ,jdhy; Vw;gLk; mjpf ntg;gj;jpy;
o
(1900 C) electrode kw;Wk; workpieced; Kidfs; cUfp weld
cz;lhfpwJ.
Driving mechanism %yk; electrode kw;Wk; slidefs;
Fwpg;gpl;l Ntfj;jpy; Nky; Nehf;fp efh;j;jg; gLfpwJ. Slag
vg;NghJk; cUfpa metal kPJ ,Ug;gjhy; ntspf;fhw;Wld;
tpidGhptJ jLf;fg;gLfpwJ.
Application
Boiler plate, turbine shaft, stainless steel kw;Wk; carbon steel
Nghd;wtw;iw weld nra;a ,k;Kiw gad;gLfpwJ.

2.11
Advantages
1) Welding speed mjpfk;.
2) Edge preparation Njit ,y;iy
3) Pores ,y;yhj weld fpilf;fpwJ.
4) fdkhf platefis single passy; weld nra;ayhk;.
5) Strong Md welding joint fpilf;Fk;.

Disadvantages
1) nky;ypa jfLfis weld nra;a Vw;wjy;y.
2) Butt welding kl;LNk nra;a ,aYk;.

2.4 Resistance welding

Pressure
Frame
Movable arm Transformer

Copper electrode

A.C

Work piece
Stationary arm

Fig.2.8 Resistance welding

kpd;jil (resistance) %yk; Vw;gLk; ntg;gj;jpdhy;

metal I plastic epiyia milar; nra;J mOj;jk; nfhLj;J
,izg;gJ resistance welding vdg;gLk;. ,jpy; ,uz;L copper
electrodefs; A.C. transformery; ,izf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. Weld
nra;a Ntz;ba metalfis ,e;j electrodefSf;F ,ilapy;
itf;f Ntz;Lk;. kpd;rhuk; nrYj;jg; gLk; NghJ metalfspd;
Kidapy; mjpf kpd;jil Vw;gLfpwJ. ,jd; %yk; cUthFk;

2.12
ntg;gj;jhy; metalfs; plastic epiyia milAk;. gpd;G
mechanical, air my;yJ hydraulic Kiwapy; mOj;jk; nfhLj;J
metalfs; weld nra;ag;gLfpwJ.

Application
,J mass productionf;F Vw;wJ. Sheet metals, wires,
tubes, bars, boxes, cans kw;Wk; frames Nghd;wtw;iw welding
nra;a ,k;Kiw gad;gLfpwJ.
Resistance weldingy; fPo;f;fz;l tiffs; cs;sd.
1) Spot welding 2) Butt welding
3) Seam welding 4) Projection welding

2.4.1 Spot welding

Upper electrode

Work piece

A.C

Clamp

Lower electrode

Fig.2.9 Spot welding

,J xU resistance welding tif MFk;. Sheet

metalfis xd;wpd; kPJ kw;nwhd;iw itj;J (lap) rPuhd
,ilntspapy; weld nra;tJ spot welding vdg;gLk;. ,uz;L
copper electrodefSf;F ,ilNa workpiecefs;
itf;fg;gLfpd;wd. fPNo cs;s electrode epiyahfTk; NkNy
cs;s electrode efUk; tifapYk; ,Uf;Fk;. Electrodefs;
topNa Fiwe;j voltage kw;Wk; mjpf ampere kpd;rhuk;
nrYj;jg;gLfpwJ. Electrode njhl;Lf; nfhz;Ls;s workpiece
2.13
gFjpapy; kpd;jil Vw;gl;L ntg;gk; cz;lhfpwJ. ,jdhy;
mg;gFjp plastic epiyia milAk;. Electrodefs; %yk;
mOj;jk; nfhLf;fg;gl;L weld cz;lhfpwJ. ,k;Kiwapy;
nra;ag;gLk; welding MdJ workpiecey; njhlh;r;rpahf
,y;yhky; rPuhd ,ilntsp (spot) apy; ,Uf;Fk;.
Application
Boxes, cans, automobile frames, air conditioners
Nghd;wtw;iw weld nra;a spot welding gad;gLfpwJ.
,k;Kiwapy; 12 mm tiu jbkd; cs;s jfLfis welding
nra;ayhk;.

2.4.2 Butt welding

,J xU resistance welding tif MFk;. ,jpy; upset
butt welding kw;Wk; flash butt welding vd ,Utiffs; cs;sd.

1) Upset butt welding

Work piece
Joint jaws Flash

Transformer

Fig.2.10 Upset butt welding Fig.2.11 Flash butt welding

,k;Kiwapy; weld nra;a Ntz;ba ,uz;L metalfspd;

Kidfs; njhl;Lf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;gb copper jawy; nghUj;jg;
gl;bUf;Fk;. Jawf;fs; topahf kpd;rhuk; nrYj;jg;gLk;
NghJ metalfspd; Kidapy; mjpf kpd;jil Vw;gl;L ntg;gk;
cz;lhfpwJ. ,jdhy; metald; Kidfs; plastic epiyia
milfpwJ. gpd;G jawf;fis efh;j;jp pressure nfhLf;Fk;
nghJ Kidfs; upset Mfp cWjpahd weld fpilf;fpwJ.
Application
Bar, rod, wire, tube
kw;Wk; pipe Nghd;wtw;iw weld
nra;a ,k;Kiw gad;gLfpwJ.
2.14
2. Flash butt welding
,k;Kiwapy; weld nra;a Ntz;ba workpiceced;
Kidfs; air gap ,Uf;Fk;gb jawf;fspy; nghUj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;.
Jawf;fs; topNa kpd;rhuk; nrYj;jg;gLk; NghJ nghUspd;
KidfSf;F ,ilNa flash my;yJ arc cUthfpwJ. ,jdhy;
metald; Kidfs; plastic epiyia milfpwJ. gpd;G jawf;fis
efh;j;jp pressure nfhLf;Fk; NghJ nghUspd; Kidfs;
,ize;J weld cz;lhfpwJ. Welding rod, gas, flux Nghd;w
vJTk; ,e;j weldingf;F Njit ,y;iy.
Application
Automobile body, axles, frames Nghd;wtw;iw weld nra;a
flash butt welding gad;gLfpwJ.
Advantages
1) Ntfkhd nray;Kiw.
2) nryT FiwT.
3) ntt;NtW metalfis weld nra;a KbAk;.
2.4.3 Seam welding

Electrodes

Work piece

Fig.2.12 Seam welding

,J xU resistance welding tif MFk;. Sheet
metalfis xd;wpd; kPJ kw;nwhd;iw itj;J njhlh;r;rpahf
weld nra;tJ seam welding vdg;gLk;. RoYk; ,uz;L wheel
(electrode)fSf;F ,ilNa workpiecefs; nrYj;jg;gLfpwJ.
Electrodefs; topNa kpd;rhuk; nrYj;Jk; NghJ Vw;gLk;
kpd;jil %yk; workpicefspy; mjpf ntg;gk; cUthFk;.
mNj Neuj;jpy; wheelfs; %yk; workpiecefs; mOj;jg;gL
tjhy; Neh;f; Nfhl;by; njhlh;r;rpahf weld cz;lhfpwJ.
2.15
Application
Radiators, drums, leak proof tanks, automobile silencers
Nghd;wtw;iw weld nra;a seam welding gad;gLfpwJ.
2.5 Plasma arc welding
D.C

Electrode

Nozzle Argon gas

Shield gas cup

Plasma arc
Work piece

Fig.2.13 Plasma arc welding

,k;Kiwapy; mjpf ntg;gepiyapy; cs;s plasma
vdg;gLk; ionized gas %yk; workpiecefs; cUf;fp
,izf;fg;gLfpd;wd. ,jpy; cs;s gas chamberd; mbapy;
copper nozzle cs;sJ. ,J ePhpdhy; Fsph;tpf;fg;gLfpwJ.

Tungsten electrode MdJ gas chambery; nrq;Fj;jhf

nghUj;jg; gl;Ls;sJ. D.C. supplyapd; positive(+ve) Kidapy;
nozzlek; negative (-ve) Kidapy; electrodek; ,izf;fg;gLk;.
Power supply nfhLf;Fk; NghJ nozzle kw;Wk; electrodef;F
,ilapy; electric arc cUthfpwJ. Nozzle topahf electric
arcDs; argon gasI nrYj;Jk; NghJ madpfshf gphpfpwJ.
,e;j ionized gasMdJ plasma vdg;gLk;. mjpf
o
ntg;gepiyapy; (1400 C) cs;s ,e;j plasmait metalfspd;
kPJ nrYj;jp cUf;fp welding nra;ag; gLfpwJ. Nozzled;
ntspg; gf;fkhf nrYj;jg;gLk; kw;nwhU inert gas (helium)
2.16
 %yk; gas shield Vw;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ. ,jdhy; cUfpa metal
ntspf;fhw;Wld; tpidGhptJ jtph;f;fg;gLfpwJ.

Application
Stainless steel, carbon steel, monel metal, titanium, copper,
brass kw;Wk; gy cNyhfq;fis ,e;j Kiwapy; weld
nra;ayhk;.

Advantages
1) midj;J metalfisAk; ,e;j Kiwapy; weld nra;ayhk;.
2) Filler rod Njitapy;iy.
3) Welding speed mjpfk;.
4) mjpf thickness cs;s workpieceI vspjpy; weld nra;ayhk;.
5) jukhd welding joint fpilf;fpwJ.

Disadvantages
1) Automatic control mtrpak; Njit.
2) Fiwe;j ePsKs;s welding nra;a Vw;wjy;y.
3) Plasmatpdhy; Vw;gLk; ultra-violet kw;Wk; infra-red radiation
%yk; operatord; cly; eyk; ghjpf;Fk;.
4) Muk;g nryT mjpfk;.

2.6 Thermit welding

Crucible

Slag basin Pouring gate Riser

Riser Moulding
sand
Work piece
Wax Sand plug
pattern

Work piece
Heating gate
Mould cavity
Fig.2.14 Thermit welding
,J non pressure tif welding MFk;. ,k;Kiwapy;
,izf;f Ntz;ba gFjpapy; cUfpa thermit steelI Cw;wp
welding nra;ag;gLfpwJ. Thermit vd;gJ aluminium powder
2.17
kw;Wk; iron oxide Mfpait 1:3 vd;w tpfpjj;jpy; Nrh;e;j fyit
MFk;. ,e;j fyitia crucibley; epug;gp mjDld; barium
peroxide Nrh;f;f Ntz;Lk;. Crucibley; cs;s fyitia
vhpf;Fk; NghJ thermit reaction Vw;gLfpwJ. ,jdhy; 30
tpdhbfspy; 300OC ntg;gepiy cs;s cUfpa thermit steel
cUthfpwJ.
,izf;f Ntz;ba ,uz;L workpiecefSf;F ,ilapy;
wax pattern itj;J moulding boxy; nghUj;j Ntz;Lk;. Boxy;
moulding sandI epug;gp ramming nra;a Ntz;Lk. Runner, riser, pre-
heating gate Nghd;wtw;iw mikf;f Ntz;Lk;. Pre-heating gate
topahf flame nrYj;Jk; NghJ wax pattern cUfp ,izf;f
Ntz;ba ,lj;jpy; mould cavity cUthFk;. NkYk; mould cyh;e;J
,izf;f Ntz;ba gFjp preheat milAk;. gpwF sand core
%yk; preheating gate %lg;gLfpwJ. Crucibley; ,Ue;J liquid thermit
steel MdJ workpiecefSf;F ,ilapy; cs;s mould cavityy;
Cw;wg;gLfpwJ. cUfpa metal nkJthf Fsph;tpf;fg;gl;L
gykhd weld cz;lhfpwJ.

Application
fdkhd gFjpfs;> rails, pipes, shafts, cables kw;Wk;
cile;j machine framefs; Nghd;wtw;iw ,izf;f thermit
welding gad;gLfpwJ.

Advantages
1) Njitahd ,lj;jpw;F vspjpy; vLj;Jr; nry;yhk;.
2) Muk;g nryT FiwT.
3) gzpahsUf;F Fiwthd jpwik NghJkhdJ.
4) External power Njitapy;iy.
5) mjpf jbkd; nfhz;l sectionfisAk; weld nra;ayhk;.

Disadvantages
1) Deposition rate FiwT.
2) Fiwe;j cUFepiy nfhz;l metalfis ,izf;f
KbahJ.
3) jbkd; Fiwe;j metalfis ,izf;f KbahJ.
4) mjpf Gif cUthFk;.
5) Slag inclusion FiwghL cUthFk;.
2.18
2.7 Electron beam welding
Filament
Grid
(cathode)

Anode

Focussing
coil
Electron
beam
Work piece
Stage

Vacuum
chamber

Fig.2.15 Electron beam welding

,k;Kiwapy; mjpNtf electron beamI nghUspd; kPJ
Ftpar; nra;Ak; NghJ cz;lhFk; ntg;gj;jpdhy; welding
nra;ag; gLfpwJ. ntw;wplj;jpy; cs;s tungsten filamentI high
voltage kpd;rhuj;jhy; ntg;gg;gLj;Jk; NghJ (2000OC)
vyf;l;uhd;fs; ntspg;gLfpd;wd. Control grid, anode kw;Wk;
focusing coilfs; %yk; vyf;l;uhd;fs; beam (0.25 to 1 mm dia.)
Mf khw;wg; gLfpwJ. ,e;j beam MdJ> ,izf;f Ntz;ba
workpieced; kPJ focussing coil %yk;> Ftpf;fg; gLfpwJ.
Electron beamd; ,af;f Mw;wy; ntg;g Mw;wyhf
khw;wg;gLfpwJ. ,jdhy; Rkhh; 250OC ntg;g epiyapy;
workpiece cUfp weld cz;lhfpwJ.
nghJthf electron beam welding MdJ vacuum chambery;
nra;ag;gLfpwJ. ,jdhy; cUfpa metald; kPJ oxidation
vw;gLtJ jtph;f;fg;gl;L jukhd ,izg;G fpilf;fpwJ.
Application
1) Automobile kw;Wk; Mfha tpkhd ghfq;fis
,izf;fyhk;.
2) Tungsten, molybdenum, tantalum Nghd;w m;jpf cUF
epiy cila metalfis ,izf;f gad;gLfpwJ.
3) Pressure vessel, turbine ghfq;fis ,izf;fyhk;.
2.19
Advantages
1) ntt;NtW metalfis ,izf;fyhk;.
2) nky;ypa kw;Wk; fdkhd nghUl;fis ,izf;fyhk;.
3) Ntfkhd nray;Kiw.
4) Distortion Vw;gLtjpy;iy.
5) jukhd weld fpilf;Fk;.
6) ntg;gepiyia vspjpy; fl;Lg;gLj;jyhk;.

Disadvantages
1) Equipmentd; tpiy mjpfk;.
2) jpwikahd gzpahsh; Njit
3) Vacum chambery; welding nra;tjhy; Fwpg;gpl;l
msTs;s workpieceI kl;Lk; ,izf;f KbAk;.

2.8 Laser beam welding

,k;Kiwapy; laser beam %yk; cUthFk; ntg;gj;jhy;
welding nra;ag;gLfpwJ. Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation vd;gjd; RUf;fNk LASER MFk;. ,J
xNu miy ePsk; nfhz;l xspf; fjph;fspd; fw;iw MFk;.
,e;j xspf; fw;iwia xU lens %yk; work pieced;; xU rpwpa
Gs;spapy;; Ftpar; nra;Ak;NghJ> mq;F cUthFk; mjpf
ntg;gj;jpy; nghUs; cUfp weld MfpwJ.

Ruby crystal Flash lamp

Laser beam
Lens

Work piece

Fig.2.16 Laser beam welding

2.20
 ,e;j cgfuzj;jpy; xU ruby crystal cs;sJ. 1000 W
jpwd; nfhz;l xU flash lamp coilf;Fs; ,e;j crystal
itf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. Flash lampy; xenon thA
epug;gg;gl;bUf;Fk;. Supply nfhLj;jTld; flash lamp MdJ
mjpf nrwpTs;s xspia nfhLf;Fk;. ,e;j xspapdhy; ruby
crystal J}z;lg;gl;L laser beamI ckpOk;. xU lens %yk;
,e;j laser beam MdJ work pieced; Njitahd ,lj;jpy;
Ftpf;fg;gLk;. ,g;NghJ mq;F cUthFk; mjpf ntg;gj;jhy;
me;j ,lk; cUfp weld cz;lhfpwJ. ,e;j nray;Kiw
automatic Mf control nra;ag;gLk;. Weld eilngWk; ,lj;jpy;
laser beamd; diameter MdJ 0.005 mm Mf ,Uf;Fk;. vdNt
kpfr; rpwpa micron msT tpl;lKs;s welding nra;ayhk;. ,J
micro welding vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;.

Application
1) Aerospace kw;Wk; electronic njhopw;rhiyfspy;
gad;gLfpwJ.
2) Nickel, copper, titanium, zirconium, silver Nghd;w
metalfisAk; ,izf;fyhk;.
3) rpW fz;zhb miwapy; itf;fg;gl;Ls;s nghUisAk;
weld nra;ayhk;.
4) Glass, plastic, quartz Nghd;wtw;iwAk; ,izf;fyhk;.

Advantages
1) ntg;gj;ij vspjpy; fl;Lg;gLj;jyhk;.
2) Jy;ypakhf weld nra;ayhk;.
3) Distortion Vw;gLtjpy;iy.
4) Heat treatment nra;j nghUisAk; mjd; gz;G khwhky;
weld nra;ayhk;.
5) Oxidation ghjpg;G ,Uf;fhJ.

Disadvantages
1) Equipmentd; tpiy mjpfk;.
2) jpwikahd gzpahsh; Njit.
3) mjpf power Njitg;gLk;.

2.21
2.9 Friction welding
Revolving chuck Stationary chuck
Work piece

Joint

Fig.2.17 Friction welding

,k;Kiwapy; ,uz;L gug;GfSf;F ,ilNa cuha;it

Vw;gLj;Jk; NghJ cUthFk; ntg;gj;jpdhy; welding
nra;ag;gLfpwJ. ,izf;f Ntz;ba cylindrical workpiecefis
ePsthf;fpy; nghUj;j Ntz;Lk;. xU gFjp fixturey; epiyahf
nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;. kw;nwhU gFjp chucky; gpbf;fg;gl;L
mjpf Ntfj;jpy; (12000 rpm) Rod;W nfhz;bUf;Fk;. RoYk;
gFjpia mjd; mr;rpy; efh;j;jp kw;nwhU gFjpAld;
cuhAk;gb mOj;jk; nfhLf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,jdhy; ,U
gug;GfSf;F ,ilNa vw;gLk; cuha;tpdhy; mjpf ntg;gk;
cUthfp welding eilngWfpwJ. ,g;NghJ workpiece
Roy;tij epWj;j Ntz;Lk;. Welding nra;J Kbf;Fk; tiu
mNj mOj;jk; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.

Application
Aero engine shafts, gas turbine shafts Nghd;wtw;iw weld
nra;ayhk;. PinionI shaft clDk;> rodI yoke clDk;> flangeI
pipe clDk; ,izf;f friction welding gad;gLfpwJ.

Advantages
1) Muk;g nryT FiwT.
2) NtWgl;l metalfis ,izf;fyhk;.
3) vspa kw;Wk; Ntfkhd nray;Kiw.
4) jukhd weld fpilf;Fk;.
5) Power Fiwthf Njitg;gLk;.
6) Distortion FiwT.
2.22
Disadvantages
1) Circular butt weldw;F kl;Lk; Vw;wJ.
2) ,izf;fg; gl;l gFjpfis finishing nra;a Ntz;Lk;.

2.10 Ultrasonic welding

Coupling system
Pressure tip

A.C

Transducer
Work piece
Frequency
Anvil
converter

Fig.2.18 Ultrasonic welding

,k;Kiwapy; Fiwe;j mOj;jk; kw;Wk; high frequency
vibrationI gad;gLj;jp welding nra;ag;gLfpwJ. ,jpYs;s
frequency convertor MdJ Fiwthd mjph;ntz; (50 Hz)
nfhz;l kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij Rkhh; 20000 Hz mjph;ntz;
nfhz;l kpd;Ndhl;lkhf khw;WfpwJ. ,e;j kpd;Ndhl;lk;
transducerf;F nry;Yk;. mjpf mjph;ntz; nfhz;l ,e;j
kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij transducer ,ae;jpu mjph;Tfshf (ultrasonic
vibrations) khw;WfpwJ.
,e;j mjph;Tfs; coupling system %yk; welding tipI
milfpwJ. ,izf;f Ntz;ba gFjpfs;> welding tip kw;Wk;
anvilf;F ,ilapy; Fiwe;j mOj;jk; nfhLj;J neUf;fkhf
itf;fg;gLfpwJ. Power supply nfhLf;Fk; NghJ welding tip
mjph;tile;J ,izf;f Ntz;ba gFjpfis
ntg;gg;gLj;JfpwJ. Plastic epiy mile;jTld; interatomic
bond %yk; weld cz;lhfpwJ.

Application
1) 3mm tiu jbkDila metalfis ,izf;fg;
gad;gLfpwJ.
2) nky;ypa sheetfis fdkhd sheetfSld; ,izf;fyhk;.
3) Electrical kw;Wk; electonics nghUl;fis weld nra;ayhk;.

2.23
 4) Plastic nghUl;fisak; ,izf;fyhk;.
5) Nuclear reactor, aircraft NtiyfSf;F gad;gLfpwJ.
Advantages
1) ntt;NtW metalfis ,izf;fyhk;.
2) Ntfkhd nray;Kiw.
3) Distortion Vw;gLtjpy;iy.
4) Filler rod kw;Wk; flux Njitapy;iy
5) cNyhfk; my;yhj nghUl;fisAk; ,izf;fyhk;.

Disadvantages
1) Equipmntd; tpiy mjpfk;.
2) fdkhd nghUl;fis ,izf;f Vw;wjy;y.

2.11 Induction welding

Induction welding nray;Kiwapy;> kpd;fhe;j J}z;lypd;
(electromagnetic induction) tpishf Vw;gLk; mjpf ntg;gj;jpy;>
,izf;fg;gl Ntz;ba ghfq;fs; cUf;fp ,izf;fg;
gLfpd;wd. ,izf;fg;gl Ntz;ba workpiecefspd;
Kidiar; Rw;wp xU induction coil nghUj;jg; gLfpwJ. ,e;j
coil topahf mjpf mjph;ntz; nfhz;l current nrYj;jg;gLk;.
,e;j current MdJ> workpiecefspd; Kidiar; #o;e;J mjpf
mjph;ntz; nfhz;l kpd;fhe;j Gyj;ij Vw;gLj;Jk;.

Workpiece Induction coil Weld

Fig.2.19 Induction welding

,e;j current nry;tjw;F workpiecey; Vw;gLk; resistance

fhuzkhf> mjpf mstpyhd ntg;gk; mjptpiutpy; J}z;lg;
gLfpwJ. Workpiecefs; cUfpa epiyia mile;jTld;>
mOj;jk; nfhLj;Njh my;yJ nfhLf;fg;glhkNyh weld
nra;ag;gLfpwJ. Fiwe;j kpd; flj;Jk; nghUl;fSf;F
induction welding Vw;wJ MFk;.
2.24
 Plasticfs; Nghd;w fhe;j jd;ikaw;w nghUl;fis>
susceptorfs; vdg;gLk; metallic compoundfspy; itj;J
induction weld nra;ayhk;. ,e;j susceptorfs; induction coily;
,Ue;J kpd;fhe;j Mw;wiy cs;thq;fp ntg;gk; milAk;.
,e;j ntg;gkhdJ ntg;gf; flj;jy; %yk; plastic
nghUl;fSf;F flj;jg; gLfpwJ.
Applications
Pipefs; kw;Wk; sealing containerfspy; butt kw;Wk; seam
welding nra;tjw;F ,k;Kiw gad;gLfpwJ. NkYk; gy;NtW
fl;Lkhd NtiyfspYk; induction welding gad;gLfpwJ.
Advantages
1) kpfTk; Ntfkhd nray;Kiw.
2) WorkpiecefSld; Neub njhlh;G ,y;iy. vdNt
Fiwthd guhkhpg;G nryT.
3) ntt;NtW tifahd metalfisAk; ,izf;fyhk;.
4) Metalfs; my;yhj nghUl;fisAk; weld nra;ayhk;.
5) jhdpaq;F nray;Kiwf;F vspjpy; khw;wyhk;.

Disadvantages
1) cgfuzq;fspd; tpiy mjpfk;.
2) mjpf jbkd; nfhz;l metalfis ,izf;f KbahJ.

2.12 Gas welding ( Oxy-acetylene welding)

Direction
of welding Blow pipe
Gaseous
envelope
Filler rod
Inner core

Molten Weld
weld metal
Base metal

Fig.2.20 Gas welding

2.25
 Gas weldingy; workpiceI ,izg;gjw;F Njitahd
ntg;gk; gas flameypUe;J fpilf;fpwJ. Oxygen cld; kw;nwhU
gas (acetylene) fye;J vhpAk; NghJ cUthFk; flamed;
ntg;gj;jpdhy; metalI cUf;fp ,izg;gJ gas welding
vdg;gLk;. ,k;Kiwapy; mOj;jk; nfhLf;fhky; filler rod
gad;gLj;jp welding nra;ag;gLfpwJ. FlameI cUthf;Fk;
,uz;L gasfspy; xd;W (acetylence) vhpAk; jd;ik cilaJ.
kw;nwhd;W (oxygen) vhpAk; thAit J}z;btpl;L ed;whf
vhpar; nraAk; jd;ik cilaJ. Oxy - acetylene thAtpdhy;
cUthFk; flamed; ntg;gepiy 3200oC MFk;.
Welding torchy; ,uz;L thAf;fSk; Njitahd
tpfpjj;jpy; fyf;fg;gl;L torchd; Kidapy; flame cUthfpwJ.
Flamed; ntg;gj;jpdhy; workpieced; Kidfs; kw;Wk; filler rod
cUfp weld cz;lhfpwJ. Welding nra;Ak; NghJ flux
gad;gLj;jp oxidation Vw;gLtJ jtph;f;fg;gLfpwJ.
,k;Kiwapy; 2 mm Kjy; 50 mm tiu jbkd; nfhz;l
metalfs; welding nra;ag;gLk;.

Gas welding nra;Ak;NghJ Njitg;gLk; $Ljy; metalI

filler rod jUfpwJ. Gas flamed; ntg;gj;jpdhy; filler rod cUfp weld
nra;a Ntz;ba mtal cld; Nrh;e;J weld cz;lhfpwJ. ,izf;f
Ntz;ba metalfSf;F Vw;g filler rod ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. Filler rodd;
diameter MdJ workpieced; jbkDf;F Vw;g khWgLk;.

nghJthf gas weldingy; fPo;f;fz;l thAf;fis fye;J

flame cz;lhf;fg;gLfpwJ.
1) Oxygen – acetylene
2) Oxygen - hydrogen
3) Air - acetylene
Advantages
1) Flamed; ntg;gj;ij vspjpy; fl;Lg;gLj;jyhk;.
2) Welding equimentd; tpiy FiwT.
3) guhkhpg;G nryT FiwT.
4) Filler metald; msit fl;Lg;gLj;JtJ vspJ.
5) kpd;rhuk; ,y;yhj ,lj;jpy; gad;gLj;jyhk;.
6) nky;ypa jfLfis welding nra;a vw;wJ.
2.26
 Limitations
1) Welding nkJthf eilngWk;.
2) fdkhd plate fis welding nra;a Vw;wjy;y.
3) Weld jointd; strength FiwT

2.8.1 Gas welding equipments

Gas weldingy; fPo;f;fz;l cgfuzq;fs; gad;gLfpd;wd:
1) Gas cylinders 2) Pressure regulators 3) Pressure gauges
4) Hoses 5) Welding torch

Flexible hose Control valve Torch

Pressure gauge
Pressure regulator Flame
Oxygen
cylinder

Acetylene
cylinder

Fig.2.21 Gas welding equipments

1) Gas cylinders
Gas weldingy; gad;gLk; oxygen kw;Wk; acetylene ,uz;Lk;
jdpj;jdp cylinderfspy; cs;sJ. fWg;G epwj;jpy; cs;s
cylindery; 125 Kg / cm ² mOj;jj;jpy; oxygen ,Uf;Fk;. Maroon
epwj;jpy; cs;s cylindery; 16 Kg / cm² mOj;jj;jpy; acetylence
,Uf;Fk;.

2) Pressure regulators
Cylindery; ,Ue;J ntsp tUk; oxygen kw;Wk; acetylene
thAf;fspd; mOj;jj;ij fl;Lg;gLj;j xt;nthU cylinderYk;
pressure regulator nghUj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;. Weld nra;a
Ntz;ba workpieced; jbkDf;F Vw;g working pressure
khWgLk;. nghJthf working pressure MdJ oxygenf;F
1 Kg/cm² kw;Wk; acetylenef;F 0.14Kg/cm² Mf ,Uf;Fk;.
2.27
3) Pressure gauges
xt;nthU cylindery; cs;s regulatory; ,uz;L pressure
gauges nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;. ,it cylinder pressure kw;Wk;
working pressureI fhl;LfpwJ.

4) Hoses
Cylinder regulatory; ,Ue;J ePskhd hose %yk; welding
torchf;F gas mDg;gg; gLfpwJ. Oxygen nry;Yk; hose fWg;G
epwj;jpYk; acetylene nry;Yk; hose rptg;G epwj;jpYk; ,Uf;Fk;.

5) Welding torch
Hosefspd; topahf tUk; oxygen kw;Wk; acetylene gas
MdJ welding torchd; mixing chambery; fyf;fg;gLfpwJ.
Control valvefs; %yk; oxygen kw;Wk; acetylene thA
ntsptUk; msit jdpj;jdpNa fl;Lg;gLj;jp Njitahd
gas flame cUthf;fyhk;. Workpieced; jbkDf;F Vw;g
ntt;NtW tipfis welding torchd; Kidapy; nghUj;jyhk;.

2.12.2 Types of flames

Oxygen kw;Wk; acetylened; tpfpjj;ij
NtWgLj;Jtjd; %yk; fPo;f;fz;l %d;W tif flamefs;
fpilf;fpwJ.
1) Neutral flame
2) Carburising flame
3) Oxidising flame

1) Neutral flame
Oxygen kw;Wk; acetylene thAit rk tpfpjj;jpy;
gad; gLj;Jk; NghJ neutral flame cUthfpwJ. ,jpy; 3200oC
tiu ntg;gepiy cUthFk;. Neutral flamey; gpufhrkhd inner
cone kw;Wk; mijr; Rw;wpAs;s ePy epw outer cone vd ,uz;L
zonefs; cs;sd. R+lhd metal kPJ ,jd; chemical effect
Fiwthf ,Ug;gjhy; ngUkstpy; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.

Application
Steel, cast iron, aluminium, copper kw;Wk; stainless steel
Nghd;wtw;iw welding nra;a neutral flame gad;gLfpwJ.

2.28
 Torch tip Neutral flame Inner core

Feather

Carburising flame(Excess acetylene)

Oxidising flame(Excess oxygen)

Fig.2.22 Types of flames

2) Carburising flame or reducing flame

Oxygen I tpl acetylene mjpf mstpy; gad;gLj;Jk;
NghJ carburising flame cUthfpwJ. ,jpy; gpufhrkhd inner
cone, nts;is epw intermediate cone kw;Wk; ePy epw outer cone
vd %d;W conefs; cs;sd.

Application
Steel, alloy steels, non-ferrous metals, nickel, monel metal
Nghd;wtw;iw welding nra;a carburising flame gad;gLfpwJ.

3) Oxidising flame
AcetyleneI tpl oxygen mjpf mstpy; gad;gLj;Jk;
NghJ oxidising flame cUthfpwJ. ,jpy; gpufhrkhd rpwpa
inner cone, kw;Wk; mijr; Rw;wp mjpf gpufhrKs;s outer cone
vd ,uz;L zonefs; cs;sd.

Application
Brass, bronze, manganese, steel Nghd;wtw;iw welding
nra;a oxidizing flame gad;gLfpwJ.

2.29
 2.12.3 Welding techniques
Oxy-acetylene welding nray;Kiwapy; fPo;f;fz;l ,uz;L
topKiwfs; cs;sd :
1) Leftward my;yJ forward my;yJ forehand welding technique
2) Rightward my;yJ backward my;yJ backhand welding technique

Direction Direction
of welding of welding
Gaseous
envelope
Filler rod 60°- 70°
Blow pipe
40°- 50°
30°- 40° Weld 30°- 40°

Molten Base metal Weld

weld metal
(a) Leftward welding (b) Rightward welding
Fig.2.23 Welding techniques

1) Leftward welding technique

Leftward welding Kiwapy; MdJ tyJ torch flame
Gwj;jpy; ,Ue;J ,lJ Gwk; Nehf;fp efh;j;jg; gLfpwJ.
Workpieced; gug;Gf;F 60o – 70o Nfhzj;jpy; ,Uf;FkhW blow
pipe gpbf;fg;gLk;. 30o – 40o Nfhzj;jpy; ,Uf;FkhW filler rod
gpbf;fg;gLk;. rpwpa gf;fthl;L efh;TfSld; blow pipe MdJ
Kd;Ndhf;fp rPuhf efh;j;jg; gLfpwJ. Jointd; kPJ filler rod
njhlh;r;rpahf efh;j;jg;gLfpwJ. ,k;Kiwapy;> cUfpa weld
metalf;F Kd;ghf cs;s gFjp preheat nra;ag;gLfpwJ.

,k;Kiwapy;> welding nra;j ,lj;ij tpl;L flame

efh;tjhy;> Fsph;tiljy; cldbahf njhlq;FfpwJ. vdNt>
5 mm tiu jbkd; nfhz;l workpiecefis kl;LNk
,k;Kiwapy; weld nra;a ,aYk;. ,k;Kiw vertical jointfis
weld nra;a Vw;wJ.

2) Rightward welding technique

Rightward welding Kiwapy; torch flame MdJ ,lJ
Gwj;jpy; ,Ue;J tyJ Gwk; Nehf;fp efh;j;jg; gLfpwJ. gf;f
thl;L efh;Tfs; vJTk; ,y;yhky; blow pipe rPuhf efh;j;jg;
2.30
gLk;. Filler rod MdJ rpwpjsT tl;ltbt efh;Tld;
njhlh;r;rpahd efh;j;jg;gLk;.
,k;Kiwapy;> welding nra;j ,lj;ij Nehf;fpNa torch
flame nrYj;jg; gLfpwJ. ,jdhy; weld MdJ ePz;l Neuk;
#lhf itf;fg;gLfpwJ. ,jd; tpisthf FWfpa kw;Wk;
Mokhd weld cUthfpwJ. vdNt ,k;Kiwapy; mjpf
jbkd; nfhz;l workpiecefisAk; weld nra;ayhk;. Vertical
kw;Wk; overhead welding nra;a ,k;Kiw Vw;wJ.

Advantages of rightward technique

1) Rightward KiwahdJ leftward Kiwia tpl 20 Kjy;
25% tiu tpiuthdJ.
2) Annealing Vw;gLtjhy; weldd; ,ae;jputpay; gz;Gfs;
Nkk;gLj;jg; gLfpd;wd.
3) Gas kw;Wk; filler material Fiwe;j msNt nrythfpwJ.
4) Distortiond; msTk; FiwfpwJ.

2.12.4 Filler rods and fluxes

Filler rods
Gas welding nray;Kiwapy;> welding rod MdJ filler
material Mf gad;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ. Filler rod MdJ base
metalfspd; gz;Gfisg; ngw;wpUf;f Ntz;Lk;. 0.3 Kjy;
12mm tiu ntt;NtW diameter msTfspy; welding rodfs;
fpilf;fpd;wd.
Welding rod diameter, d  t  1 (mm),
2
,q;F, t = Base plated; jbkd; (mm).
Gas weldingy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; rpy welding rodfs; :

Material to
Welding rod composition
be welded
Low Carbon steel 0.08%C, 0.36%Mn, 0.13%Cr, 0.013%Ni, 0.20%P
Manganese steel 0.14%C, 0.12%Si, 0.81%Mn, 0.25%Ni
Chromium steel 0.24%C, 0.21%Si, 0.42%Mnh, 0.96%Cr, 0.17%Ni, 0.35%S

2.31
Fluxes
 Non-ferrous metalfs;, cast iron kw;Wk; stainless steel
Mfpatw;wpy; gas welding nra;Ak;NghJ flux
gad;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ. Base metalfspd; cUFepiyia
tplf; Fiwthd ntg;gepiyapy; cUff; $bajhf flux
,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
 Gas welding flux MdJ boric acid, soda ash kw;Wk; sodium
chloride, ammonium sulphate, iron oxide Nghd;wtw;wpy;
rpwpjsT fye;j fyitahf ,Uf;Fk;.

2.12.5 Flame cutting

Oxygen
Mixed gas

Preheat
flames
Work piece

Cutting
Oxygen orifice oxygen Solid slag

Preheat orifice

Fig.2.24 Flame cutting

,k;Kiwapy; oxygen kw;Wk; acetylene fye;j flame %yk;
metal ntg;gg; gLj;jg;gl;L> oxygen jetI nrYj;jp metal
ntl;lg;gLfpwJ. ,jpy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; welding torch
Kidapd; eLtpy; xU nghpa JisAk; mijr; Rw;wp ehd;F
rpwpa JisfSk; ,Uf;Fk.; rpwpa Jis topahf oxygen
acetylene fyit ntsptUk;. nghpa Jis topahf oxygen
ntsptUk;. Oxy – acetylene flame %yk; metalMdJ kindling
ntg;gepiyf;F preheat nra;ag;gLfpwJ. ,e;j mjpf
ntg;gepiyapy; Mf;rp[Dld; metal tpidGhpe;J gykpy;yhj
2.32
metal oxide cUthfpwJ. ,g;NghJ torchd; Jis topNa
oxygen jetI nrYj;Jk; NghJ metal oxide ntspNa js;sg;gl;L
metal ntl;lg;gLfpwJ.

Application
,k;Kiwapy; 100 mm tiu jbkd; cs;s steel kw;Wk;
iron platefis vspjpy; ntl;lyhk;.

2.12.6 Comparision of arc welding and gas welding

Arc welding Gas welding

1. Electric arcy; ,Ue;J Gas flamey; ,Ue;J
ntg;gk; (4000oC) ntg;gk; (2300oC)
fpilf;fpwJ. fpilf;fpwJ.
2. Electrode MdJ filler Filler rod jdpahf
rodMf gad;gLfpwJ. gad;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ.
3. Wedlding jointd; strength Welding jointd; strength rw;W
mjpfk; FiwT.
4. ,J non – pressure ,JTk; non-pressure
my;yJ fusion welding my;yJ fusion welding
tif MFk; tif MFk;.
5. Filler metal kw;Wk; Filler metal kw;Wk; workpiece
workpiece metal xd;whf metal NtWgl;Lk;
,Uf;Fk;. ,Uf;fyhk;
6. ,jpy; brazing, soldering ,jpy; brazing, soldering
nra;a KbahJ. nra;a KbAk;.

2.13 Soldering
Fiwe;j cUFepiy cila solder vd;w cNyhff;
fyitiag; gad;gLj;jp ,uz;L xNu khjphpahd my;yJ
NtWgl;l metalfis ,izg;gJ soldering vdg;gLk;. Solder
vd;gJ tin kw;Wk; lead Nrh;e;j fyit MFk;. ,J Fiwe;j
ntg;gepiyapy;; (150 to 350oC) cUFk;. ,k;Kiwapy; ,izf;f
Ntz;ba Kidfs; cUf;fg; gLtjpy;iy. Kjypy; ,izf;f
Ntz;ba Kidfis jahh; nra;J Rj;jk; nra;a Ntz;Lk;.
,izf;f Ntz;ba gFjpfis rhpahf nghUj;j Ntz;Lk;.
2.33
 Work piece
Soldering iron

Solder point

Filler rod

Fig.2.25 Soldering

Kidfspy; zinc chloride Nghd;w flux jltg;gl;L

oxidation jLf;fg; gLfpwJ. WorkpieceI ntg;gg; gLj;jTk;>
solderI cUf;fTk; electric soldering iron my;yJ welding torch
gad; gLj;jg; gLfpwJ. ,g;NghJ cUfpa solder MdJ
,izf;f Ntz;ba ,lq;fis epug;GfpwJ. gpd;G Fsph;e;J
,izg;G cz;lhfpwJ.

Application
fPof;fz;ltw;wpy; ,izg;G Ntiyfspy; soldering gad;gLfpwJ:
1) fk;gpapy;yh rhjdq;fs;> T.V. rhjdq;fs;.
2) Electrical connections, battery kw;Wk; ,ju rhjdq;fs;.
3) Motor carfspy; cs;s radiator brass tubefs;.
4) Enginefspy; jput vhpnghUs;> thA my;Yj fhw;iw
vLj;Jr; nry;Yk; copper tubefs;.
5) fopT ePh; tbfhy; Foha;fs;.

Advantages
1) Fiwe;j nryT.
2) vspa kw;Wk; tpiy kypthd rhjdk;.
3) fl;Lkhd Ntiyfspy; rpwe;j sealing.
4) Base metald; gz;Gfs; ghjpf;fhJ.
5) ntt;NtW tifahd metalfisAk; ,izf;fyhk;.

2.34
Disadvantages
1) typikaw;w ,izg;G.
2) mjpf jbkd; nfhz;l metalfis ,izf;f KbahJ.
3) mjpf ntg;gepiyapy; ,izg;Gfs; ghjpg;G milAk;.

2.14 Brazing

Pipe

Filler rod
Torch

Fig.2.26 Brazing

,J soldering Nghd;wNj MFk;. Spelter vdg;gLk; rw;W

mjpf cUFepiy cila cNyhff; fyitiag;
gad;gLj;jp ,uz;L xNu khjphpahd my;yJ NtWgl;l
metalfis ,izg;gJ brazing vdg;gLk;. Spelter vd;gJ
copper kw;Wk; zinc alloy Nrh;e;j fyit MFk;. Spelterd; cUF
epiy (Rkhh; 600OC) work pieced; cUFepiyia tpl
Fiwthf ,Uf;Fk;. ,k;Kiwapy; ,izf;f Ntz;ba
Kidfs; cUf;fg; gLtjpy;iy.

Kjypy; ,izf;f Ntz;ba Kidfis filing my;yJ

grinding %yk; jahh; nra;a Ntz;Lk;. Flux (borax) jltg;gl;L
rhpahd positiony; nghUj;jg;gLfpwJ. Workpiecefis mjd;
cUF epiyf;F Fiwthf ntg;gg;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;. ,izf;f
Ntz;ba ,lj;jpy; filler rod (my;yJ spelter) itf;fg;gl;L
welding torch %yk; ntg;gg;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ. ,g;NghJ
cUfpa filler metal MdJ ,izf;f Ntz;ba ,lq;fis
epug;GfpwJ. gpd;G Fsph;e;J ,izg;G cz;lhfpwJ.
2.35
 ntg;ggLj;Jk; Kiwiag; nghWj;J brazing
fPo;f;fz;lthW tifg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
1) Torch brazing 2) Dip brazing
3) Furnace brazing 4) Induction brazing
Application
Brass, bronze, copper, steel kw;Wk; stainless steel
Nghd;wtw;iw brazing nra;ayhk;. Radiator work drums, tanks
Nghd;wtw;Wld; pipeI ,izf;fTk;> tool shanky; carbide tipI
nghUj;jTk; brazing gad;gLfpwJ.
Advantages
1) nky;ypa jfLfis ,izf;fyhk;.
2) Ntfkhd nray;Kiw MFk;.
3) NtWgl;l metal fisAk; ,izf;fyhk;.
4) nttNtW thickness cila metalfis ,izf;fyhk;.
5) Distortion Vw;gLtjpy;iy
Disadvantages
1) fdkhd metalfis ,izf;f Vw;wjy;y.
2) nryT mjpfk;.
3) Jointd; strength FiwT

2.15 Difference between soldering and brazing

Soldering Brazing

1) Solder vd;w filler material Spelter vd;w filler material gad;

gad; gLj;jg;gLk;. gLj;jg;gLk;.
2) Filleter metald; cUF Filler metald; cUFepiy
epiy FiwT (150 -350 C). mjpfk; (Rkhh; 600oC).
o

3) WorkpieceI #LgLj;j WorkpieceI mjd; cUF

Njitapy;iy. epiyf;F Fiwthf #LgLj;j
Ntz;Lk;.
4) ,izg;gpd; typik ,izg;gpd; typik solderingI
FiwT. tpl mjpfk;.
5) Fiwe;j nryT. rw;W mjpf nryT.
6) Fiwe;j jpwik NghJk;. mjpf Qjpwik Njit.

2.36
2.16 Types of welded joints

1. Butt joint 2. Lap joint 3. 'T' joint

1. Butt joint 2. Lap joint 3. 'T' joint

4. Corner joint 5. Flange joint

4. CornerFig.2.27
joint Types of welded joints 5. Flange joint
fPo;f;fz;l Kf;fpa weld jointfs; cs;sd.
1) Butt joint 2) Lap joint 3) ‘T’ joint
4) Corner joint 5) Flange joint
1) Butt joint
,izf;f Ntz;ba ,uz;L platefspd; Kidfs;
njhl;Lf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;gb my;yJ mUfpy; ,Uf;Fk; gb
itj;J welding nra;tJ butt joint MFk;. 5mm jbkDf;F
Nky; cs;s platefspd; Kidfis V my;yJ U tbtj;jpy;
edge preparation nra;J weld nra;a Ntz;Lk;.
2) lap Joint
,izf;f Ntz;ba ,uz;L platefis xd;wpd; kPJ
kw;nwhd;iw itf;f Ntz;Lk;. xU plated; Kidia kw;nwhU
plated; gug;Gld; welding nra;tJ lap joint MFk;. ,jpy; single
lap joint, double lap joint vd ,Utif cz;L.
3) ‘T’ joint
,izf;f Ntz;ba ,uz;L platefis ‘T’
tbtj;jpy;(90o- y;) itj;J welding nra;tJ ‘T’ joint MFk;.
3mm jbkDf;F Nky; cs;s platefis welding nra;a ‘T’ joint
gad;gLfpwJ.
4) Corner joint
,izf;f Ntz;ba ,uz;L platefspd; Kidfis ‘L’
tbtj;jy; nrq;Fj;jhf itj;J welding nra;tJ corner joint
MFk;. Boxes, tanks kw;Wk; frames Nghd;wtw;iw weld nra;a
corner joint gad;gLfpwJ.
2.37
5) Flange joint or edge joint
,izf;f Ntz;ba ,uz;L platefspd; Kidfis
parallel Mf itj;J weld nra;tJ edge joint MFk;. ,J
sheet metal Ntiyfspy; gad;gLfpwJ.

2.16.1 Merits and demerits of welded joints

Merits
1) Welding cjtpahy; Fiwe;j vilapy; nghUl;fis
jahhpf;fyhk;.
2) Material nghpJk; Nrkpf;fg;gLk;.
3) Fiwthd cw;gj;jp nryT.
4) xNu khjphpahd kw;Wk; ntt;NtW khjhpahd
metalfis ,izf;fyhk;.
5) mjpf typikahd ,izg;G.
6) nghUl;fis tbtikg;gjpy; Rje;jpuj;ij mspf;fpwJ.
7) Lap, butt, seam, end-to-end, Nghd;w gy;NtW tifahd
,izg;Gfis Vw;gLj;jyhk;.
8) Njitg;gLk; ,lj;jpw;F vspjhf vLj;Jr; nry;yyhk;.
9) cile;j> Nja;khdk; mile;j kw;Wk; gOjhd
ghfq;fis rhpnra;a gad;gLfpwJ.

Demerits
1) nghUspy; cl;Gw stress cUthfpwJ.
2) Workpiecefspy; distortion Vw;gLfpwJ.
3) Weldingd; NghJ cUthFk; ntg;gk; base metald;
gz;Gfis Fiwf;fpwJ.
4) Cracks, incomplete fusion, slag inclusion Nghd;w Fiw
ghLfs; Vw;glyhk;.
5) jPik Vw;gLj;Jk; fjph;tPr;Rfs;> Gif kw;wk; jPr;
rpjwy;fis Vw;gLj;Jk;.
6) Jigs kw;Wk; fixturefs; Njitg;gLk;.
7) jpwikahd gzpahsh;fs; Njit.

2.38
2.17 Inspection and testing of welded joints
Welding nra;j gpwF gy;NtW Nrhjidfs; nra;J
,izg;gpd; gyk; kw;Wk; FiwghLfs; fz;lwpag;gLfpd;wd.
,e;j Nrhjidfs; fPo;f;fz;l ,Utifg;gLk;.

Testing of welded joints

1. Non destructive Tests 2. Destructive Tests

i) Magnetic particle test i) Nick brak test

ii) X-ray test ii) Bend test
iii) Ultrasonic test iii) Tensile test

1) Non-destructive test
,jpy; ,izg;ig Nrjg;gLj;jhky; test nra;ag;
gLfpwJ. juKs;s ,izg;Gfs; fz;lwpag;gl;L gad;
gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
2) Destructive test
,jpy; ,izg;ig Nrjg;gLj;jp test nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
vdNt Nrhjidf;F cl;gLk; nghUs;fis jpUk;gTk;
gad;gLj;j KbahJ.

2.17.1 Non destructive test

1) Magnetic particles test
Distorted flux lines
Surface Defect Flux lines

Fig.2.28 Magnetic particles test

2.39
 Cracks kw;Wk; slag fye;jpUg;gJ Nghd;w Fiwfs;
,e;j testy; fz;lwpag;gLfpd;wd. Workpiecef;F fhe;j jd;ik
Vw;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ. Ez;zpa ,Uk;Gj;J}s; workpieced;
gug;gpy; J}tg;gLfpwJ> Crack cs;s ,lq;fspy; Gjpa fhe;j
JUtq;fs; Vw;gLfpwJ. ,jdhy; me;j ,lj;jpy; mjpf
,Uk;Gj;J}s; ,Of;fg;gl;L FiwghLfs; cs;s ,lk;
fz;lwpag;gLfpwJ. ,e;j test MdJ ferrous metalfSf;F
kl;Lk; Vw;wJ MFk;.
2) Radiographic or X – Ray test
X - Ray tube

X - Ray
Film

Test specimen

Fig.2.29 X ray test

,e;j testy; porosity, bolw holes, cavities Nghd;w

FiwghLfs; fz;lwpag; gLfpd;wd. nghJthf X-fjph;fs;
jplg;nghUis CLUtpr; nry;Yk;. ,k;Kiwapy; X-ray tubef;F
vjphpy; test piece itf;fg; gLfpwJ. Test pieced; gpd;Gwk; X-
ray film cs;sJ. X-ray tubey; ,Ue;J X-fjph;fis nrYj;Jk;
NghJ ,izg;gpy; FiwghLfs; ,y;iy vdpy; glj;jpd; epoy;
xNu khjphpahf ,Uf;Fk;. ,izg;gpy; porosity, blow holes
Nghd;w FiwghLfs; ,Ue;jhy; mjd; topNa X- fjph;fs;
nrd;W filmy; epoy; gpufhrkha; tpOk;.
,J Ntfkhd nray;Kiw kw;Wk; nryT mjpfk;
MFk;. X-ray testd; KbTfs; epue;ju recordMf gad;gLfpwJ.
X fjph;fs; cly; eyj;jpw;F ghjpg;G Vw;gLj;Jk;. Mjyhy;
ftdk; Njit.
2.40
3. Ultrasonic test

Defect echo
Cathode ray tube(CRT)

Transducer

Test piece

Defect

Fig.2.30 Ultrasonic test

,e;j testy; ultrasonic wavesI gad;gLj;jp cracks, blow

holes, porosity Nghd;w FiwghLfis fz;lwpayhk;. Ultrasonic
waves vd;gJ high frequency vibrations MFk;. ,k;Kiwapy;
transducery; ,Ue;J ngwg;gLk; ultrasonic wavesMdJ test
pieceDs; nrYj;jg;gLfpwJ. FiwghLfs; ,y;iynadpy;
waves mbg;gFjp tiu nrd;W jpUk;Gk.; ,izg;gpy; Fiwfs;
,Ue;jhy; waves MdJ, me;j ,lj;jpy; gpujpgypf;fg;gl;L
jpUk;Gk;. ,e;j ultrasonic wavesI receiver ngw;W electric
signalMf khw;WfpwJ. ,e;j signal MdJ CRTapy; Njhd;Wk;.
,e;j signald; msitg; nghWj;J test piecey; cs;s
Fiwghl;bd; ,lj;ijAk; msitAk; mwpayhk;.

2.17.2 Destrucive Test

Nick break test
,e;j test %yk; blow holes, flash eye kw;Wk; slag
fye;jpUg;gJ Nghd;w FiwghLfis fz;lwpayhk;. ,jpy;
200 mm ePsKs;s test piece vLj;Jf; nfhs;sg;gLfpwJ.
Weldd; vjph;g; gf;fq;fspy; 6mm Moj;jpw;F slots Vw;gLj;j
Ntz;Lk;. ,jw;F nicking vdg; ngah;.
2.41
 Load (Force)

Weld bead
Nick

support
Fig.2.31 Nick break test

,U roller supportd; kPJ ,e;j test piece

itf;fg;gLfpwJ. Nicking nra;ag;gl;l gFjpia mjpf tpir
nfhLj;J cilf;f Ntz;Lk;. cile;j weld gug;Gfis test
nra;J FiwghLfs; fz;lwpag;gLfpd;wd.

2.18 Defects in welding – Causes and remedies

Defects Causes Remedies

1) Incomplete Fiwe;j rhpahd welding
fusion kpd;Ndhl;lk;> mjpf condition ,Uf;f
welding speed Ntz;Lk;.
2) Slag inclusion rhpahf flux rhpahf flux G+rg;gll
G+rg;glhj electrode, electrode gad;gLj;j
workpiecey; metal Ntz;Lk;. MetalI
oxide ,Ug;gJ. ed;F Rj;jk; nra;a
Ntz;Lk;.
3) Porosity Fluxy; <ug;gjk; cyh;e;j electrodeI
kw;Wk; blow ,Ug;gJ, workpiece cgNahfpf;f
holes JUg;gpbj;jpUg;gJ. Ntz;Lk;. MetalI
ed;F Rj;jk; nra;a
Ntz;Lk;.

2.42
 Defects Causes Remedies
4) Cracks Heating kw;Wk; Heating kw;Wk; cooling
cooling rPuhf rPuhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;
,y;yhky; ,Ug;gJ.
5) Undercut mjpf kpd;Ndhl;lk;> Current setting rhpahf
electroded; position nra;a Ntz;Lk;.
jtwhf ,Ug;gJ. rhpahd positiony;
electrodeI itf;f
Ntz;Lk;

R e vi e w Qu e s t i o n s
5 marks questions
1) Define welding and classify the welding processes.
2) What is meant by arc welding? Mention the types of arc welding.
3) List out the equipments required for arc welding.
4) Explain the types of electrodes.
5) Give examples of filler flux materials.
6) State the principle of operation of resistance welding.
7) What are the differences between spot and seam welding?
8) Explain the principle of gas welding.
9) State the three types of oxy-acetylene flames and their uses.
10) List out the equipments required for oxy-acetylene welding and
state their functions.
11) Briefly explain flame cutting.
12) Explain briefly the soldering process.
13) Briefly explain the brazing process.
14) Compare soldering and brazing with example.
15) Sketch the various types of welded joints.
16) Explain the ultrasonic test.
17) What are the common defects in welding?
10 Marks questions
1) With a neat sketch explain the arc welding process. What are
the accessories needed for it?
2) Briefly explain the Metal Inert Gas arc welding. How does it
differ from other metal arc welding processes?
2.43
3) Explain TIG welding process.
4) Explain the principle of operation of submerged arc welding
process and state the advantages and applications of this
welding process.
5) Write short notes on the following welding processes:
a) Metal arc welding b) Plasma arc welding
c) Electro slag welding.
6) What is resistance welding? State the classification of
resistance welding. Explain any one method.
7) Describe the following process:
a)Spot welding b) Flash butt welding.
8) What is a thermit welding? What does a thermit mixture consist
of? What reactions take place in thermit welding?
9) Explain the following welding processes:
a)Friction welding b)Ultrasonic welding
10) With a neat sketch explain electron beam welding.
11) Explain the laser beam welding with a sketch.
12) With a neat sketch describe the gas welding process. List out
the advantages of this process.
13) Explain the procedure followed for oxy-acetylene welding.
14) Explain the three types of welding flames obtained in oxy
acetylene welding process. State the application of each flame.
15) Explain how flame cutting is done?
16) Name the various non-destructive testing methods used for
welded joints. Explain any one method.
17) Discuss the common non-destructive tests for testing welded
joints.
18) Explain the ultrasonic testing of the welded joints. Draw neat
sketch to support your answer.
19) State the various defects found in welding. State their causes
and remedies.



2.44
 Unit – III

3.1 Introduction
nghJthf metal MdJ hot working kw;Wk; cold working
%yk; Njitahd tbtj;jpw;F cUthf;fg;gLfpwJ. ,e;j
KiwahdJ mechanical working my;yJ metal forming vd;Wk;
miof;fg;gLk;. ,jpy; external force %yk; metalI plastic
deformation milar; nra;J Njitahd tbtk;
ngwg;gLfpwJ.

3.2 Hot working

MetalI recrystalization ntg;gepiyf;F Nky;
ntg;gg;gLj;jp plastic deformation milar; nra;J Njitahd
tbtj;ijg; ngWtJ hot working vdg;gLk;.

MetalI ntg;gg;gLj;Jk; NghJ xU Fwpg;gpl;l

ntg;gepiyapy; grain structurey; khw;wk; Vwgl;L Gjpa grains
cUthFk;. ,e;j nray; eilngWk; ntg;gepiyf;F
recrystallization ntg;gepiy vd;W ngah;. nghJthf
recrystallization ntg;gepiy metald; cUF epiyapy; 30 Kjy;
40% tiu ,Uf;Fk;.

Advantges of hot working

1) Metald; toughness kw;Wk; ductility jd;ik mjpfhpf;Fk;.
2) Plastic deformationdhy; Vw;gLk; fbdj; jd;ik
ePf;fg;gLk;.
3) Metal y; internal stress cUthtjpy;iy.
4) MetalI deform milar; nra;a Fiwe;j force
NghJkhdJ.
5) Metaly; cracks, blow holes, porosity Nghd;w Fiwfs;
Vw;gLtjpy;iy.
6) Gjpa grain structure cUthtjhy; strength mjpfhpf;Fk;.
7) Ntfkhd kw;Wk; rpf;fdkhd nray;Kiw MFk;.
8) ,k;Kiwapy; midj;J tif metalfisAk; Njitahd
tbtj;jpw;F cUthf;fyhk;.
3.1
Limitations of hot working
1) Oxidatation kw;Wk; scale cUthtjhy;> Neh;j;jpahd
Nkw;gug;G fpilf;fhJ.
2) nghUspd; Nkw;gug;gpy; de-carburization Vw;gLk;.
3) Dimensional accuracy FiwT.
4) Toold; tpiy mjpfk;.
5) ,jd; %yk; cUthf;fg;gl;l nghUl;fis ifahs;tJ
fbdk;.
3.3 Cold Working
Recrystallisation ntg;gepiyf;F Fiwthd ntg;g
epiyapy; metalfspd; kPJ cold working nra;ag;gLfpwJ. Cold
working nraypd; %yk; metal MdJ plastic deformation
miltjhy; strain hardening cUthfpwJ. Pressing kw;Wk;
spinning Kiwapy; steel My; Md nghUl;fis cUthf;F
tjw;F ,k;Kiw nghpJk; gad;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ.

Advantages of cold working

1) nghUl;fspd; ,ae;jputpay; gz;Gfs; Nkk;gLj;jg;
gLfpd;wd.
2) mjpf surface finish nfhz;l kpf Neh;j;jpahd
nghUl;fis vspjpy; cUthf;fyhk;.
3) rpwg;ghd dimensional accuracyIg; ngwyhk;.
4) nghUspd; strength kw;Wk; hardness mjpfhpf;Fk;.
5) Nkw;gug;gpy; oxide cUthfhJ.
6) Nkw;gug;gpy; decarburization Vw;glhJ.
7) ,jd; %yk; cUthf;fg;gl;l nghUl;fis ifahs;tJ
vspJ.
Limitations of cold working
1) nghUl;fspd; ductility FiwfpwJ.
2) Grain structure rpije;J tpLfpwJ.
3) nghUl;fspy; residual stress cUthfpwJ.
4) Strain hardening Vw;gLfpwJ.
5) Cold working nra;tjw;F Kd;G metald; Nkw;gug;G
Rj;jkhfTk; gbkq;fs; vJTk; ,y;ykhYk; ,Uf;f
Ntz;Lk;.
6) mjpfkhd force Njitg;gLk;.
7) rpwpa mstpyhd nghUl;fis kl;LNk jahhpf;f ,aYk;.

3.2
3.4 Comparison of hot working and cold working
Hot working Cold working
1) Recrystillisation ntg;g epiyf;F Recrystallisation ntg;gepiyf;F
mjpfkhfTk; cUFepiyf;F Fiwthd ntg;g epiyapy;
FiwthfTk; cs;s ntg;g ,J eilngWfpwJ.
epiyapy; ,J eilngWfpwJ.
2) Inernal stress cUthtJ Internal my;yJ residual stress
,y;iy. cUthFk;.
3) Grain structre Nkk;gLj;jg;gLk;. Grain structure rpijf;fg;gLk;.
4) Jy;ypakhd msTfisg; Jy;ypakhd msTfisg;
ngw KbahJ. ngwyhk;.
5) Neh;j;jpahd surface finish Neh;j;jpahd surface finishIg;
fpilf;fhJ. ngwyhk;.
6) Fiwthd work hardening mjpf work hardening cUthFk;.
cUthFk;.
7) Fiwthd force NghJkhdJ. mjpf msT force Njitg;gLk;.
8) ve;j mstpYk; nghUl;fis rpwpa mstpyhd nghUl;fis
cUthf;fyhk;. kl;LNk cUthf;f ,aYk;.
9) Toolfsp d ; tpiy mjpf k; . Toolfspd; tpiy FiwT.
10) nghUl;fis ifahs;tJ nghUl;fis ifahs;tJ
fbdk;. vspJ.

3.5 Hot working operations

fPo;fz;l Kf;fpa hot working operationfs; cs;sd.
1) Rolling 2) Forging 3) Swaging
4) Extruion 5) Drawing 6) Hot spinning.
3.6 Hot rolling
MetalI RoYk; rollfSf;F ,ilapy; nrYj;jp
Njitahd tbtk; ngWtJ rolling vdg;gLk;. Recrystallization
ntg;gepiyf;F Nky; metalI rolling nra;tJ hot rolling
vdg;gLk;. Rolld; Nkw;gug;G Njitahd tbtj;jpw;F Vw;g
,Uf;Fk;. Metal MdJ rollfSf;F ,ilapy; nrYj;jg;gLk;
NghJ mjpf compressive stress My; plastic deformation
Vw;gLfpwJ. Metald; grains MdJ rolling nra;Ak; directiony;
ePs;fpwJ. ,jdhy; metald; FWf;fsT Fiwe;J ePsk;
3.3
mjpfhpf;fpwJ. ,uz;L roll mill kw;Wk; %d;W roll millfspy; hot
rolling nra;ag;gLfpwJ. Njitahd msitg; ngWk; tiu
metal MdJ gy Kiw rolling nra;ag;gl Ntz;Lk;.

Original grains Refined grains

Elongated grains

Fig.3.1 Hot rolling

Hot rolling %yk; sheets, plates, rounds, I - section,T - section,
channels, angles kw;Wk; gy tbtq;fspy; metalI rolling
nra;ayhk;. Foundry shopy; ,Ue;J ngwg;gLk; casting MdJ
ingot MFk;. IngotI hot rolling nra;J bloom, billet, slab Nghd;w
semifinished tbtq;fs; ngwg;gLfpd;wd. BloomI hot rolling
nra;J I - section, T - section, channels, angles Nghd;wit nra;ag;
gLfpd;wd. Billety; ,Ue;J rounds, squares, wires Nghd;wit
nra;ayhk;. Slaby; ,Ue;J plates kw;Wk; sheets nra;ag;gLk;.

1 2

3 4 5 6

7 8 9 10
Fig.3.2 Number of passes to produce a bar
glj;jpy; fhl;bagb billet MdJ gy Kiw rollfSf;F
,ilapy; nrYj;jg;gl;L round rod Mf khw;wg;gLfpwJ.
3.4
3.7 Forging
Compressive my;yJ impact force %yk; metalI
Njitahd tbtj;jpw;F cUthf;FtJ forging vdg;gLk;. Hot
forging vd;gJ metald; recrystallization ntg;gepiyf;F Nky;
eilngWk; nray; MFk;. ,k;Kiwapy; connecting rod,
crankshaft Nghd;wit cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpd;wd.

Classification of forging
1) Smith forging
a) Hand forging b) Power forging
2) Impression die forging
a) Drop forging b) Upset forging
3) Roll forging
4) Swaging

3.7.1 Hammer forging or smith forging

,J flat die forging kw;Wk; open die forging vdTk;
miof;fg;gLk;. ManualMf my;yJ power %yk; smith forging
nra;ag;gLfpwJ. ,k;Kiwapy; cUthf;fg;gLk; nghUspd;
accuracy gzpahshpd; jpwikia nghWj;J ,Uf;Fk;.
nghJthf smith forging MdJ rough work nra;ag;
gad;gLfpwJ.
Hand forging
,k;Kiwapy; ntg;gg;gLj;jpa metal MdJ tongs %yk;
gpbf;fg;gl;L anvil Nky; itf;fg;gLfpwJ. HammerMy; metalI
gyKiw mbj;J Njitahd tbtk; cUthf;fg;gLfpwJ.
rpwpa forging nghUl;fis Fiwe;j mstpy; cUthf;f hand
forging gad;gLfpwJ.

Power forging
,k;Kiwapy; power hammer my;yJ power pressI gad;
gLj;jp forging nra;ag;gLfpwJ. ntg;gg;gLj;jpa metalMdJ
power hammer My; mbf;fg;gl;L Njitahd tbtk;
cUthf;fg;gLfpwJ. Power hammer MdJ hydraulic my;yJ
pneumatic %yk; ,af;fg; gLfpwJ. eLj;ju kw;Wk; fdkhd
forging nghUl;fis cUthf;f power forging gad;gLfpwJ.
3.5
Smith forging operations
1) Upsetting 2) Drawing down 3) Setting down 4) Swaging
5) Bending 6) Punching 7) Welding
1) Upsetting

Heated portion

Anvil

Fig.3.3 Upsetting
ntg;gg;gLj;jpa workpieced; ePsk; Fiwf;fg;gl;L
FWf;fsT mjpfhpf;fg;gLtJ upsetting vdg;gLk;. Upsetting
nra;a Ntz;ba Fwpg;gpl;l gFjpia ntg;ggLj;jp workpieced;
Kidia hammer My; mbf;Fk; NghJ ePsk; Fiwe;J
FWf;fsT mjpfhpf;fpwJ.
2) Drawing down

Red hot bar

a.

Fuller

b.

c.

Flatter

Fig.3.4 Drawing down

3.6
 ntg;gg;gLj;jpa workpieced; FWf;fsT Fiwf;fg;
gl;L ePsj;ij mjpfhpg;gJ drawing down vdg;gLk;. Drawing
down nra;a Ntz;ba workpieceI ntg;gg;gLj;jp fullerfSf;F
,ilapy; itj;J hammerMy; mbf;Fk; NghJ FWf;fsT
Fiwe;J ePsk; mjpfhpf;fpwJ.

3) Setting down
Hammer

Work piece Flater

Heated
portion

Fig.3.5 Setting down

Setting down
vd;gJ drawing down Kiwiag;
Nghd;wNj MFk;. ,jpy; fullerf;F gjpyhf flatter gad;gLj;jp
Fwpg;gpl;l gFjpapy; kl;Lk; operation nra;ag;gLfpwJ.

4) Swaging
Sledge
hammer

Upper swage
Work piece
Bottom swage

Anvil

Fig.3.6 Swaging

3.7
 ntg;gg;gLj;jpa workpiced; ePsj;ij mjpfhpj;J mjd;
FWf;fsit Njitahd tbtj;jpw;F khw;WtJ swaging
vdg;gLk;. Swaging nra;a Ntz;ba work pieceI
ntg;gg;gLj;jp swage blockfSf;F ,ilapy; itj;J
hammerMy; mbf;Fk; NghJ Njitahd tbtk; cUthf;fg;
gLfpwJ. ,k;Kiwapy; round, square kw;Wk; hexagonal tbt
nghUl;fis nra;ayhk;.
5) Bending

Bending over the Bending over a Bending over the

beak of anvil round bar in a vice edge of anvil
Fig.3.7 Bending
ntg;gg;gLj;jpa workpieceI Njitahd Nfhzj;jpy;
my;yJ tl;l tbtpy; tisg;gJ bending vdg;gLk;. Anvil
edged; kPJ workpieceI itj;J hammerMy; mbf;Fk; NghJ
circular bend fpilf;fpwJ.
6) Punching
Hammer blow

Punch
Work piece
Die

Waste Work piece with

punched hole

Fig.3.8 Punching
3.8
 ntg;gg;gLj;jpa workpiecey; Jisfis cUthf;FtJ
punching vdg;gLk;. ,jpy; workpiece MdJ anvily; cs;s
Jisapd; kPJ itf;fg;gLfpwJ. PunchI workpieced; Nky;
rhpahf itj;J hammer My; mbf;Fk; NghJ Jis
cUthfpwJ.

7) Forge welding
Lap joint

Butt joint

'V' joint

Fig.3.9 Forge welding

ntg;gg;gLj;jpa ,uz;L workpiecefspd; Kidfis
hammer My; mbj;J ,izg;gJ forge welding vdg;gLk;.
,izf;f Ntz;ba ,U Kidfis Rj;jk; nra;J
Njitahd jointf;F Vw;g jahh; nra;a Ntz;Lk;. Oxidation
Vw;gLtij jtph;f;f work piecefspd; Kidfspy; flux
gad;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;. Kidfis ntg;gg;gLj;jp Njitahd
positiony; itf;f Ntz;Lk;. HammerMy; mbj;J joint
Vw;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ. Forge welding Kiwapy; nra;ag;gLk;
jointfs; glj;jpy; fhl;lg; gl;Ls;sd.

3.7.2 Drop Forging

ntg;gg;gLj;jpa metalI ,uz;L closed diefSf;F
,ilapy; itj;J power hammer My; mbf;fg;gl;L Njitahd
tbtk; ngWtJ drop forging vdg;gLk;. Lower die MdJ anvil
kPJk; upper die MdJ ram clDk; nghUj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;.
ntg;gg;gLj;jpa metalI lower died; Nky; itf;f Ntz;Lk;.
Ram Ntfkhf fPo;Nehf;fp tpOk; NghJ Vw;gLk; impact
forceMy; ,sfpa metal MdJ die cavityfis epug;gp Njit
ahd tbtk; ngwg;gLfpwJ. Gravity hammer, power drop hammer,
air lift hammer Nghd;w power hammerfs; ,jpy; gad;gLfpd;wd.
3.9
 Ram

Upper die
Metal
Lower die

Anvil

Base

Fig.3.10 Drop forging

vspa tbt nghUl;fs; xNu operationy; nra;ag;gLk;.

rpf;fyhd tbtk; nfhz;l nghUl;fs; gy;NtW stagefspy;
nra;ag; gLfpd;wd. ,jw;F roughing die, semifinishing die,
finishing die Nghd;wit gad;gLfpwJ.
Application
Crank, crank shaft, connecting rod, levers, camshaft
Nghd;wit drop forgingy; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpd;wd.
Advantages
1) Mass productionf;F Vw;wJ.
2) nghUl;fspd; strength mjpfk;.
3) Material wastage FiwT.
Disadvantages
1) nghpa anvil kw;Wk; gykhd foundation Njit.
2) Noise kw;Wk; vibration mjpfk;.
3) Die vspjpy; Nja;khdk; mile;J tpLk;.

3.7.3 Upset forging or machine forging

ntg;gg;Lj;jpa workpieced; Kidapy; rivet head, hexagonal
head Nghd;w tbtj;ij cUthf;FtJ upset forging vdg;gLk;.
,k;Kiwapy; ePsk; Fiwf;fg;gl;L Kidapy; FWf;fsT
mjpfhpf;fg; gLfpwJ. Upset forging MdJ press forging machiney;
eilngWtjhy; machine forging vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLk;.
3.10
 ,e;j machiney; cs;s die sety; epiyahd die, movable
punch kw;Wk; knock out pin cs;sJ. kw;nwhU die sety; ,uz;L
die (fixed die, movable die), movable puch, knock out pin kw;Wk;
stop cs;sJ.

work pieced; Kidia ntg;gg;gLj;jp epiyahd diey;

itf;f Ntz;Lk;. PunchI ,af;Fk; NghJ workpieced; Kid
ntspNa mOj;jg;gl;L punchy; cs;s tbtj;ij ngWfpwJ.
Knockout pin nghUis ntspNa js;SfpwJ. Workpieced;
Kidapy; cUthf;Fk; tbtk; (impression) punch my;yJ die,
my;yJ ,uz;bYk; ,Uf;Fk;.

Heated bar

Head formed
Knocking pin in punch

Head formed
Die in die
Punch

Head formed
in punch and die
Fig.3.11 Upset forging

Workpieced; Kidia ntg;gg;gLj;jp fixed kw;Wk;

movable diefSf;F ,ilapy; itf;f Ntz;Lk;. Workpieced;
ePsj;ij stop %yk; control nra;ayhk;. PunchI ,af;Fk;
NghJ workpieced; Kid mOj;jg;gl;L die my;yJ punch
kw;Wk; dieapy; cs;s tbtj;ij ngWfpwJ. Knockout pin
nghUis ntspNa js;SfpwJ.
3.11
Application
Bolt head, rivet head, collars, cylindrical pin, flanges
Nghd;wit cUthf;f upset forging gad;gLfpwJ.

Advantages
1) Mass productionf;F Vw;wJ.
2) nghUl;fs; Jy;ypakhd mstpy; ,Uf;Fk;.
3) nghUl;fspd; strength Nkk;ghL milfpwJ.

3.7.4 Press forging

Ram

Upper die

Lower die

Base

Fig.3.12 Press forging

Plastic epiyf;F ntg;gg;gLj;jpa metalI ,uz;L

closed diefSf;F ,ilapy; itj;J power pressMy;
mOj;jg;gl;L Njitahd tbtj;ijg; ngWtJ press forging
vdg;gLk;. Njitg;gLk; tbtj;jpd; ghjp msT upper dieapYk;
ghjp msT lower dieapYk; ,Uf;Fk;. Lower die MdJ anvil
kPJk; upper die MdJ ram clDk; nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;.

ntg;gg;gLj;jpa metalI lower dieapd; Nky; itf;f

Ntz;Lk;. Ram fPo; Nehf;fp tUk; NghJ upper die MdJ
metalI nkJthfTk; rPuhfTk; mOj;JfpwJ. ,jdhy; ,sfpa
metal MdJ die cavityfspy; epug;gg;gl;L Njitahd tbtk;
fpilf;fpwJ. Mechanical kw;Wk; hydraulic pressfs; ,jw;F
gad;gLfpd;wd.
3.12
Application
Coins, bolts, rivets, nuts Nghd;w rkr;rPh; tbtk; nfhz;l
nghUl;fs; press forgingy; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpd;wd.
Advantages
1) nghJthf nghUl;fis xNu working strokey; nra;ayhk;.
2) cw;gj;jp Neuk; FiwT.
3) ey;y surface finish fpilf;fpwJ.
4) Vibrations kw;Wk; noise Fiwthf ,Uf;Fk;.
5) nghUl;fspd; mlh;j;jp rPuhf ,Uf;Fk;.
Comparision of drop forging and press forging
Drop forging Press forging
1) Impact force %yk; workpiecef;F rPuhd mOj;jk; %yk;
Njitahd tbtk; workpiecef;F Njitahd
fpilf;fpwJ. tbtk; fpilf;fpwJ.
2) Power hammer gad;gLfpwJ. Power press gad;gLfpwJ.
3) Vibration kw;Wk; noise mjpfk; Vibration kw;Wk; noise FiwT
4) nghUl;fspd; mlh;j;jp xNu nghUl;fspd; mlh;j;jp rPuhf
khjphpahf ,Uf;fhJ. ,Uf;Fk;
5) ,J nkJthf eilngWk;. ,J Ntfkhf eilngWk;.
6) rpf;fyhd tbtk; cila rpf;fyhd tbtk; cila
nghUl;fis cUthf;f nghUl;fis cUthf;f xU
gy;NtW die setfs; Njit. die set NghJkhdJ.

3.7.5 Roll forging

Upper roll

Work piece
Groove

Forged component
Lower roll
Fig.3.13 Roll forging
3.13
 Plain rollingy; xNu rPuhd FWf;fsT cila
nghUl;fis kl;LNk cw;gj;jp nra;a KbAk;. RoYk; ,U
rollfSf;F ,ilapy; ntg;gg;gLj;jpa workpieceI nrYj;jp
mOj;jg;gl;L ntt;NtW FWf;fsT cila nghUisg;
ngWtJ roll forging vdg;gLk;.

,jpy; gad;gLj;Jk; rollfspd; Nkw;gug;G tl;lkhf

,Uf;fhJ. nghUspd; tbtj;jpw;F Vw;g ,uz;L rollfspYk;
ntt;NtW radius cila grooves cs;sd. RoYk; ,U
rollfSf;F ,ilapy; ntg;gg; gLj;jpa workpieceI nrYj;Jk;
NghJ mOj;jg;gl;L rolly; cs;s grooved; tbtj;ijg;
ngWfpwJ. ,jdhy; nghUspy; ntt;NtW FWf;fsT
cUthf;fg; gLfpwJ. NkYk; ,k;Kiwapd; NghJ work pieced;
FWf;fsT Fiwe;J ePsk; mjpfhpf;fpwJ.

Application
Automobile axles, levers, leaf springs, tapered tube
Nghd;wit roll forgingy; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpd;wd.

3.8 Press Working

Pressy; sheet metalI mOj;jp plastic deformation milar;
nra;J Njitahd tbtj;ij vw;gLj;JtJ press working
vdg;gLk;. Mechanical force my;yJ pressure %yk; Njitahd
tbtj;ij Vw;gLj;Jtjw;F my;yJ ntl;Ltjw;F gad;gLk;
machine MdJ press MFk;. Cold condition kw;Wk; hot
conditiony; metalI press working nra;Ak; NghJ KiwNa cold
working press vdTk; hot working press vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;.
Press MdJ sheet metaly; ,Ue;J finished productI
NtfkhfTk; efficientMfTk; cw;gj;jp nra;fpwJ. vdNt mass
productionf;F Vw;wJ.

3.9 Specification of press

1) Capacity of press in tons 2) Maximum stroke length of ram
3) Die space 4) Type of frame
5) Type of drive 6) Number of slides
7) Weight and floor area.

3.14
3.10 Types of presses
3.10.1 Hand press or ball press
Arm

Balls
Arrester Handle

Frame Screw
Ram
Guide

Punch
Die

Base

Fig.3.14 Hand press

,e;j pressy; base cld; ,ize;j C tbt frame
cs;sJ. Framey; cs;s nut cld; ePskhd screw nghUe;jp
,Uf;Fk;. Screwd; xU Kidapy; balls cld; $ba arm
,izf;fg;gl;L ,Uf;Fk;. kw;nwhU Kidapy;
nghUj;jg;gl;Ls;s ram MdJ guidey; NkYk; fPOk; efUk;.

Work pieceI punch kw;Wk; dief;F ,ilapy; itf;f

Ntz;Lk;. ArmI ifahy; Rw;Wk; NghJ ram fPo;Nehf;fp efh;e;J>
work piece mOj;jg;gl;L Njitahd tbtk; Vw;gLfpwJ. Stroke
lengthI adjust nra;a arrester gad;gLfpwJ.

3.10.2 Types of frames

Work pieced; msT kw;Wk; tbtj;jpw;F Vw;g
ntt;NtW framefs; cila press gad;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ.
1) Open Back Inclinable press or OBI press
,e;j pressy; cs;s frame MdJ basey; pivot nra;ag;
gl;bUf;Fk;. Njitahd rha;T epiyapy; frameI
nghUj;jyhk;. ,e;j framey; cs;s gapy; nghUl;fs; gravity
%yk; fPNo tpOk;.
3.15
 Frame Frame Frame

Ram Table Horn

Screw
Base Base Base
(a) Inclined press (b) Adjustable press (c) Horn press
Fig.3.15 Types of presses

2) Adjustable press or knee press

,e;j pressy; cs;s elevating screw %yk; bedI
nrq;Fj;jhf efh;j;jyhk;. Die kw;Wk; work pieced;
cauq;fSf;F Vw;g bed MdJ adjust nra;ag;gLfpwJ. ,e;j
press kpf cWjpahf ,Uf;fhJ.
3) Horn press
,e;j pressd; framey; cs;s cUis tbt projection
MdJ horn vdg;gLk;. ,J cUis tbt hollow workpicefis
support nra;a gad;gLfpwJ. Workpieced; msTf;F Vw;g
hornI khw;wpf; nfhs;syhk;.
4) Straight side press

Frame
Crown

Ram

Fig.3.16 Straight side press

3.16
 ,e;j pressy; cs;s ,uz;L vertical framefs; basey;
nghUj;jg;gl;L cs;sJ. ,tw;wpd; Nky;gFjp crown %yk;
,izf;fg;gl;L ,Uf;Fk;. ,e;j tif press kpf cWjpahf
,Ug;gjhy; heavy duty NtiyfSf;F Vw;wJ.
5) Pillar type press or open frame press

Movable ram

Pillars

Fig.3.17 Pillar type press

,e;j pressy; cs;s square basey; ehd;F pillarfs;
nghUj;jg;gl;L cs;sd. ,tw;wpd; Nky;gFjp crown %yk;
,izf;fg; gl;bUf;Fk;. ,e;j tif press MdJ hydraulic
drive %yk; ,af;fg;gLfpwJ.

3.10.3 Mechanical press

,t;tif power pressy; fPo;f;fz;l Kf;fpa ghfq;fs; cs;sd.
1) Base
,J pressI support nra;fpwJ. ,jd; kPJ bed kw;Wk;
frame nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;.
2) Frame
,jpy; driving mechanism cs;sJ. ,jpy; cs;s guide
waysy; ram NkYk; fPOk; efUk;.
3) Bolster plate
,J bedd;Nky; nghUj;jg;gl;Ls;s fdkhd plate
MFk;. ,jd; Nky; die assembly nghUj;jg;gLfpwJ.
3.17
 Crank Fly wheel

Connecting rod

Ram

Die
Punch

Fig.3.18 Mechanical press

4) Driving mechanism
nghJthf mechanical pressI ,af;f crank and
connecting rod drive gad;gLfpwJ. Ram MdJ connecting rod
%yk; crank cld; ,izf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. Crank shaft Rw;Wk;
NghJ ram NkYk; fPOk; efUk;.

5) Fly wheel
,J driving shaft Kidapy; nghUj;jg;gl;Ls;s nghpa
wheel MFk;. ,J idle strokey; energyI Nrkpj;J working
strokey; workpiece deformation miltjw;F energyIf;
nfhLf;fpwJ.

6) Punch
Ramd; mbg;gFjpapy; cs;s punch holdery; punch
nghUj;jg; gLfpwJ. Ram cld; punch NkYk; fPOk; efUk;.
7) Die
,J bolster plated; kPJ cs;s die holdery; rhpahd
positiony; nghUj;jg;gl;L epiyahf ,Uf;Fk;.

3.18
Working principle
Pressy; punch kw;Wk; die nghUj;jg;gLfpwJ. Work
pieceI punch kw;Wk; dief;F ,ilapy; itf;f Ntz;Lk;. Motor
%yk; crank shaft ,af;fg;gLfpwJ. Crank kw;Wk; connecting rod
drive MdJ Row;rp ,af;fj;ij Neh;f;Nfhl;L ,af;fkhf
khw;WfpwJ. ,jdhy; ram NkYk; fPOk; efUk;. Ram fPo;Nehf;fp
efUk; NghJ punch MdJ sheet metalI mOj;jp Njitahd
operationI nra;fpwJ. Pressy; gy;NtW operationfs; nra;a
ntt;NtW die kw;Wk; punch gad;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ.
3.10.4 Hydraulic press
Oil
Cylinder

Piston
Piston rod

Ram

Die
Punch

Fig.3.19 Hydraulic press

,t;tif press MdJ hydraulic drive %yk; ,af;fg;
gLfpwJ. Hydraulic cylindery; cs;s piston NkYk; fPOk; efUk;.
,J piston rod %yk; ram cld; ,izf;fg; gl;bUf;Fk;. Piston
efUk; NghJ ram MdJ guidewaysy; NkYk; fPOk; efUk;.
Cylindery; nrYj;jg;gLk; oilI fl;Lg; gLj;j valve cs;sJ.

Pressy; punch kw;Wk; die nghUj;jg;gl;L align nra;ag;

gLfpwJ. WorkpieceI punch kw;Wk; dief;F ,ilapy; itf;f
Ntz;Lk;. Cylindery; pistonf;F Nky; gf;fj;jpy; mjpf
mOj;jj;jpy; oil nrYj;jg; gLfpwJ. ,jdhy; piston cld;
3.19
ram fPo;Nehf;fp efh;fpwJ. Ram cld; ,izf;fg;gl;Ls;s
punch fPo; Nehf;fp efh;e;J sheet metalI mOj;jp Njitahd
operation nra;fpwJ. Working stroke Kbtpy; pistonf;F
mbg;gf;fj;jpy; oil nrYj;j Ntz;Lk;. ,jdhy; piston cld;
ram Nky; Nehf;fp efh;fpwJ.

Advantages of hydraulic press

1) mjpf mOj;jk; kw;Wk; force fpilf;fpwJ.
2) Ramf;F Njitahd pressureI vspjpy; khw;wyhk;.
3) Pressure rPuhf ,Uf;Fk;.
4) Ramd; ,af;fk; rPuhf ,Uf;Fk;.
5) rj;jkpy;yhj kw;Wk; smooth operation eilngWk;.

3.10.5 Types of drive

Eccentric Driving shaft Housing
Cam
Pinion

Driving shaft
Connecting
rod
Rack

Ram Ram Ram

Fig.3.20 Types of drive

Driving mechanism MdJ ramf;F reciprocating motionI
nfhLf;fpwJ. Ramd; load kw;Wk; stroke lengthf;F Vw;g
fPo;f;fz;l drives gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
1) Eccentric drive
,jpy; driving shaft cld; eccentric ,izf;fg;
gl;Ls;sJ. Connecting rodd; xU Kid eccentric clDk;
kw;nwhU Kid ram clDk; nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;. Driving
shaft cld; eccentric Rw;Wk;NghJ ram NkYk; fPOk; efUk;.
Fiwthd stroke lengthf;F ,t;tif drive gad;gLfpwJ.
3.20
 2) Cam drive
,jpy; driving shaft cld; cam ,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
Connecting rodd; xU Kid cam clDk; kw;nwhU Kidapy;
ramk; nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;. Driving shaft cld; cam Rw;Wk;
NghJ camd; tbtj;jpw;F Vw;g ram NkYk; fPOk; efUk;.
Fiwthd stroke lengthf;F cam drive gad;gLfpwJ.
3) Rack and pinion drive
,jpy; cs;s ePskhd rack cld; ram ,izf;fg;
gl;Ls;sJ. epiyahd mr;rpy; RoYk; pinion MdJ rack
cld; nghUe;jp ,Uf;Fk;. Pinion Rw;Wk; NghJ ram fPo;
Nehf;fp efUk;. Stroked; Kbtpy; pinion vjph;j; jpirapy;
Rw;Wtjhy; ram Nky; Nehf;fp efh;fpwJ. ePskhd stroke
lengthf;F ,t;tif drive gad;gLfpwJ.

3.11 Press tools

Die kw;Wk; punch MdJ press tools vdg;gLk;. ,it
vg;nghOJk; xd;whfNt gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. Press toold; fPo;g;
gFjp die MFk;. ,J press bedd; kPJ cs;s bolster platey;
nghUj;jg;gl;L epiyahf ,Uf;Fk;. Punch Eiotjw;F Vw;g
die cavity ,Uf;Fk;.
Press toold; Nky;gFjp punch MFk;. ,J ramd; fPo;
Kidapy; ,izf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. Punch MdJ ram cld;
fPo; Nehf;fp efh;e;J cavityy; mOj;jg;gLfpwJ. Die kw;Wk;
punch rhpahf align nra;ag;gl Ntz;Lk;.

Die kw;Wk; punch nra;a High Speed Steel (HSS), stellite,

cemented carbide Nghd;w materialfs; gad;gLfpd;wd.

3.11.1 Press or die accessories

Pressy; operationI vspjhfTk; tpiuthfTk; nra;J
Kbf;f gad;gLgit press accessories MFk;. WorkpieceI
vspjhf ePf;fTk;> punch kw;Wk; dief;F ,ilapy; blankI
rhpahf locate nra;aTk; ,it gad;gLfpd;wd. fPo;f;fz;l
gy;NtW press accessories gad;gLj;jg; gLfpd;wd.
1) Stops 2) Pilots 3) Strippers
4) Knock outs 5) Pressure pads.
3.21
1) Stops

Punch
Sheet metal
Button stop

Die block
Fig.3.21 Stop
Sheet metalI rhpahd ePsj;jpy; epWj;Jtjw;F stops
gd;gLfpwJ. ,J material wastageIj; jLj;J scrapIf;
Fiwf;fpwJ. Button, lever my;yJ pin tbtpy; stops ,Uf;Fk;.

2) Pilots

Punch

Pilot

Fig.3.22 Pilot
Punchd; fPo;Kidapy; pilot nghUj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;.
Blanky; piercing nra;ag;gl;l holeI rhpahf locate nra;a pilot
gad;gLfpwJ.
3) Strippers
Blanking my;yJ punching operation Kbe;jTld; punch
my;yJ dieapy; ,Ue;J work pieceI ePf;Ftjw;F stripper gad;
3.22
gLfpwJ. ,jpy; fixed type kw;Wk; spring operated type cs;sJ.
Fixed stripper MdJ die blocky; nghUj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;. Spring
type stripper MdJ punch cld; NkYk; fPOk; efUk;.

Punch
Spring

Stripper

Sheet metal

Die

Fig.3.23 Stripper

4) Knock outs
Punch

Pressure pad

Die

Knock out pad

Spring
Fig.3.24 Knock out
Drawing operation Kbe;jTld; die opening topahf fPNo
tpo ,ayhj nghUis ntspNa js;Stjw;F knock out gad;
gLfpwJ. ,J spring action my;yJ air pressure %yk; ,aq;Fk;.

3.23
5) Pressure pads

Punch
Spring

Pressure pad
Sheet metal
Die

Pressure pad

Fig.3.25 Pressure pad

Sheet metalI mOj;jp rhpahd positiony; gpbf;f
pressure pad gad;gLfpwJ. ,jw;F pressure MdJ spring,
pneumatic my;yJ hydraulic %yk; fpilf;fpwJ. Punch
fPo;Nehf;fp tUk;NghJ springfs; mOe;jp sheet metalI
mOj;jpg; gpbf;fpwJ. ,jdhy; punch kw;Wk; dief;F
,ilapYs;s metal Njitahd tbtj;jpw;F xNu rPuhf
,Of;fg;gLfpwJ. Cupd; mbg;gug;G flat Mf ,Ug;gjw;F
NkYk; xU pressure padI gad;gLj;jyhk;.

3.12 Types of dies

Dies

Based on operation Based on construction

1. Shearing dies 1. Simple dies

2. Drawing dies 2. Progressive dies
3. Squeezing dies 3. Compound dies
4. Bending dies 4. Combination dies
5. Inverted dies
3.24
3.12.1 Simple die or plain die
Simple diey; ramd; xU strokef;F xU operation kl;LNk
eilngWk;. Cutting dies, Bending dies, punching dies Nghd;wit
simple dies MFk;. ,e;j tif dieapd; tpiy FiwT. vspjhd
tbtikg;G cilaJ.
3.12.2 Progressive die

Sheet metal Punch holder

Blanking punch
Piercing punch
Stripper pad
pilot
Sheet metal

Die

Scrap

Fig.3.26 Progressive die

,e;j dieapy; ram fPo; Nehf;fp efUk; NghJ ,uz;L

my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;l operationfs; xd;wd; gpd; xd;whf
eilngWk;. Work piece MdJ thpirahf cs;s work
stationfSf;F efh;j;jg;gl;L ntt;NtW operationfs; nra;ag;
gLfpwJ. Work stationfSf;F ,ilg;gl;l J}uk; rkkhf
,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. Ramd; xt;;nthU strokef;Fk; xU product
fpilf;fpwJ. Washer cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; dieapy; piercing kw;Wk;
blanking operationfs; nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
Punch holdery; piercing punch kw;Wk; blanking punch
nghUj;jg;gLfpwJ. Die holdery; piercing die kw;Wk; blanking die
nghUj;jg;gLfpwJ. Sheet metalI dieapd; kPJ nrYj;jp> ramd;
Kjy; strokey;; Jis cUthf;fg; gLfpwJ. Ram Nky; Nehf;fp
efUk;NghJ sheet metal mLj;j workstationf;F efh;j;jg;gl;L
stop pinfs; %yk; rhpahd mstpy; epWj;jg; gLfpwJ.
3.25
 Ramd; mLj;j strokey; pilot MdJ JisapDs;
Eioe;J jobI rhpahf locate nra;fpwJ. ,g;NghJ blanking
operation eilngWk;. mNj Neuj;jpy; Kjy; work stationy;
mLj;j washerf;fhd piercing operation eilngWk;. ,t;thW
ramd; xU strokey; piercing kw;Wk; blanking operationfs;
ntt;NtW work stationy; eil ngWfpwJ.

Advantages
1) cw;gj;jp Neuk; FiwT
2) Production rate mjpfk;. vdNt mass productionf;F Vw;wJ.
3) xU sheet metaly; ntt;NtW operationfs; nra;a KbAk;.

Disadvantages
1) Dieapd; tbtikg;G rw;W rpf;fyhdJ.
2) nky;ypa sheet metalI ntl;Lk;NghJ tisayhk;.

3.12.3 Compound die

Knockout collar
Knockout rod
Punch holder

Blanking die Piercing punch

Knockout plate
Sheet metal

Blanking punch Stripper

Spring

Scrap Piercing die

Wahser
Fig.3.27 Compound die

,e;j dieapy; ram fPo;Nehf;fp efUk; NghJ ,uz;L

my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;l operationfs; xNu workstationy;
eilngWk;. nghJthf ,e;j dieapy; cutting operationfs;
nra;ag;gLfpwJ. Compound dieapy; washer cw;gj;jp nra;Ak;
3.26
NghJ piercing kw;Wk; blanking operationfs; xNu strokey;
eilngWfpwJ.
,e;j dieapy; piercing kw;Wk; blanking punch xd;Wf;
nfhd;W vjpuhf nghUj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;. Blanking punch MdJ
piercing die MfTk; nray;gLk;. Piercing dieapy; scrap fPNo
tpOtjw;F angular clearance ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. Ram
fPo;Nehf;fp efUk; NghJ piercing kw;Wk; blanking operationfs;
eilngWfpwJ. Ram Nky; Nehf;fp efUk; NghJ knock out rod
MdJ washerI ntspNa js;SfpwJ.
Advantages
1) xU working stationy; ,uz;Lf;Fk; Nkw;gl;l operationfs;
nra;ayhk;.
2) nghUs;fis Jy;ypakhd msTfSld; cUthf;fyhk;.
3) cw;gj;jp Neuk; FiwT.

Disadvantages
1) Dieapd; tpiy mjpfk;.
2) Dieapd; tbtikg;G rpf;fyhdJ.

3.12.4 Combination die

Knock out

Spring

Blanking punch
Stripper

Drawing die
Sheet metal

Die ring Pad

Drawing punch

Component

Fig.3.28 Combination die

3.27
 ,e;j diey; ram fPo; Nehf;fp efUk; NghJ cutting kw;Wk;
non cutting operationfs; xNu workstationy; eilngWk;. Blanking,
piercing, trimming, cut-off Nghd;w VNjDk; xU cutting operationk;>
bending, drawing Nghd;w VNjDk; xU non cutting operationk;
xNu workstationy; njhlh;e;J eilngWk;. Cup nra;ag;
gad;gLk; combination die glj;jpy; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
Punch holdery; cs;s blanking punch MdJ drawing die
MfTk; nray;gLfpwJ. Ram fPo;Nehf;fp efUk; NghJ
blanking punchMdJ sheet metalI ntl;LfpwJ. NkYk;
fPo;Nehf;fp efUk; NghJ blank MdJ drawing punch kw;Wk;
dieapy; mOj;jg;gl;L Njitahd tbtk; Vw;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.

Advantages
1) xU workstationy; ,uz;L operationfs; eilngWk;.
2) cw;gj;jp Neuk; FiwT.
3) Jy;ypakhd nghUl;fis cw;gj;jp nra;ayhk;.

Disadvantages
1) Died; mikg;G rpf;fyhdJ.
2) Died; tpiy mjpfk;.

3.12.5 Inverted die

Ram
Punch holder
Guide post
Die
Sheet metal

Stripper Guide

Punch Die holder

Fig.3.29 Inverted die

3.28
 nghJthf die holdery; dieAk; punch holdery; punchk;
nghUj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;. rpy rkaq;fspy; ,e;j mikg;ig
Njitf;F Vw;g khw;wp mikf;fyhk;. Inverted dieapd; die
holdery; punchk;> punch holdery; dieAk; khw;wp nghUj;jg;
gl;bUf;Fk;.
Ram fPo;Nehf;fp efUk; NghJ sheet metaly; ,Ue;J
blank ntl;lg;gLfpwJ. Blank MdJ punch %yk; die openingy;
js;sg;gl;L Njitahd tbtk; Vw;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ. NkYk;
knockout kw;Wk; stripper spring MdJ compress MfpwJ. Ram
Nky; Nehf;fp efUk; NghJ stripper spring tphptile;J punchI
tpl;L blankI js;SfpwJ. gpd;G knockout spring tphptile;J
blank my;yJ productI ntspNa js;SfpwJ.

,jpy; die holdery; nghUj;jg;gl;Ls;s punch epiyahf

,Uf;Fk;. Punch holdery; nghUj;jg;gl;Ls;s die MdJ ram
cld; NkYk; fPOk; efUk;.
Advantages
1) nky;ypa sheet metaly; operation nra;Ak; NghJk; tisahJ.
2) fdkhd blankI cw;gj;jp nra;ayhk;.
Disadvantages
1) Died; tpiy mjpfk;.
2) Died; tbtikg;G rpf;fyhdJ.

3.13 Press working operations

3.13.1 Bending operations
MetalI plastic epiyia milar; nra;J Njitahd
Nfhzj;jpwF tisg;gJ bending vdg;gLk; ,J pressy;
eilngWk; non-cutting operation MFk;. Die kw;Wk; punch
my;yJ roll %yk; ductile materialfis bending nra;ayhk;.
Bending nra;j gpd;Gk; metald; gug;gsT khwhJ.

1) Angle bending
Fiwe;j angley; sheet metalI tisg;gJ angle bending
vdg;gLk;. Njitahd angley; tbtikf;fg;gl;l punch kw;Wk;
dief;F ,ilapy; sheet metal itf;fg;gLfpwJ.

3.29
 Punch
Pressure pad Punch
Sheet metal
Die

Fig.3.30 Angle bending

Punch fPo;Nehf;fp efh;e;J sheet metalI mOj;Jk;NghJ

die kw;Wk; punchy; cs;s anglef;F Vw;g sheet metal
tisfpwJ. Bending nra;j gpwF Fiwe;j msT spring back
Vw;gLk;. ,ij rhp nra;a diey; Njitahd allowance
nfhLf;f Ntz;Lk;.

2) Channel bending
Punch

Sheet metal
Die

Fig.3.31 Channel bending

xU sheet metalI channel tbtpy; tisg;gJ channel

bending MFk;. tisf;fg;gl Ntz;ba channeld; tbtk;
kw;Wk; msTfSf;F Vw;g die kw;Wk; punch tbtikf;fg;
gLfpwJ. Punch kw;Wk; dief;F ,ilapy; sheet metal
itf;fg;gLfpwJ. Punch fPo;Nehf;fp efh;e;J sheet metalI
mOj;Jk;NghJ die kw;Wk; punchy; cs;s tbtj;jpw;F Vw;g
sheet metal tisfpwJ. ,t;thW Njitahd tbtk; kw;Wk
msTs;s channel cUthf;fg; gLfpwJ.

3.30
3) Curling
Sheet metald; tpspk;ig tl;l tbtpy; tisg;gJ curling
vdg;gLk;. ,jdhy; $h;ikahd tpsk;G jtph;f;fg; gLfpwJ.
NkYk; tpspk;gpw;F typik fpilf;fpwJ. Upper die (punch) kw;Wk;
lower dief;F ,ilapy; sheet metal itf;fg;gLfpwJ.
Upper die

Sheet metal

Lower die
Fig.3.32 Curling
,jpy; lower die epiyahf cs;sJ. Upper die MdJ
sheet metald; Xuq;fis tisg;gjw;F Vw;g tbtikf;fg;
gl;bUf;Fk;. ,J fPo;Nehf;fp tUk; NghJ workpieced;
tpspk;Gfs; tisf;fg;gl;L typikahf;fg;gLfpwJ. ,t;thW
sheet metal nghUs;fspd; tpspk;Gfs; curling nra;ag;gLfpd;wd.

4) Drawing
Punch Pressure pad
Sheet metal

Die

Final product

Fig.3.33 Drawing
xU sheet metalI cup Nghd;w hollow tbt nghUl;fshf
tisg;gjw;F drawing vd;W ngah;. Cupd; Mok; mjd; ghjp
msT diameterf;F Fiwthf ,Ue;jhy;> ,e;j Kiw “shallow
drawing” vdg;gLk;. Cupd; Mok; mjd; diameterI tpl
mjpfkhf ,Ue;jhy;> ,k;Kiw “deep drawin” vdg;gLk;.
3.31
 jahhpf;fg;gl Ntz;ba nghUspd; ntspg;Gw
tbtpyhd gs;sk; diey; Vw;gLj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;. Sheet metal
MdJ died; kPJ itf;fg;gLfpwJ. Sheet metal tise;J
tplhkYk; RUq;fp tplhkYk; ,Ug;gjw;fhf mjd; kPJ
pressure pad nghUj;jg;gLk;.

Punch fPo;Nehf;fp efUk;NghJ> mJ sheet metalI die

cavityf;Fs; ,Of;fpwJ. Sheetd; kPJ nrYj;jg;gLk;
,Otpirapd; fhuzkhf> mJ nefpo;tile;J cup tbt
ghfkhf cUkhw;wk; milfpwJ. Pressure padd; fPo;g;gFjpapy;
clamp nra;ag;gl;bUf;Fk; sheet metal MdJ xU flange Nghd;W
cUthfp ,Uf;Fk;. Njitaw;w ,e;j gFjp trimming nra;J
ePf;fg;gLk;.

Automotive bodies, fuel tanks, cans, cups, bottle caps, kitchen

sinks, pots, pans Nghd;wit drawing nray;Kiwapy;
cUthf;fg;gLk; ghfq;fSf;fhd rpy cjhuzq;fs; MFk;.

5) Seaming

Lock seam Compound seam

Fig.3.34 Seaming

Sheet metald; tpspk;Gfis xd;W Nrh;j;J ,izg;gJ

(interlock) seaming vdg;gLk;. Sheet metal MdJ glj;jpy;
fhl;bagb kbf;fg;gLfpwJ. kbf;fg;gl;l ,uz;L tpspk;G
fisAk; xd;W Nrh;j;J rollfspy; mOj;Jk; NghJ interlock
Mfp seam joint fpilf;fpwJ. ,jpy; lock seam kw;Wk; compound
seam vd ,uz;L tif seam jointfs; cs;sd. Light
JointfSf;F lock seam gad;gLfpwJ. Strong kw;Wk; tight
jointfSf;F compound seam gad;gLfpwJ.

Drums, cans, tins, boxes Nghd;wtw;wpy; seam joint

nra;ag; gLfpwJ.

3.32
3.13.2 Shearing operations
Clearance to die

Punch
Sheet metal
Shear fracture

Slug
Die land

Die block
Die relief
Fig.3.35 Shearing
Punch kw;Wk; diey; sheet metalI ntl;LtJ shearing
vdg;gLk;. Sheet mtalI die kw;Wk; punchf;F ,ilapy; itf;f
Ntz;Lk;. Punch fPo;Nehf;fp tUk;NghJ metal MdJ die
openingy; mOj;jg;gLfpwJ. Die kw;Wk; punchf;F ,ilapy;
Njitahd clearance ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
mOj;Jk;NghJ punch kw;Wk; died; cutting edgef;F
,ilapy; cs;s rpwpa gug;gpy; mjpf stress cUthfpwJ. ,jdhy;
metaly; plastic deformation Vw;gLfpwJ. Stress MdJ metald; ultimate
strengthI tpl mjpfkhFk; NghJ fracture Muk;gpf;fpwJ. Punch
NkYk; fPo;Nehf;fp efUk; NghJ punchf;F fPNo cs;s metal
KOtJk; ntl;lg;gl;L die opening topNa fPNo tpOk;.
1) Blanking
Die kw;Wk; punchf;F ,ilapy; sheet metalI
Njitahd tbtj;jpw;F ntl;b vLg;gJ blanking vdg;gLk;.
Die openingy; fPNo tpOk; metal Njitahd gFjp
(blank)MFk;. Diey; tplg;gl;l sheet metald; gFjp scrap MFk;.
Njitahd blankd; msTf;F Vw;g died; msT ,Uf;Fk;.
Punchy; clearance nfhLf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,jdhy dieI tpl
punch rpwpajhf ,Uf;Fk;.

3.33
 Products
Scrap
(Blanks)

Fig.3.36 Blanking

2) Punching or piercing

Punch

Sheet metal

Die Scrap

Work Feed

Fig.3.37 Punching

Punch kw;Wk; died; %yk; sheet metaly; Jisia

ntl;LtJ punching vdg;gLk;. Njithd Jisapd; msTf;F
Vw;g punchd; msT ,Uf;Fk;. Diey; clearance nfhLf;f
Ntz;Lk;. Punch kw;Wk; dief;F ,ilapy; sheet metalI itj;J
punchI fPo;Nehf;fp mOj;Jk; NghJ Jis ntl;lg;gLfpwJ.
Die openingy; fPNo tpOk; metal MdJ scrap MFk;. Punch
cld; sheet metal xl;bf; nfhz;L nry;yhky; ,Uf;f> stripper
plate nghUj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;. Njitahd ePsj;jpw;F metalI
efh;j;j stopper gad;gLfpwJ.
3.34
3) Cutting off
Sheet metalI Njitahd ePsj;jpw;F ntl;bg; gphpg;gJ
cutting off vdg;gLk;. Machine framey; lower bladek; ramy; upper
bladek; nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;. Bladed; cutting edgefSf;F
,ilapy; clearance nfhLf;f Ntz;Lk;.

Upper blade

Sheet metal

Lower blade

Fig.3.38 Cutting off

,J work pieced; jbkDf;F Vw;g khWgLk;. Work
pieceI bladefSf;F ,ilapy; itf;f Ntz;Lk;. Upper blade
fPo;Nehf;fp efUk;NghJ sheet metal ntl;b gphpf;fg; gLfpwJ.
NkYk; scrap Vw;gLtjpy;iy.
4) Trimming

Punch

Work piece
Flash
Die (Extra metal)

Fig.3.39 Trimming
3.35
 Workpiecey; ePl;bf; nfhz;bUf;Fk; Njitapy;yhj
Kidfis ntl;b finishing nra;tNj trimming vdg;gLk;. Diey;
work pieceI itf;f Ntz;Lk;. Punch fPo;Nehf;fp efUk; NghJ
workpieced; Njitaw;w Kidfis ntl;b ePf;FfpwJ. Drawing
operationd; NghJ pressure pad mOj;jpg; gpbf;Fk; Kidfspy;
impressions Vw;gLfpwJ. ,e;j gFjp trimming nra;ag;gLfpwJ.

5) Notching

Notches

Fig.3.40 Notching
Sheet metald; Xuq;fis rpwpa mstpy; Njitahd
tbtj;jpw;F ntl;LtJ notching vdg;gLk;. ntl;lg;gLk; notchd;
tbtj;jpw;F Vw;g die kw;Wk; punch gad;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ.

6) Slitting
Cut length wise

Fig.3.41 Slitting
Sheet metalI Njitahd ePsj;jpw;F Neh;f; Nfhl;by;
ntl;LtJ slitting vdg;gLk;. ,J sheet metald; ePsthf;fpy;
nra;ag;gLfpwJ. Sheet metal MdJ slitting die kw;Wk; punchf;F
,ilapy; itf;fg;gl;L Njitahd ePsj;jpw;F ntl;lg;gLfpwJ.

3.36
7) Lancing

Punch
Sheet metal

Fig.3.42 Lancing
Sheet mtalI Fiwe;j ePsj;jpw;F ntl;b tisg;gJ lancing
vdg;gLk;. Punch kw;Wk; dief;F ,ilapy; sheet metal itf;fg;
gLfpwJ. Punch efUk; NghJ ,jpy; cs;s blade MdJ sheet
metaly; Njitahd tbtj;ij ntl;LfpwJ. Punch NkYk;
fPo;Nehf;fp efUk; NghJ ntl;ba gFjp tisf;fg;gLfpwJ.
8) Shaving

Punch

Die

Component

Fig.3.43 Shaving
Sheet metal operationy; nra;ag;gl;l nghUspy; cs;s
gprpW kw;Wk; xOq;fw;w Kidfis ePf;fp finishing nra;tJ
shaving vdg;gLk;. Die kw;Wk; punchf;F ,ilapy; nghUis
3.37
itf;f Ntz;Lk;. Punch fPo;Nehf;fp efUk; NghJ nghUspy;
cs;s gprpW kw;Wk; xOq;fw;w Kidfs; ntl;lg;gl;L finishing
nra;ag;gLfpwJ.

3.14 POWDER METALLURGY

nghJthf nghUl;fs; machining, casting, hot working
kw;Wk; cold working %yk; Njitahd size kw;Wk; shapef;F
cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpwJ. ,k;Kiwfspy; metal kw;Wk; non-
metalI Nrh;j;J Njitahd gz;Gfis cila nghUl;fis
rpy rkaq;fspy; cw;gj;jp nra;a KbahJ. rpy metalfis
Njitahd tbtj;jpw;F machining nra;a ,ayhJ. xU rpy
metalfis xd;NwhL xd;W Nrh;j;J alloyMf khw;w KbahJ.
rpy metalfspd; cUF epiy (melting point) kpf mjpfkhf
,Ug;gjhy; vspjpy; cUf;fp casting nra;a KbahJ.
Nkw;fz;l Fiwfs; poweder metallurgy vd;w rpwg;G
nray;Kiw %yk; ePf;fg;gLfpwJ. Kjypy; metal kw;Wk; non-
metal powderfs; jahhpf;fg;gl;L Njitahd tpfpjj;jpy;
xd;NwhL xd;W Nrh;j;J fyf;fg;gLfpwJ. Mixed powderI diey;
mOj;jp Njitahd tbtk; ngwg;gLfpwJ. gpd;dh; mit
sintering (ntg;gg;gLj;Jjy;) %yk; fbdkhf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
,t;thW metal kw;Wk; non-metalI Njitahd tpfpjj;jpy;
fye;J Njitahd tbtk; kw;Wk; gz;Gfis cila
nghUl;fis cw;gj;jp nra;ayhk;.
Metal kw;Wk; non-metal powderfis jahhpj;J>
mtw;wpypUe;J Njitahd gz;Gfs; kw;Wk; tbtk; cila
nghUl;fis cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; Kiw powder metallurgy vdg;gLk;.

3.15 Manufacturing procedure

fPo;f;fz;l procedurey; powder metal nghUl;;fs;
cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
1) Manufacturing of metal powder
2) Blending or mixing
3) Pressing or compacting
4) Sintering
5) Finishing and sizing

3.38
3.15.1 Manufacture of metal powder
fPo;f;fz;l Kiwfspy; gy;NtW metalfspd; powder
jahhpf;fg; gLfpwJ.
1) Atomization 2) Electrolytic deposition
3) Chemical reduction 4) Machining
5) Shotting 6) Milling
7) Grinding
1) Atomization
Ladle

Molten metal

Heating coil

Atomizing
chamber
Orifice
Air
Metal powder

Fig. 3.44 Atomization

,k;Kiwapy>; cUf;fpa metalI atomizing chambery;
Cw;Wk; NghJ orifice topNa ntsptUfpwJ. Chambery; cs;s
cUf;fpa metald; ntg;gepiyia mNj mstpy; itj;jpUf;f
heating coilfs; gad;gLfpd;wd.

Nozzle topahf mjpf mOj;jj;Jld; ePh;> fhw;W my;yJ

inert gas MdJ chambery; ,Ue;J ntsptUk; molten metal
kPJ nrYj;jg; gLfpwJ. ,jdhy; molten metal Ez;zpa rpW
Jfs;fshf (powder) gphpf;fg;gl;L Fsph;tpf;fg;gLfpwJ. Metal
powder fPNo tpOk; NghJ Nrfhpf;fg; gLfpwJ. ,e;j
Kiwapy; Fiwe;j cUF epiy nfhz;l metalfspd;
(mYkpdpak;> <ak;> Jj;jehfk;) powder jahhpf;fyhk;.

3.39
 Jfspd; msthdJ fPo;f;fz;ltw;iw nghUj;J
khWgLk;.
1) cUfpa metald; ntg;gepiy
2) fhw;W my;yJ ePhpd; mOj;jk; kw;Wk; ntg;gepiy
3) Orifice kw;Wk; nozzled; tbtikg;G
Advantages
1) Njitahd ve;j mstpYk; Jfs;fis cUthf;fyhk;
2) Jfs;fspd; msT xNu rPuhf ,Uf;Fk;
3) Production rate mjpfk;.

2) Electrolytic deposition
+ ve - ve
Anode Cathode

Metal plate

Metal deposit
Electrolyte

Fig.3.45 Electrolytic deposition

,J electro plating processI Nghd;wJ. Powder nra;a
Ntz;ba metalI anode (+ve) MfTk; powder metal gba
Ntz;ba kw;nwhU metalI cathode(-ve) MfTk; electrolytey;
%o;f itf;f Ntz;Lk;. D.C. Supply nfhLj;jTld; anodey;
,Ue;J cathodey; powder metal MdJ sponge Nghy; gbAk;.
gpd;dh; powder metalI cathodey; ,Ue;J gphpj;J vLf;fyhk;.
,e;j processd; NghJ rhpahd electrolyte gad;gLj;j
Ntz;Lk;. Electrolyte vd;gJ powder nra;a Ntz;ba metald;
cg;Gf; fiury; MFk;. Copper powder jahhpf;f copper sulphate
fiury; electrolyte Mf gad;gLfpwJ. ,jpy; copper plate MdJ
anode MfTk; aluminium plate MdJ cathode MfTk; ,Uf;Fk;.
,e;j Kiwapy; nrk;G> ,Uk;G> nts;sp> Jj;jehfk;
Nghd;w metalfspd; powder jahhpf;fyhk;.
3.40
Advantages
1) J}a;ikahd powder fpilf;Fk;.
2) Powder rpwe;j moulding property cld; ,Uf;Fk;

Disadvantages
1) Process kpf nkJthf eilngWk;.
2) Operating cost mjpfk;

3) Chemical reduction or Reduction of oxides

Waste
outlet
H2 inlet

Metal Metal powder

oxide

Fig.3.46 Chemical reduction

Metal oxidey; ,Ue;J reduction Kiwapy; metal powder

jahhpf;fg; gLfpwJ. cjhuzkhf tungsten powder jahhpf;f>
Kjypy; tungsten oxide powder jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ. ,e;j powder
i`l;u[d; R+o;epiyapy; cUF epiyf;F Fiwthf
ntg;gg;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ. Tungsten oxide i`l;u[dhy;
tungsten Mf xLf;fg;gl;L (reduction) sponge Nghd;w tungsten
powder fpilf;fpwJ.
,e;j Kiwapy; tungsten, molybdenum Nghd;w mjpf
cUF epiy nfhz;l metalfspd; powder jahhpf;fyhk;.
nghJthf ,k;Kiwapy; i`l;u[d;> fhh;gd; Nkhdhf;irL
Nghd;wit reducing agentfshf gad;gLfpd;wd.
Advantages
1) Metal powder MdJ soft Mf ,Uf;Fk;.
2) Compacting vspjhf nra;ayhk;
3) Production rate mjpfk;.
Disadvantages
1) vspjpy; xLf;fg;gLk; oxidefSf;F kl;Lk; Vw;wJ.
2) Oxidefs; J}a;ikahf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
3.41
 3.15.2 Blending or mixing
Njitahd gz;Gfis ngWtjw;F rhpahd tpfpjj;jpy;
metal kw;Wk; non-metal powderfis fyg;gJ mixing my;yJ
blending vdg;gLk;. Machine %yk; mixing eilngWk; NghJ
Jfs;fs; ed;F rPuhf fyf;Fk;. Mixing Fwpg;gpl;l fhy
,ilntspapy; nra;a Ntz;Lk;. Graphite powder Nghd;w
lubricant Nrh;f;fg;gLtjhy; pressing nra;Ak; NghJ die kw;Wk;
componentd; cuha;T FiwfpwJ.

3.15.3 Compacting or pressing

Mixing nra;j metal powderI diey; Njitahd msT
kw;Wk; tbtj;jpw;F mOj;JtJ compacting my;yJ pressing
vdg;gLk;. ,J briquetting vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLk;.
Pressing nra;tjhy;
i) ifahSk; NghJ cilahky; cWjpahf ,Uf;fpwJ.
ii) Njitahd msT density fpilf;fpwJ.
iii) Jfs;fSf;F ey;y gpizg;G fpilf;fpwJ.

Peressingy; fPo;f;fz;l ,uz;L tiffs; cs;sJ.

1) Cold pressing 2) Hot pressing

1) Cold pressing

Upper punch

Metal powder
Compact

Die

Lower punch
Fig.3.47 Cold pressing

3.42
 Cold pressing nra;tjw;F mechanical my;yJ hydraulic
press gad;gLfpwJ. ,e;j Kiwapy; mixed powder MdJ die
cavityy; epug;gg;gl;L upper kw;Wk; lower punchf;F ,ilNa
mOj;jg;gLfpwJ. ,jdhy; Njitahd tbtk; fpilf;fpwJ.
,Wf;fg;l;l metalI diey; ,Ue;J lower punch MdJ ntspNa
js;SfpwJ. Cold pressingy; fpilf;Fk; nghUSf;F “green
compact” vd;W ngah;.
2) Hot pressing
To vaccuum pump Upper punch

Heating coil Compact

Die
Lower punch

Fig.3.48 Hot pressing

Cold pressing nra;a ,ayhj diamond, tungsten carbide
Nghd;w fbdkhd metal powderfis hot pressingy; mOj;jp
component nra;a KbAk;. Mixed powderI die cavityy; epug;g
Ntz;Lk;. Die MdJ steel my;yJ graphiteMy;
nra;ag;gl;bUf;Fk;. ntg;gepiy 1000OCf;F fPo; ,Ue;jhy; steel
dieAk;> 1000OCf;F Nky; ,Ue;jhy; graphite dieAk; gad;gLj;j
Ntz;Lk;. DieI Rw;wpAs;s coilfs; %yk; metal powder MdJ
recrystalisation ntg;g epiyf;F Nky; ntg;gg;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ.
mNj rkak; upper kw;Wk; lower punch MdJ powderI
mOj;jp hot pressing nra;fpwJ. Vacuum my;yJ inert gas
#oypy; hot pressing eilngWtjhy; cah; ntg;gepiyapy;
oxidation Vw;gLtJ jtph;f;fg; gLfpwJ. Hot pressingy; heating
(sintering) kw;Wk; pressing xNu Neuj;jpy; eilngWk;.
3.43
Advantages
1) mjpf strength kw;Wk; hardness cila nghUl;;fs;
fpilf;Fk;.
2) Fiwe;j compacting pressure NghJkhdJ.
3) Lubricants Njitapy;iy.
4) mjpf density cila nghUl;fs; fpilf;Fk;.
5) Heating kw;Wk; pressing xNu Neuj;jpy; eilngWtjhy;
production rate mjpfkhfpwJ.
Disadvantages
1) Died; tpiy mjpfk;.
2) Nja;khdk; mjpfkhf ,Ug;gjhy; die d; Mal;fhyk;
FiwT.

3.15.4 Sintering
fhw;iw fl;Lg;gLj;jpa R+o;epiyapy; green compactI
mjd; basic metald; cUF epiyf;F rw;W Fiwthf
ntg;gg;gLj;JtJ sintering vdg;gLk;. Sintering MdJ
temperature, time kw;Wk; atmosphere Mfpatw;wpw;F Vw;g
,Uf;Fk;. Sintering eilngWk;NghJ green compacty; cs;s
Jfs;fs; xd;NwhL xd;W ed;F gpizf;fg; gLfpwJ. ,jdhy;
NghJkhd strength, hardness kw;Wk; gz;Gfs; fpilf;fpd;wd.
Vacuum my;yJ inert gas #oypy; sintering eilngWk;.
Thermo couple

Green Gas pipe

Heating zone Soaking zone Cooling zone
compact

Loading Unoading

Heating elements Wire mesh belt

Fig.3.49 Sintering furnace

3.44
 Sintering temperature, time Mfpait ntt;NtW metal
powderfs; kw;Wk; gz;GfSf;F Vw;g khWgLk;. NghJkhd
Neuk; ntg;gg;gLj;Jk; NghJ cNyhfj; Jfs;fs; ed;whf
gpize;J mjpf tensile strength fpilf;Fk; Sintering
nra;tjhy; nghUspd; mstpYk; khw;wk; Vw;gLfpwJ.
nghJthf iron kw;Wk; brass fye;Js;s green compactI
sintering nra;Ak; NghJ size FiwfpwJ. Bronze fye;Js;s
green compactd; size mjpfhpf;fpwJ.

Sintering furnaceMdJ heating zone, soaking zone kw;Wk;

cooling zone vd %d;W gFjpfshfg; gphpf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;.
xt;nthU zoned; ntg;gepiyia fl;Lg; gLj;j thermo couple
cs;sJ. Furnacey; cs;s heating coilfs; %yk;
ntg;gg;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ. Hydrogen thAit furnacef;Fs;
nrYj;jp control atmosphere Vw;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. Wire mesh
My; nra;ag;l;l belt conveyor kPJ trays cs;sJ ,e;j traysy;
green compact itf;fg;gl;L furnacef;Fs; nrYj;jg;gLfpwJ.
Kjypy; green compact MdJ heating zoney; kpjkhf
ntg;gg; gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. Soaking zoney; sintering
temperaturef;F compact ntg;gg; gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. gpd;dh;
cooling zoney; compact Fsph;tpf;fg; gLk;. Sintering Neuj;jpw;F
Vw;g belt conveyord; Ntfj;ij khw;wyhk;.

3.15.5 Secondary operations or finishing opearations

Sintering Kbe;j gpd;G powder metal nghUs;fis gad;
gLj;jyhk;. NkYk; surface finish kw;Wk; accuracy Njitg;gLk;
NghJ fPo;f;fz;l finishing operationfs; nra;ag;gLfpd;wd.
1) Sizing or coining 2) Infiltration 3) Impregnation
4) Machining 5) Heat treatment 6) Metal coating.
1) Sizing or coining
,k;Kiwapy;> sintering nra;ag;l;l nghUis diey;
itj;J mjpf mOj;jj;jpy; pressing nra;a Ntz;Lk;.
,jdhy; kpff; Fiwe;j msT plastic flow Vw;gl;L nghUSf;F
rhpahd msT kw;Wk; tbtk; fpilf;fpwJ NkYk;
Jfs;fSf;fpilNa cs;s gap Fiwf;fg;gl;L nghUspd;
strength kw;Wk; density mjpfhpf;fpwJ.
3.45
2) Infiltration
Sintering nra;ag;gl;l nghUspy; cs;s Ez;
Jisfis (pores) Fiwe;j cUFepiy nfhz;l NtnwhU
cUfpa metalMy; epug;GtJ infiltration vdg;gLk;. Work pieceI
Rw;wp infiltrant metal MdJ nky;ypa jflhf my;yJ J}shf
epug;gg; gl;L furnacey; itf;fg;gLfpwJ. Infiltrant metalI mjd;
cUF epiyf;F ntg;gg;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;. cUfpa metal
MdJ capillary action %yk; work pieced; Ez; Jisfspy;
cl;GFe;J epug;GfpwJ.
Infiltration nra;tjhy; nghUspd; strength, hardness
kw;Wk; density mjpfhpf;fpwJ. Iron producty; infiltration nra;a
copper gad;gLfpwJ. Tungsten producty; infiltration nra;a
copper kw;Wk; silver gad;gLfpwJ.

3.16 Advantages of powder metallurgy

1) Jy;ypakhd msT> tbtk; kw;Wk; surface finish fpilf;fpwJ.
2) Material wastege ,y;iy.
3) Njitahd density kw;Wk; porosity cs;s product
fpilf;fpwJ.
4) Metalkw;Wk; non-metalfis Nrh;j;J Njitahd
gz;Gfis cila nghUl;fis jahhpf;fyhk;.
5) Production rate mjpfk;.
6) Mass productionf;F Vw;wJ.
7) jpwikahd gzpahsh; mtrpakpy;iy.
8) rpf;fyhd tbt mikg;Gs;s nghUl;fisAk; cw;gj;jp
nra;ayhk;.
9) nghUspd; MAl;fhyk; mjpfk;.
10) mjpf hardness cila nghUl;fis vspjpy; cw;gj;jp
nra;ayhk;.

3.17 Disadvantages / Limitations of powder metallurgy

1) Fiwe;j vz;zpf;ifapy; nghUl;fis jahhpg;gjw;F
rpf;fdkhd Kiw my;y.
2) Equipment kw;Wk; died; tpiy mjpfk;.
3.46
 3) kpfg; nghpa nghUl;fis nra;a ,ayhJ.
4) nghUl;fspd; density rPuhf ,Uf;fhJ.
5) PowderI Nrkpj;J itj;jhy; oxidation eilngw;W powder
tPzhfp tpLk;.
6) cile;j ghfq;fis kPz;Lk; ,izg;gJ fbdk;.
7) rpy metal powderfs; ntbf;Fk; mghak; nfhz;lit.
8) gzpahshpd; cly; eyk; ghjpf;Fk;.
9) nghUl;fSf;F ey;y physical properties fpilf;fhJ.
10) PowderI cw;gj;jp nra;tjw;F mjpf Neuk; MFk;.

3.18 Applications of powder metallurgy

Powder metallurgyy; fPo;f;fz;l nghUl;fs; nra;ag;gLfpd;wd.
1) Self lubricating bearing, filters kw;Wk; oil pump gears.
2) fbdkhd carbide tips kw;wk; wire drawing dies.
3) Elecric bulb, radio valves, x-ray tubefspy; gad;gLk;
tungsten filament wire.
4) Cathode, anode kw;Wk; control grids.
5) Heavy duty electrical contacts.
6) Automobile clutch plate, brake lining kw;Wk; motor brushes.
7) rpwpa gearfs;, cam, lever, piston ring kw;Wk; rpwpa magnets.
8) Rocket kw;Wk; missiley; gad;gLk; nozzle.
9) Welding electrodes
10) Refractories.

3.19 Mechanical properties of parts made by powder metallurgy

1) Strength
Jfs;fs; gpizf;fg; gLtjhy; nghUl;fspy; fibrous
structure ,Uf;fhJ. vdNt tensile strength FiwT.

2) Hardness
nghUspy; Ez; Jisfs; ,Ug;gjhy; fbdj; jd;ik
Fiwthf ,Uf;Fk.; Density xNu rPuhf ,y;yhjjhy;
fbdj;jd;ik xNu rPuhf ,Uf;fhJ.

3.47
3) Ductility
nghUspd; porous jd;ikahy; ductility Fiwthf
,Uf;Fk;. Hot pressing kw;Wk; mjpf sintering nra;Ak; NghJ
ductility mjpfhpf;Fk;.

4) Dampness
Powder metal nghUl;fs; ey;y damping properties
nfhz;L ,Uf;Fk;. ,jdhy; nghUl;fs; mjph;tpid jhq;Fk;
jpwd; ngw;wpUf;Fk;.

3.20 Design rules for powder metallurgy

1) nghUspy; kpf rpwpa Jisfs; (2 mmf;F Fiwthf)
,Uf;ff; $lhJ.
2) Thickness mjpf mstpy; khWtij jtph;f;f Ntz;Lk;.
3) FWfpa kw;Wk; Mokhd gFjpfis jtph;f;f Ntz;Lk;.
4) Pressing nra;Ak; directiony; Jisfs; ,Uf;ff; RlhJ.
5) Diey; ,Ue;J vspjpy; eject nra;Ak;gb nghUspd; tbtk;
,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. Work piecey; $hpa Kidfis
jtph;f;f Ntz;Lk;
6) Threads, knurling, under cut Mfpait compactingy; nra;a
KbahJ.

R e vi e w Qu e s t i o n s

5 marks questions
1) Define hot working and name the hot working operations.
2) State the advantages of hot working.
3) What is rolling? Briefly explain hot rolling.
4) State the different forging operations.
5) Briefly describe roll forging operation. State its applications.
6) How is a power press specified?
7) List out the driving mechanisms used in presses? Explain any
one in detail.
8) What are the advantages of hydraulic press over mechanical press?
9) Write short notes on press tools.
3.48
 10) List out various types of dies used in press.
11) Distinguish between blanking and punching operation.
12) Explain any three shearing operations.
13) What is powder metallurgy? Give a few industrial applications
14) What is the principle involved in manufacture by powder
metallurgy? (Hint: Manufacturing procedure of powder
metallurgy)
15) Explain the uses and advantages of powder metallurgy.
16) Describe the atomization process in the manufacture of metal
powders.
17) Explain electrolytic deposition
18) Explain how powders are compacted?
19) Explain cold and hot compaction of powders.
20) Explain the sintering process.
21) What is meant by infiltration?
22) Name the few components manufactured by powder metallurgy
process.
23) Explain the design rules for the powder metallurgy process.
24) Explain mechanical properties of parts made by powder
metallurgy process.

10 Marks Questions
1) Explain the process of press forging. State its advantages.
2) Explain the following forging operations:
a) Upset forging c) Roll forging
b) Drop forging d) Swaging.
3) Write short notes on the following smith forging operations:
a) Upsetting c) Punching
b) Bending d) Setting down.
4) How are presses classified? Sketch and explain the working of
ball press.
5) What are the types of frames used in presses? Explain any two
of them with sketches.
6) Explain the working of a mechanical press with any one driving
mechanism.
7) Explain the hydraulic press with sketch.
3.49
8) Briefly explain the following accessories in a die set.
a) Stripper b) Pressure pad c) Knock out d) Pilot e) Stop
9) What is compound die? Explain its working with a neat sketch
10) Explain a combination die set with a sketch.
11) Sketch and explain a simple progressive die set.
12) Explain an inverted die with neat sketch.
13) Explain the following operations with sketches.
a) Blanking b) Trimming c) Cutting off
14) Explain the following operations with sketches.
a) Punching b) Lancing c) Drawing
15) Explain the following bending operations:
a) Angle bending b) Seaming c) Curling.
16) State the various methods of manufacturing metal powders and
explain any one method in detail.
17) Explain the step by step procedure to manufacture parts by
powder metallurgy process.
18) Explain the method of manufacturing metal powder by reduction
of oxides.
19) Describe the process of compacting and sintering of metal
powders.
20) Explain briefly the working of sintering furnace with neat sketch.



3.50
 Unit – IV
THEORY OF METAL CUTTING,
CENTRE LATHE & SEMI – AUTOMATIC LATHE
4.1 Metal cutting
xU nghUis tbtikf;f gad;gLk; cw;gj;jp
Kiwfs; fPo;f;fz;l ,uz;L gphpTfshf gphpf;fg;gLfpd;wd.
1) Non-cutting shaping process
2) Cutting shaping process
Non-cutting shaping processy; heat, pressure my;yJ ,it
,uz;bd; tpisthf Njitahd tbtk; workpiecey; Vw;gLj;jg;
gLfpwJ. ,e;j Kiwapy; chips cUthtJ ,y;iy. Forging,
drawing, spinning, rolling, extrusion Mfpait ,jpy; mlq;Fk;.

Cutting shaping processy; cutting tool MdJ workpicey;

,Ue;J materialI chipfshf ePf;fp Njitahd tbtj;ij
Vw;gLj;JfpwJ. Turning, boring, milling, drilling, shaping, broaching
Mfpait ,jpy; mlq;Fk;. Metal cutting MdJ single point
cutting tool my;yJ multi point cutting toolMy; nra;ag;gLfpwJ.

4.2 Orthogonal and oblique cutting

Workpiece Workpiece

Feed Feed Tool

Tool
(a) Orthogonal cutting (b) Oblique cutting

Fig.4.1 Orthogonal and oblique cutting

Orthogonal cutting Kiwapy;> toold; cutting edge MdJ

tool feed my;yJ work feef;F nrq;Fj;jhf ,Uf;Fk;. Cutting
edgey; nray;gLk; tpiria> xd;Wf;nfhd;W nrq;Fj;jhd
,uz;L mr;Rfspd; %yk; Fwpg;gplyhk;. vdNt ,J two
dimensional cutting vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;.
4.1
 Oblique cutting Kiwapy;> toold; cutting edge MdJ tool
feed my;yJ work feef;F Fwpg;gpl;l Nfhzj;jpy; rha;thf
,Uf;Fk;. Cutting edgey; nray;gLk; tpiria> xd;Wf;nfhd;W
nrq;Fj;jhd %d;W mr;Rfspd; %yk; Fwpg;gplyhk;. vdNt
,J three dimensional cutting vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;.

Orthogonal kw;Wk; oblique cuttingf;F ,ilNaahd

tpj;jpahrk; fPNo ml;ltizg; gLj;jg; gl;Ls;sJ.

Orthogonal cutting Oblique Cutting

1) Toold; efh;Tf;F nrq;Fj; Toold; efh;Tf;F Fwpg;gpl;l

jhf cutting edge ,Uf;Fk;. Nfhzj;jpy; rha;thf cutting
edge ,Uf;Fk;.
2) Toold; cutting edgef;F nrq; Toold; cutting
edgef;F
Fj;jhf chip ntspNaWk; Fwpgg Nfhzj;jpy; chip
; pl;l
jpir mikAk;. ntspNaWk; jpir mikAk;.
3) Toold; kPJ chip gha;e;J Toold; gf;fthl;by; chip
nry;Yk;. gha;e;J nry;Yk;.
4) Cutting edgey; cutting force Cutting edgey; cutting force,
kw;Wk; thrust force Mfpait radial force kw;Wk; thrust force
nray;gLk;. Mfpait nray;gLk;.
5) Cutting widthI tpl cutting Cutting widthI tpl cutting edge
edge nghpjhf ,Uf;Fk;. nghpjhfNth my;yJ
rpwpjhfNth ,Uf;fyhk;.
6) Cutting eilngWk; ,lj;jpy; Cutting eilngWk;
,lj;jpy;
mjpf ntg;gk; cUthFk;. Fiwthd ntg;gk; cUthFk;.
7) Tool life FiwT. Tool life mjpfk;.
8) Workpieced; surface finish Workpieced; surface finish
FiwT. ed;whf ,Uf;Fk;.
9) cjhuzk; : Grooving, cjhuzk; : Drilling, grinding,
parting, slotting, pipe cutting, milling, turning in lathe
Nghd;wit. Nghd;wit.

4.2
4.3 Lathe tools
Single point cutting tooly; xNu xU cutting edge kl;Lk;
,Uf;Fk;. Toold; shank gFjp tool posty; nghUj;Jtjw;Nfw;g
,Uf;Fk;. Single point toolI gad;gLj;jp cylindrical kw;Wk; flat
workpieceI machining nra;ayhk;.

Lathey; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; rpy Kf;fpa toolfs;

fPo;f;fz;l glj;jpy; fhl;lg; gl;Ls;sd.

Right hand Form tools Round nose Right hand

turning tool turning tool facing tool

Right hand Necking or External

chamfering tool parting tool threading tool Knurling tool

Fig.4.2 Lathe tools

4.3.1 Nomenclature of single point cutting tool

Nomenclature vd;gJ cutting toold; gy;NtW ghfq;fs;
kw;Wk; Nfhzq;fis Fwpg;gJ MFk;.
Single point cutting toold; Kf;fpa ghfq;fs; gpd;tUkhW:
1) Shank: ,J grinding nra;ag;glhky; ,Uf;Fk; toold; body
MFk;.
2) Face: ,J shankf;F Kd;dhy; cs;s rhpthd gFjp MFk;.
,jd; Nky; chips MdJ eOtpr; nry;Yk;.
3) Flank: ,J workpiecef;F vjpNu cs;s toold; surface MFk;.
,jpy; end flank kw;Wk; side flank cs;sJ.
4) Base: ,J shank gFjpapd; bottom surface MFk;.
5) Cutting edge: Face kw;Wk; flank re;jpf;Fk; Kid cutting edge
vdg;gLk;. ,jpy; end cutting edge kw;Wk; side cutting edge cs;sJ.
4.3
 6) Nose: Side cutting edge kw;Wk; end cutting egefs; re;jpf;Fk;
Kid nose vdg;gLk;.
Top rake angle
Face
Side rake angle

Side flank
Lip angle Shank

Front clearance angle End clearance angle

End cutting
edge angle Nose angle

Face
Nose
Shank
Side cutting
edge angle

Side rake angle

Shank

End cutting Top rake

edge angle angle

Side clearance angle

Cutting edge
End clearance angle

Fig.4.3 Nomenclature of a single point tool

4.4
Single point toold; Kf;fpa Nfhzq;fs; gpd;tUkhE:
1) Top rake angle
,J cutting edgey; ,Ue;J shankI Nehf;fp facey;
cs;s rhpthd Nfhzk; MFk;. Cutting edgey; ,Ue;J shank
gf;fk; fPo;Nehf;fp slope ,Ue;jhy; positive rake vdTk;> Nky;
Nehf;fp slope ,Ue;jhy; negative rake vdTk;> slope
,y;iynadpy; zero rake vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;.
2) Side rake angle
,J cutting edgey; ,Ue;J faced; gf;fthl;by; (width)
cs;s rhpthd Nfhzk; MFk;. Rake angle %yk; chipMdJ
vspjpy; js;sg;gLfpwJ.
3) Clearance angle or relief angle
,J cutting edgey; ,Ue;J fPo;Nehf;fp cs;s rhpthd
Nfhzk; MFk;. ,J workpiece MdJ tooly; cuha;tijj;
jLf;fpwJ.
Side clearance angle : Toold; gf;fthl;by; fPo;Nehf;fp
cs;s rhpthd Nfhzk; MFk;.
End clearance angle : Toold; Kd;gf;fk; fPo;Nehf;fp
cs;s rhpthd Nfhzk; MFk;.
4) Cutting edge angle
,jpy; side cutting edge angle kw;Wk; end cutting edge angle
cs;sd.
Side cutting edge angle: ,J side cutting edge MdJ
tool axis cld; Vw;gLj;Jk; Nfhzk; MFk;.
End cutting edge angle : ,J end cutting edge MdJ
tool width cld; Vw;gLj;Jk; Nfhzk; MFk;.

5) Lip angle or cutting angle

,J face kw;Wk; end surfacef;F ,ilg;gl;l Nfhzk;
MFk;. Toold; strength ,e;j Nfhzj;ijg; nghWj;Nj mikAk;.
6) Nose angle
,J side cutting edge kw;Wk; end cutting edgef;F
,ilg;gl;l Nfhzk; MFk;.

4.5
4.4 Types of Chips
WorkpieceI Njitahd tbtj;jpw;F toolIg;
gad;gLj;jp cutting nra;Ak; NghJ metal MdJ chipfshf
ntspNaWfpwJ. ,e;j chips %d;W tifg;gLk;.
1) Continuous chips
,J machining nra;Ak; NghJ njhlh;r;rpahf tUk;
ePskhd hpg;gd; Nghd;w chip MFk;. Ductile materialI> mjpf
cutting speed kw;Wk; Fiwthd feedy; machining nra;Ak;
NghJ continuous chips cUthFk;.
2) Discontinuous or segmental chips
,J machining nra;Ak; NghJ njhlh;r;rpahf
,y;yhky; rpW Jz;Lfshf ntspNaWk; chips MFk;. Cast
iron, bronze Nghd;w brittle materialfis machining nra;Ak;
NghJ discontinuous chips cUthFk;.

3) Chip with built-up edge

Continuous chips cUthFk; nghJ mjpf mOj;jk;
kw;Wk; mjpf ntg;gepiy fhuzkhf workpieced; rpW
JfshdJ toold; cutting edgey; weld Mfp tpLfpwJ. ,JNt
built up edge MFk;. ,jdhy; cutting action Fiwe;J rough
surface Vw;gLfpwJ.

4.4.1 Chip breakers

Clamp Tip
Groove
Step

(a) Step type (b) Groove type (c) Clamp type

Fig.4.4 Chip breakers

4.6
 Machining nra;Ak; NghJ cz;lhFk; njhlh;r;rpahd
ePskhd chipfis rpW Jz;Lfshf ntl;Ltjw;F
gad;gLtNj chip breaker vdg;gLk;. Continuous chips MdJ
tool, workpiece, machine kw;Wk; operatorI ghjpf;Fk;. NkYk;
,e;j chipfis mfw;WtJ fbdk;. vdNt ,e;j chipfs; rpW
Jz;Lfshf ntl;lg;gl Ntz;Lk;. Automatic kw;Wk; high
speedy; ,aq;Fk; machinefspy; chip breaker mtrpak; MFk;.

fPo;f;fz;l %d;W tif chip breakerfs; cs;sd.

1) Step type
Cutting edgef;F gpd;dhy; cs;s xU stepd; %yk; chips
rpW Jz;Lfshf ntl;lg;gLfpwJ.
2) Groove type
Cutting edgef;F gpd;dhy; tool facey; cs;s xU grooved;
%yk; chips rpy Jz;Lfshf ntl;lg;gLfpwJ.
3) Clamp type
xU nky;ypa chip breaker MdJ tool faced; kPJ clamp
nra;ag;gl;bUf;Fk;. ,jd; %yk; chips rpW Jz;Lfshf
ntl;lg; gLfpwJ.

4.5 Cutting tool materials

Cutting toolfis cUthf;f fPo;f;fz;l materialfs;
gad;gLfpd;wd.
1) Carbon steel 2) Alloy carbon steel
3) High Speed Steel (H.S.S) 4) Stellites
5) Carbides 6) Ceramics
7) Diamond

1) Carbon steel

a) Medium carbon steel

,jpy; 0.2 Kjy; 0.8% tiu carbon fye;jpUf;Fk;. ,J
mjpf strength kw;Wk; medium hardness nfhz;bUf;Fk;. ,ijf;
nfhz;L chisel, hack saw Nghd;wit nra;ag;gLfpd;wd.

4.7
b) High carbon steel
,jpy; 0.8 Kjy; 1.2% tiu carbon fye;jpUf;Fk;. ,jd;
heat resistance FiwthfTk;, wear resistance mjpfkhfTk;
,Uf;Fk;. ,ij vspjhf forging kw;Wk; hardening nra;ayhk;.
Fiwe;j cutting speed nfhz;l toolfis cUthf;f ,J
gad;gLfpwJ. ,jidf; nfhz;L turning tool, drill, taps, files
Nghd;w toolfis nra;ayhk;.

2) Alloy carbon steel

Carbon steel cld; 5% tiu kw;w cNyhfq;fs;
Nrh;j;J alloy carbon steel ngwg;gLfpwJ. Carbon steel cld;
chromium, vanadium, tungsten, molybdenum Nghd;w
cNyhfq;fis Nrh;g;gjhy; tool materiald; gz;Gfs;
Nkk;gLj;jg; gLfpd;wd.

Alloying elements and their effects

1) Nickel : Toughness, hardness kw;Wk; corrosion

resistance mjpfhpf;fpwJ.
2) Chromium : Toughness, hardness kw;Wk; corrosion
resistance mjpfhpf;fpwJ.
3) Tungsten : Hot hardness mjpfhpf;fpwJ
4) Cobalt : Toughness, hardness, thermal resistance kw;Wk;
fhe;j gz;Gfs; Nkk;gLj;jg; gLfpd;wd.
5) Vanadium : Toughness, hardness, wear resistance
mjpfhpf;fpwJ.
6) Molybdenum : Hardness, wear resistance kw;Wk; thermal
resistance mjpfhpf;fpwJ.
7) Manganese : Strength, toughness kw;Wk; hardness
mjpfhpf;fpwJ.

3) High Speed Steel (H.S.S)

,e;j tif steely; 0.8% tiu carbon ,Uf;Fk;. ,jpy;
tungsten, molybdenum, cobalt, chromium kw;Wk; vanadium Mfpa
cNyhfq;fs; fye;jpUf;Fk;. ,e;j tool steel MdJ high
speedYk; ed;whf cutting nra;Ak;. Carbon steelI fhl;bYk; 2

4.8
my;yJ 3 klq;F mjpf cutting speed nfhz;lJ. 900OC
tiuapy; $l ,jd; hardnessI ,of;fhJ. ,ijf; nfhz;L
drills, turning tools, broaches, taps, dies kw;Wk; milling cutter
Nghd;w toolfs; nra;ag;gLfpd;wd. ,jpy; fPo;f;fz;l %d;W
tiffs; cs;sJ.
a) Turigsten high speed steel
b) Molybdenum high speed steel
c) Cobalt high speed steel

a) Tungsten high speed steel

,jpy; 18% tungsten, 4% chromium, 1% vanadium kw;Wk;
0.75% carbon fye;Js;sJ. ,J 18 – 4 – 1 H.S.S vd;Wk;
miof;fg;gLk;. ,J drill bits, milling cutters, lathe, planner kw;Wk;
shaper toolfs; Nghd;wtw;iw nra;a gad;gLfpwJ.

b) Molybdenum high speed steel

,e;j tif steely; 6% molybdenum, 5% tungsten, 4%
chromium kw;Wk; 2% vanadium Mfpait fye;jpUf;Fk;. ,J
mjpf toughness kw;Wk; cutting ability nfhz;lJ.

c) Cobalt high speed steel

,jpy; 12% cobalt, 20% tungsten, 4% chromium kw;Wk; 2%
vanadium Mfpatit fye;jpUf;Fk;. ,J super high speed steel
vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLk;. ,J planner tools, milling cutters kw;Wk;
lathe tools nra;a gad;gLfpwJ.

4) Stellites
,J ,Uk;gpy;yh fyg;G cNyhfk; MFk;. ,jpy; 45%
chromium, 15% tungsten, 2% carbon Mfpait fye;Js;sJ.
,J mjpf brittleMf ,Ug;gjhy; forging nra;a ,ayhJ.
1000OC tiuapYk; ,J hardnessI ,of;fhJ. ,jd; cutting
speed MdJ high speed steelI fhl;bYk; 2 klq;F
mjpfkhFk;. Stellited; rpwpa tipMdJ tool shanky; brazing
nra;ag;gl;bUf;Fk;. Rubber kw;Wk; plastic Nghd;wtw;iw
ntl;Ltjw;F cjTk; toolfs; nra;a stellites gad;gLfpwJ.

4.9
5) Carbides
94% tungsten powder cld; 6% carbon Nrh;j;J 1500OCy;
ntg;gg;gLj;jp tungsten carbide jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ. ,e;j
tungsten carbide powder cld; cobalt fye;J mjpf pressurey;
mOj;jp fl;bfshf cUthf;fg;gLfpwJ. gpwF ,jid
Njitahd tbtj;jpw;F ntl;b grinding nra;J mjpf
ntg;gepiyapy; sintering nra;ag;gLfpwJ. 82% tungsten carbide,
10% titanium carbide kw;Wk; 8% cobalt Mfpatw;wpd; fyit xU
tif carbide tip MFk;.

,e;j carbide tipfs; tool shanky; brazing nra;ag;gLfpwJ.

,J 1000OC tiuapy; ntg;gepiyia jhq;Fk;. ,jd; cutting
speed MdJ H.S.Sd; cutting speedI tpl 6 klq;F mjpfk;
MFk;. ,J mjpf brittleMf ,Ug;gjhy; crack Vw;gLtij
jtph;f;f gykhd support nfhLf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,J cast iron,
bronze kw;Wk; hard steel Nghd;w fbdkhd nghUs;fis
machining nra;a gad;gLfpwJ.

6) Ceramics
,jpy; aluminium oxide fye;Js;sJ. Aluminum oxide
powderI mjpf mOj;jj;Jld; mouldy; epug;gp 2200OCy;
sintering nra;ag; gLfpwJ. Ceramic tipfs; tool shanky; clamp
nra;ag;gLk;. ,J hot hardness, compressive strength kw;Wk;
brittle jd;ik nfhz;lJ. ,J 1200OC tiu ntg;gj;ij
jhq;ff; $baJ. ,jw;F coolant Njitapy;iy. ,jd; cutting
speed MdJ H.S.Sd; cutting speedI tpl 40 klq;F mjpfk;
MFk;. ,J plastic kw;Wk; cast iron Nghd;wtw;iw machining
nra;af;$ba single point toolfis jahhpf;f gad;gLfpwJ.
7) Diamond
,JNt kpf fbdkhd cutting material MFk;. ,jd;
cutting speed MdJ H.S.Sd; cutting speedI tpl 50 klq;F
mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk;. ,J 1250OC tiu ntg;gj;ij jhq;ff;
$baJ. Abrasive wheels, glass, plastics kw;Wk; ceramics Nghd;w
fbdkhd nghUl;fis machining nra;a Kidapy; diamond
nghUj;jg;gl;l toolfs; gad;gLfpd;wd.

4.10
4.5.1 Properties of cutting tool materials
Cutting tool material fPo;f;fz;l gz;Gfis ngw;wpUf;f
Ntz;Lk;.
1) mjpf ntg;gepiyapYk; tool material MdJ work materialI
tpl fbdj; jd;ikAld; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. (Hot hardness)
2) Nja;khd vjph;g;Gj; jpwd; (wear resistance) mjpfkhf
,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
3) Shock kw;Wk; vibrationI jhq;Ftjw;F Vw;g mjpf
toughness cld; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
4) Workpiecef;Fk; toolf;Fk; ,ilNaahd friction Fiwthf
,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
5) Tool materiald; tpiy Fiwthf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.

4.6 Tool life and tool wears

Face wear Edge before wear

Face wear
Nose wear

Flank wear

Fig.4.5 Tool wear

Tool life vd;gJ njhlh;e;J ,uz;L Kiw tool MdJ

grinding nra;ag;gl;l ,ilg;nghOjpy; cgNahfpf;Fk; Neuk;
MFk;. ve;j toolk; njhlh;e;J ePz;l Neuj;jpw;F effectiveMf
cutting nra;ahJ. xU Fwpg;gpl;l Neuj;jpw;F gpwF fPo;f;fz;l
fhuzq;fshy; gbg;gbahf tool MdJ failure MfpwJ.
1) Face wear or crater wear
Tool faced; kPJ slide Mfpr; nry;Yk; chipfspd; pressure
%yk; tool face gbg;gbahf Nja;khdk; milfpwJ.

2) Flank wear or edge wear

Tool kw;Wk; workpiecef;F ,ilNaahd friction kw;Wk;
abrasion fhuzkhf cutting edgef;F fPNo cs;s flank
Nja;khdk; milfpwJ. ,jdhy; toold; clearance Fiwe;J
workpiecey; poor surface fpilf;fpwJ.

4.11
3) Nose wear
Tool nose MdJ roughMf ,Uf;Fk; NghJ tool kw;Wk;
workpiecef;F ,ilNaAs;s friction mjpfkhfpwJ. ,jdhy;
Vw;gLk; mjpf ntg;gj;jpd; tpisthf tool nose Nja;khdk;
milfpwJ.
4) Loss of hardness
Metal cuttingd; NghJ Vw;gLk; mjpf ntg;gj;jpdhy; toold;
hardness Fiwe;J soft MfpwJ. ,jdhy; tool failure MfpwJ.

,t;thW failure Md tool MdJ regrinding

nra;ag;gl;L kPz;Lk; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.

4.7 Factors affecting tool life

fPo;f;fz;l fhuzpfshy; cutting toold; life ghjpf;fg;
gLfpwJ.
1) Cutting speed 2) Feed 3) Depth of cut
4) Tool geometry 5) Tool material 6) Cutting fluid
7) Work material 8) Rigidity of work, tool and machine.

1) Cutting speed
RoYk; workpiecey; ,Ue;J tool xU epkplj;jpy; ntl;b
vLf;Fk; chipd; ePsk; cutting speed vdg;gLk;.
𝝅𝑫𝒏
Cutting speed, 𝑽 = m/min
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
,q;F, 𝐷 – Workpieced; diameter (mm)
𝑛 – Workpiece RoYk; Ntfk; (rpm)

,J tool lifeI ghjpf;Fk; Kf;fpa fhuzp MFk;. Cutting

speed mjpfhpf;Fk; NghJ toold; ntg;gk; mjpfhpf;fpwJ.
,jdhy; toold; hardness Fiwe;J tool flank vspjpy; Nja;e;J
tpLfpwJ. vdNt mjpf cutting speedMy; tool life FiwfpwJ.
Fiwe;j cutting speed %yk; tool life mjpfhpf;fpwJ.

Cutting speed kw;Wk; tool lifef;F cs;s njhlh;G Taylor’s

formula %yk; tpsf;fg;gLfpwJ.
𝑽 𝑻𝒏 = 𝑪
,q;F> V – Cutting speed ( m / min)
4.12
 T – Tool life (min)
n – Tool kw;Wk; workpieceI nghWj;j kjpg;G
(Mild steel workpieceI machining nra;a H.S.S. tool gad; gLj;Jk; NghJ>
n = 0.1, carbide tool gad;gLj;Jk; NghJ> n = 0.2 Kjy; 0.25 tiu)
C – xU constant
2) Feed
Workpieced; xU KOr; Rw;Wf;F tool efUk; J}uk; feed
vdg;gLk;. xU Fwpg;gpl;l cutting speedy;> kpff; Fiwe;j feed
nfhLf;Fk; NghJ tool faced; Nky; fle;J nry;Yk; chipfspd;
gug;gsT mjpfkhf ,Ug;gjhy; tool Nja;khdk; milfpwJ.
mNj Neuj;jpy; mjpf feed nfhLj;jhYk; toold; Nky;
nray;gLk; force mjpfhpf;fpwJ. ,jdhy; tool vspjpy;
Nja;tile;J tool life FiwfpwJ. vdNt tool lifeI mjpfhpf;f
rhpahd feed nfhLf;f Ntz;Lk;.
3) Depth of cut
Cutting toolI xU Kiw efh;j;Jk; NghJ workpiecey;
,Ue;J ePf;fg;gLk; materiald; jbkd; MdJ depth of cut
vdg;gLk;. xU Fwpg;gpl;l cutting speedy;> depth of cut mjpfkhf
,Uf;Fk; NghJ toold; Nky; nray;gLk; cutting force
mjpfhpf;fpwJ. ,jdhy; tool vspjpy; Nja;khdk; mile;J tool
life FiwfpwJ. vdNt tool lifeI mjpfhpf;f rhpahd depth of
cut nfhLf;f Ntz;Lk;.

4) Tool geometry
mjpfkhd rake angle ,Ue;jhy; toold; FWf;fsT
FiwfpwJ. ,jdhy; ntg;gj;ijf; flj;Jk; gug;G FiwfpwJ.
NkYk; toold; ntg;gk; mjpfhpj;J> tool vspjpy; Nja;khdk;
milfpwJ. vdNt toold; life mjpfhpf;f rhpahd rake angleI
gad;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;. Nose radiusI mjpfhpj;jhy; tool life
mjpfhpf;Fk;.

5) Tool material
Tool materiald; gz;Gfisg; nghWj;J tool life
khWgLfpwJ> Carbon steel toolfis tpl High Speed Steel
(H.S.S) toolfs; mjpf life nfhz;lJ H.S.S toolfis tpl
carbide toolfspd; life mjpfk; MFk;.
4.13
6) Cutting fluid
rhpahd cutting fluidI gad;gLj;jpdhy; tool life
mjpfhpf;Fk;. Machiningd; NghJ Vw;gLk; ntg;gj;ij cutting
fluid flj;jp tool, chip kw;Wk; workpieceI Fspur; nra;fpwJ.
NkYk; ,J tool kw;Wk; chipf;F ,ilNaahd cuha;itf;
Fiwg;gjhy; tool life mjpfhpf;fpwJ.

7) Work material
Work materiald; physical kw;Wk; chemical gz;Gfisg;
nghWj;J tool life mikAk;. fbdkhd materialfis tpl soft
materialfis machining nra;Ak; NghJ tool life mjpfhpf;fpwJ.

8) Rigidity of work, tool and machine

Machiney; cWjpahf gpbf;fg;gl;l toold; life mjpfkhf
,Uf;Fk;. cWjpahf gpbf;fg;glhky; mjph;tilAk; NghJ>
toold; life FiwAk;. NkYk; workpieceI grip Mf gpbg;gjhy;
tool life mjpfhpf;Fk;.

4.8 Cutting fluids

Machining nray;Kiwapd; jpwid Nkk;gLj;Jtjw;fhf
Fsph;tpg;ghd; my;yJ caTg; nghUshf gad;gLj;jg;gLk;
jputNk cutting fluid vdg;gLk;. Soluble oils, kerosene base oil,
mineral oil, synthetic coolants, sulphonated oils, water base emulsion
Nghd;wit nghJthfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; cutting fluid MFk;.
ngl;Nuhypag; nghUl;fs;> tpyq;Ffspd; nfhOg;G> jhtu
vz;nza;> jz;zPh;> fhw;W my;yJ ,ju nghUl;fspy; ,Ue;J
,it jahhpf;fg; gLfpd;wd.

4.8.1 Functions of cutting fluid

xU cutting fluidd; nray;ghLfs; fPo;f;fz;lthW:
1) Tool kw;Wk work pieceI Fsph;tpg;gJ
2) MetalI ntl;Lk;NghJ cUthFk; ntg;gj;ij flj;jp
ntspNaw;WtJ
3) Tool kw;Wk; chip xl;bf;nfhs;tijf; Fiwg;gJ
4) cuha;T kw;Wk; Nja;khdj;ijf; Fiwg;gJ
5) Chipfis clDf;Fld; ntspNaw;wp ntl;Lk;
gFjpapid free Mf itg;gJ
4.14
 6) ,ae;jpu ghfq;fs;> workpiece kw;Wk; tool Mfpait
JUg; gpbg;gijj; jLg;gJ
7) Toold; kPJ fPuy;fs; kw;Wk; Nja;khdj;ijf; Fiwj;J
tool lifeI mjpfg;gLj;JtJ
8) Workpiecef;F Neh;j;jpahd surface finish Ij; jUtJ
9) Machinability gz;gpid mjpfhpj;J machining forceI
Fiwg;gJ

4.8.2 Properties of cutting fluid

xU rpwe;j cutting fluid fPo;f;fz;l gz;Gfisg;
ngw;wpUf;f Ntz;Lk;:
1) vspjpy; Fsph;tpg;gjw;F mjpf ntg;gf; flj;Jj; jpwd;
2) vspjhf gha;e;J nry;y Fiwthd viscosity
3) rpwe;j caTg; gz;Gfs;
4) vspjpy; jPg;gpbf;fhky; ,Uf;f mjpf flash point
5) rhjhuz ntg;gepiyapy; gpRgpRg;ghfNth jplg;
nghUshfNth khwhky; ,Uf;Fk; jd;ik
6) Oxidation eilngWtij jLf;Fk; jd;ik
7) Workpiece epwj;ij khw;whky; ,Uf;Fk; gz;G kw;Wk;
JUg;gpbj;jiy jLf;Fk; gz;G
8) njhlh;e;J gad;gLj;Jk;NghJ tpUk;gj;jfhj thridia
cUthf;fhj gz;G
9) Njhy; mhpg;G kw;Wk; J}a;ikf; Nfl;bid cUthf;fhj
gz;G

4.9 LATHE - Introduction

Lathe vd;gJ nghJthf vy;yh machinefSf;Fk; xU
Kf;fpakhd basic machine MFk;. jw;NghJ cs;s midj;J
machine toolfSk; latheI mbg;gilahff; nfhz;Nl tsh;r;rp
mile;Js;sd. Lathe MdJ cylindrical workpiecey; ,Ue;J
metalI ePf;fp mtw;wpy; Njitahd tbtk; kw;Wk; msitg;
ngWtjw;F gad;gLfpwJ. Lathey; workpiece gpbf;fg;gl;L
mjd; axisy; Rw;Wk;. Single point cutting toolI workpieced;
axisf;F ,izahf efh;j;jp cylindrical tbtj;ij
Vw;gLj;jyhk;.

4.15
4.9.1 Types of lathe
Lathefs; mjd; msT> tbtikg;G kw;Wk; gad;ghL
Mfpatw;wpw;F Vw;g fPo;f;fz;lthW tifg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
1) Speed lathe 2) Engine lathe or Centre lathe
3) Bench lathe 4) Tool room lathe
5) Semi automatic lathe 6) Automatic lathe
7) Special purpose lathe

1) Speed lathe
,t;tif lathey; head stock, tail stock kw;Wk; tool post
Mfpait bedd; kPJ nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;. ,jpy; gear box,
carriage kw;Wk; lead screw Mfpait ,y;iy. vdNt wood
turning, polishing Nghd;w rpy simple operationfs; kl;LNk
nra;a KbAk;. ,e;j lathey; cs;s spindle mjpf Ntfj;jpy;
Rw;Wtjhy; speed lathe vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

2) Engine lathe or centre lathe

Muk;gj;jpy; ,e;j tif lathefs; steam engineIf;
nfhz;L ,af;fg;gl;ljhy; engine lathe vd;W
miof;fg;gLfpwJ. ,jpy; head stock, tail stock, carriage
Mfpait bedd; kPJ nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;. Lead screw, feed
rod kw;Wk; change gears ,Ug;gjhy; ntt;NtW feed kw;Wk;
Ntfq;fs; fpilf;fpd;wd. mjpf mstpy; gad;gLk; ,t;tif
lathey; facing, turning, taper turning, drilling, reaming, boring, knurling,
thread cutting, grooving Nghd;w operationfs; nra;a KbAk;.

3) Bench lathe
mstpy; rpwpajhf cs;s ,e;j latheI vspjhf ,af;f
benchd; kPJ nghUj;jg;gl;Ls;sjhy; bench lathe vd;W
miof;fg; gLfpwJ. Centre latheIg; Nghd;Nw midj;J
ghfq;fisAk; cila ,e;j lathey; rpwpa nghUl;fis
kl;LNk cUthf;f KbAk;.

4) Tool room lathe

Tool roomfspy;
gad; gLj;jg;gLk; ,t;tif lathe
kpfTk; Jy;ypakhdJ MFk;. Tools, dies kw;Wk; gauges
Mfpatw;iw kpfj; Jy;ypakhf cw;gj;jp nra;tjw;Nfw;g
4.16
,it tbtikf;fg; gl;bUf;Fk;. ,jpy; gy;NtW feed kw;Wk;
speed cs;sJ. ,e;j lathed; tpiy mjpfk;.

5) Semi automatic lathe

,t;tif lathey; capstan kw;wk; turret lathe vd ,U
tiffs; cs;sd. ,jpy; tail stockf;F gjpyhf 6 toolfis
nghUj;jf; $ba hexagonal turret head cs;sJ. ,e;j lathey;
cs;s front tool posty; ehd;F toolfSk; rear tool posty; xU toolk;
nghUj;jyhk;. ,e;j tif lathefspy; xU jobI cw;gj;jp
nra;a Njitg;gLk; midj;J toolfSk; mjd; operation
thpirg;gb preset nra;ag;gl;bUf;Fk;. ,jdhy; tool setting
Neuk; Fiwe;J production mjpfhpf;fpwJ.

6) Automatic lathe
,t;tif lathey; loading Kjy; unloading tiu
midj;J operationfSk; automaticMf nra;ag;gLfpwJ. ,e;j
lathed; cam shafty; cs;s gy;NtW camfspd; %yk; ntt;NtW
,af;fq;fs; automaticMf control nra;ag;gLfpwJ.

7) Special purpose lathe

,t;tif lathefs; Fwpg;gpl;l operationfis kl;Lk;
nra;tjw;F gpuj;jpNafkhf tbtikf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. Centre
lathefspy; vspjpy; nra;a Kbahj jobfis ,t;tif lathey;
nra;ayhk;.

Gap bed lathe

,jpy; nghpa diameter cila workpiecefis
machining nra;a head stockd; gf;fj;jpy; cs;s bedd; xU
gFjp ePff; g; gl;bUf;Fk;.

Duplicating lathe or copying lathe

,e;j lathey; master pieced; kPJ efUk; tracer MdJ
air kw;Wk; mechanical devices %yk; tool cld;
,izf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. Tracerd; movement MdJ toolf;F
ngwg;gl;L master pieced; tbtk; workpiecey;
Vw;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.

4.17
 4.10 Specification of lathe
xU lathed; Kf;fpakhd specificationfs; fPo;f;fz;lthW :
1) Bedd; ePsk;
2) Bedd; mfyk;
3) Bedy; ,Ue;J centrefs; mike;Js;s cauk;
4) CentrefSf;F ,ilg;gl;l J}uk;
5) Bedd; kPJs;s swing diameter
6) Carriaged; kPJs;s swing diameter
7) Spindle Jisapd; mjpfgl;r diameter
8) Motord; ,af;Fjpwd;
9) Spindle speedfspd; vz;zpf;if
10) Drived; tif
11) Lead screw tpguq;fs;
12) vil kw;Wk; machineIg; nghUj;j Njitahd gug;G

4.11 Principal parts of a centre lathe

Tool post
Head stock
Cross slide Compound slide
Tail stock

Feed box

Feed rod Lathe bed

Carriage
Lead screw

Fig.4.6 Simple sketch of a centre lathe

Lathey; fPo;f;fz;l Kf;fpa ghfq;fs; cssd.
1) Bed 2) Head stock
3) Carriage 4) Tail stock
i) Saddle
ii) Cross slide
iii) Compound rest
iv) Tool post
v) Apron
4.18
4.11.1 Bed
Inverted
Flat bed way V - bed way

Fig.4.7 Lathe bed

Lathe bed MdJ kpf cWjpahf cast ironMy; tbtikf;fg;
gl;bUf;Fk;. ,J cutting force kw;Wk; vibrations Mfpatw;iw
jhq;Fk;. ,jpy; ,lJ gf;fk; head stock, tyJ gf;fk; tail stock
kw;Wk; eLtpy; carriage nghUj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;. ,jpy; cs;s
flat my;yJ ‘V’ Nghd;w guideways topahf carriage kw;Wk; tail
stock efUk;

4.11.2 Head Stock

Spindle hole Threaded nose

Centre

Taper sleeve

Fig.4.8 Head stock spindle

Hollow spindle cld; $ba head stock MdJ lathe
bedd; ,lJ gf;fk; nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;. Thread cld; $ba
spindle nosey; chuck kw;Wk; face plate nghUj;jyhk;. Head
stocky; driving kw;Wk; speed changing mechanism cs;sJ.
4.19
,jpy; speed changing leverfs; cs;sd. Head stocky;
fPo;f;fz;l ,uz;L tiffs; cs;sd.
1) Back geared head stock
2) All geared head stock
1) Back geared head stock
,t;tif head stocky; back gear %yk; spindle speed
Fiwf;fg; gLfpwJ. Step cone pulleyy; gear(A) kw;Wk; spindley;
bull gear(D) nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;. Cone pulley cld; gear (A)
Rw;Wk;. Back shafty; back gear (B kw;Wk; C) nghUj;jg;
gl;bUf;Fk;. Lever (L) my;yJ handle cjtpahy; back gears B
kw;Wk; C I gear A kw;Wk; DAld; engage my;yJ disengage
nra;ayhk;.
Lever or handle (L) Back gears
B B
C C

Lock pin (P)

Engaged Spindle
Pulley
pinion Driving
plate

A A
D D
Cone pulley Bull gear
(a)
(a)Back
Backgear
gearnot
not engaged
enaged (b) Back gear gear
(b) Back engaged
enaged
Fig.4.9 Back geared head stock

Direct my;yJ fast speed

Bull gear lock pin (P)I cone pulley cld; engage nra;Ak;
NghJ gear (A), cone pulley kw;Wk; bull gear (D) Mfpait
xd;whf Rw;Wk;. ,jdhy; ehd;F fast speedfs; ngw KbAk;.
,e;j epiyapy; back gearfs; disengaged Mf ,Uf;Fk;.
Indirect my;yJ slow speed
Lock pin (P) I disengage nra;J lever (L)d; cjtpahy;
back gear B kw;Wk; C I KiwNa gear A kwWk; DAld;
,izf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,g;NghJ power MdJ gear Ay; ,Ue;J
glj;jpy; fhl;bagb gear B, C kw;Wk; D topahf spindlef;F
4.20
nry;fpwJ. Gear B MdJ AI tpl nghpajhf ,Ug;gjhy; gear
By; Ntfk; Fiwf;fg;gl;L kPz;Lk; gear Dapy; Fiwf;fg;
gLfpwJ. ,t;thW back gearfis engage nra;tjd; %yk;
ehd;F slow speedfs; ngwg;gLfpwJ.
2) All geared head stock
,t;tif head stocky; cs;s spindleI xU motorMdJ
gearfs; %ykhf Rw;WfpwJ. ,e;j mikg;gpy; gearfs; G1, G2,
G3 Mfpait splined shafty; efUk;gb nghUj;jg;gl;L powerI
driving pulleyy; ,Ue;j ngWfpwJ. Gearfs; G4, G5, G6
Mfpait intermediate shafty; epiyahf nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;.
Gearfs; G7, G8, G9 Mfpait splined spindley; efUk;gb
nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;.
Fast pulley Head stock casting
Loose pulley Splined shaft

G1 G2 G3
Intermediate
shaft

G4 G5 G6
Splined head stock
spindle
Live centre
G10 G7 G8 G9

Fig.4.10 All geared head stock

G1, G2, G3 kw;Wk; G7, G8, G9 Mfpa gearfis leverd;

cjtpahy; efur; nra;J KiwNa G4, G5, G6 gearfSld;
,izar; nra;ayhk;. ,jdhy; 9 tpjkhd gear combination
fpilf;fg; ngw;W spindlef;F 9 tpjkhd speed fpilf;fpwJ.
Gear G10 %yk; power MdJ lead screwf;F ngwg;gLfpwJ.
Spindlef;F 9 tpjkhd speedfis ngWk; gear combination
fPo;f;fz;lthW ,Uf;Fk;.
4.21
 G1  G 4 G2  G4 G3  G4
1) 2) 3)
G 4  G7 G 5  G7 G 6  G7

G1  G 5 G2  G5 G3  G5
4) 5) 6)
G4  G8 G5  G8 G6  G8

G1  G 6 G2  G6 G3  G6
7) 8) 9)
G4  G9 G5  G9 G6  G9
4.11.3 Carriage
,J lathe bedd; guide waysy; spindle mr;Rf;F ,izahf
efUk;. ,jd; %yk; toolf;F gy;NtW movementfis nfhLf;f
KbAk;. ,ij ifapdhy; my;yJ power %yk; efh;j;jyhk;.
Carriagey; saddle, cross slide, coumpound rest, tool post kw;Wk; apron
Mfpait nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;.
Tool post
Compound rest
Saddle Cross slide
Thread dial Carriage lock

Apron Feed change lever

Half nut lever

Friction clutch
Hand feed wheel
Fig.4.11 Carriage
1) Saddle
,J ’H’ tbtpy; cs;s casting MFk;. Bedd; guide
waysy; saddle efUk;. ,jd; Nky; cross slide, compound rest
kw;Wk; tool post Mfpait nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;.
2) Cross slide
,J saddled; Nky; nghUj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,J lathe
mr;Rf;F nrq;Fj;jhfNt efUk;. Cross slideI ifapdhy;
my;yJ power %yk; efh;j;jyhk;. ,jd; kPJ compound rest
kw;Wk; tool post nghUj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;.
4.22
3) Compound rest or compound slide
T - slot
Hand wheel

Tool post slide

Swivel base
Fig.4.12 Compound rest
,J cross slided; Nky; nghUj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ.
Compound restd; swivel basey; degrees Fwpf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;.
,ij Row;wp Njitahd angley; nghUj;jyhk.; Taper turning
nra;a ,J gad;;gLfpwJ. ,jw;F hand feed kl;LNk nfhLf;f
KbAk;. Power feed fpilahJ.

4) Tool post
Compound resty; cs;s T - sloty; tool post nghUj;jg;
gl;bUf;Fk;. Tool posty; tool MdJ ,Wf;fp grip Mfg;
gpbf;fg;gLfpwJ. Lathey; fPo;f;fz;l 4 tpjkhd tool postfspy;
VNjDk; xd;W gad; gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
i) Single screw tool post ii) Open side tool post
iii) Four bolt tool post iv) Four way tool post
Single screw tool post
Tool post
screw

Body

Tool
Convex rocker
Concave ring

Fig.4.13 Single Screw tool post

4.23
 ,e;j tool posty; xU toolI kl;LNk clampmping screw
%yk; nghUj;jyhk;. ToolI convex rockerd; Nky; itj;J
Njitahd cauj;jpw;F adjust nra;ayhk;. Convex rockerI
concave ring jhq;FfpwJ.
Open side tool post
,e;j tool posty; cs;s ,uz;L set screwd; %yk; toolI
Njitahd positiony; nghUj;jyhk;. Toold; cauj;ij packing
stripfs; %yk; adjust nra;a Kbak;. ,jpy; cs;s clamping boltI
loose nra;J tool postI Njitahd positiony; nghUj;jyhk;.

Four bolt tool post

,e;j tool postd; ,uz;L gf;fq;fspYk; toolfis
itj;J strap %yk; ehd;F boltfshy; tight nra;ayhk;. Toold;
cauk; parallel strip %yk; adjust nra;ag;gLk;. ,e;j tool post
MdJ heavy duty lathefspy; gad;gLfpwJ.

Four way tool post

Clamping handle

Set screw

Tool
Tool

Strip

Fig.4.14 Four way tool post

,e;j tool posty; cs;s square blockd; ehd;F gf;fKk;

ehd;F toolfis itj;J screwfs; %yk; nghUj;jyhk;. ,jpy;
cs;s clampI loose nra;J xt;nthU toolIAk; Njitahd
anglef;F jpUg;gp setting nra;ayhk;. Toold; caukhdJ parallel
strip %yk; adjust nra;ag; gLfpwJ.

4.24
 nghJthf tool posty; cs;s toolI fPo;f;fz;lthW
efh;j;jyhk;.
i) Longitudinal feed: Lathe mr;Rf;F ,izahf
ii) Cross feed: Lathe mr;Rf;F nrq;Fj;jhf
iii) Angular feed: Lathe mr;Rf;F Fwpg;gpl;l Nfhzj;jpy;
rha;thf
5) Apron
Saddle cld; nghUj;jg;gl;L carriaged; Kd; gFjpapy;
cs;s mikg;G apron MFk;. ,jpy; cs;s gear, lever kw;Wk;
clutchfs; %yk; carriaged; efh;T fl;Lg; gLj;jg; gLfpwJ.
CarriageI lathe mr;Rf;F ,izahf hand wheel %yk;
efh;j;jyhk;. ,jpy; cs;s half nut leverI lead screwcld;
engage nra;J thread cutting nra;a KbAk;.

4.11.4 Tail Stock

Spindle clamp
Tail stock Hand wheel
spindle Screw Barrel
Dead centre

Key
Key way Body

Set over screw Base

Fig.4.15 Tail stock

Tail stock MdJ lathe bedd; tyJ gf;fk; nghUj;jg;

gl;bUf;Fk;. ,ij bedd; guide waysy; efh;j;jp Njitahd
positiony; nghUj;jyhk;. ,jd; barrely; hallow spindle cs;sJ.
Screw cld; ,ize;Js;s hand wheelI Row;wp spindleI Kd;
gpd; efh;j;jyhk;. Spindled; Kd;Gwj;jpy; cs;s rhpthd
Jisapy; dead centre my;yJ drill bit Nghd;w rpy toolfis
nghUj;j KbAk;. Spindle clamp %yk; spindleI Njitahd
positiony; nghUj;jyhk;.
4.25
 Dead centre my;yJ toolI ntspapy; vLf;f hand
whhelI anti-clockwise jpirapy; Row;w Ntz;Lk;. ,g;NghJ
spindle cs;spOf;fg; gl;L screwd; Kid dead centre my;yJ
toolI Kl;b ntspNa js;Sk;. Set over screw %yk; tail stockI
FWf;F trj;jpy; efh;j;jyhk;.
Functions of tail stock
1) Workpieced; tyJ Kidia support nra;fpwJ.
2) Drill bit, reamer kw;Wk; tap Nghd;w toolfis tail stock
spindley; nghUj;jp drilling, reaming kw;Wk; tapping
Nghd;w operationfs; nra;ayhk;.
3) Set over methody; tail stockI FWf;F trj;jpy; efh;j;jp
taper turning nra;ag; gad;gLfpwJ.
4.12 Feed mechanism
WorkpieceI nghWj;J toold; movement MdJ feed
vdg;gLk;. XU lathe toolf;F fPof
; ;fz;l %d;W tifahd
feedfis nfhLf;fyhk;.
1) Longitudinal feed
2) Cross feed
3) Angular feed

Lathe mr;Rf;F ,izahf tool efh;tJ longitudinal feed

vdg;gLk;. CarriageI efh;j;Jtjd; %yk; ,e;j feed fpilf;fpwJ.
Lathe mr;Rf;F nrq;Fj;jhf tool efh;tJ cross feed
vdg;gLk;. Cross slideI efh;j;Jtjd; %yk; ,e;j feed fpilf;fpwJ.
Lathe mr;Rf;F Fwpg;gpl;l Nfhzj;jpy; rha;thf tool
efh;tJ angular feed vdg;gLk;. Compound restI Njitahd
Nfhzj;jpw;F jpUg;gpa gpd;G mjpYs;s hand wheelI Row;wp
,e;j feed ngwg;gLfpwJ.
Nkw;fz;l %d;W tif feedfisAk; toolf;F hand feed
%yk; nfhLf;fyhk;. Angular feedI kl;Lk; automaticMf
nfhLf;f KbahJ. Longitudinal kw;Wk; cross feedfis
automaticMff; nfhLf;fyhk;.

Automatic feed fpilf;f> head stock spindley; ,Ue;J

carriagef;F fPo;f;fz;l unitfs; %yk; power ngwg;gLfpwJ.

4.26
 1) Tumbler gear mechanism 2) Quick change gear box
3) Apron mechanism
4.12.1 Tumbler gear mechanism
Tumbler gear mechanism MdJ lead screw kw;Wk; feed
rodd; directionI khw;wg; gad;gLfpwJ.
vg;NghJk; clock wisey; Rw;Wk; spindle gear (A) cld;
tumbler gear (B, C)fspy; VNjDk; xd;W ,izAk; tifapy;
nghUj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;. Tumbler gear (B,C)fs; kw;Wk; stud gear
(D) Mfpait xU brackety; nghUj;jg;gl;Ls;sd. Gear C
kw;Wk; D vg;NghJk; ,ize;Nj ,Uf;Fk;. Brackety; cs;s
lever (L)I Nky; Nehf;fp> eL epiyapy; my;yJ fPo; Nehf;fp
epWj;jyhk;. Stud gear (D) MdJ intermediate gearfs; %yk;
lead screw gear cld; ,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
A A
Spindle gear

C Tumbler gears C
B B

Lever ( L )

Stud gear
D D
Intermediate gear

Lead screw gear

Lead screw
(a) (b)
Fig.4.16 Tumbler gear mechanism

glk; 4.16(a)y; fhl;bAs;sgb lever(L) Nky; Nehf;fp

,Uf;Fk; NghJ tumbler gear (C) MdJ spindle gear (A) cld;
,izAk;. Tumbler gear(C) cld; ,ize;Js;s stud gear
(D)apypUe;J inter-mediate gearfs; %yk; lead screw MdJ
clock wise jpir (spindle direction)apy; Rw;WfpwJ. ,g;NghJ
carriage MdJ head stockI Nehf;fp efUk;. ,e;j mikg;G
right hand thread cutting nra;ag; gad;gLfpwJ.
4.27
 glk; 4.16(b)y; fhl;bAs;sgb lever (L) fPo;Nehf;fp
,Uf;Fk; NghJ tumbler gear (B) MdJ spindle gear (A) cld;
,izAk;. ,jdhy; lead screw, anti-clockwise jpirapy Rw;Wk;.
,g;NghJ carriage MdJ tail stockI Nehf;fp efUk;. ,e;j
mikg;G left hand thread cutting nra;ag; gad;gLfpwJ> NkYk;
automatic feed ngWtjw;Fk; tumbler gear mechanism
gad;gLfpwJ.

4.12.2 Quick change gear box

Spindle gear

Head stock spindle

Tumbler gear
Gear cones
Change gears

Sliding key handle

Shaft A
Clutch handle

Shaft B

Lead screw
Shaft C
Feed shaft
Fig.4.17 Quick change gear box

Shaft ATf;F spindle gearypUe;J tumbler gear kw;Wk;

change gear %yk; jpwdhdJ khw;wg;gLfpwJ. Shaft Bapy;
cs;s 6 cone gearfs; %yk; 6 ntt;NtW speedfs; shaftf;F
slding gear %ykhff; fpilf;fpwJ. Shaft B MdJ shaft C Ald;
3 cone gearfs; %yk; ,izf;fg; gl;Ls;sJ. ,jdhy; shaft C
MdJ 6 x 3 = 18 ntt;NtW speedfSld; Rw;Wk;. Shaft C
apypUe;J clutch %yk; lead screw kw;Wk; feed rodf;F Roy;jpwd;
khw;wg;gLfpwJ. Quick change gear box MdJ automatic feed
kw;Wk; thread cutting nra;tjw;F gad;gLfpwJ.

4.28
4.12.3 Apron Mechanism
Cross slide
Pinion
Bed Rack

Lead screw P Half nut

A

B C Half nut lever

Worm H
Feed shaft D
Worm wheel G
S
F
Splined shaft K L
E
Feed check knob
Cross slide hand wheel
Longitudinal
hand wheel
Fig.4.18 Apron mechanism
Spindle gear Rw;Wk; NghJ> lead screw kw;Wk; feed rod
MdJ tumbler gear %yk; Rw;Wk;. Lead screw tpypUe;J Roy;
jpwdhdJ gearfs; A, B, C, D topahf worm wheelI
milfpwJ> Worm wheel cld; ,ize;Js;s splined shaft (S)
Rw;Wtjhy; gearfs; F kw;Wk; G vg;NghJk; Rw;wpf; nfhz;Nl
,Uf;Fk;. Feed check knob (E) I pull in, neutral, pull out vd;w
%d;W epiyfspy; epWj;jyhk;. Feed check knob (E) MdJ
neutral positiony; ,Uf;Fk; NghJ hand wheelI Rw;wp cross feed
kw;Wk; longitudinal feedfis manualMf nfhLf;fyhk;. NkYk;
half nut I engage nra;tjd; %yk; thread cutting nra;a KbAk;.
Automatic longitudinal feed
Feed check knob (E) I pull in positionf;F nfhz;L
tUk;NghJ gear G cld; gear H ,izAk;. ,jdhy; Roy;
jpwdhdJ rack cld; ,ize;j pinion (P)f;F khw;wg;gl;L
automatic longitudinal feed fpilf;fpwJ.
Automatic cross feed
Feed check knob (E)I pull out positionf;F nfhz;L
tUk;NghJ gear F cld; gear K ,izAk;. ,jdhy; Roy;
jpwdhdJ gear Lf;F khw;wg;gl;L automatic cross feed fpilf;fpwJ.
4.29
4.13 Work holding devices
WorkpieceI ,Wf;fp gripMf gpbf;fg; gad;gLtJ work
holding device vdg;gLk;. Lathey; fPo;ff; z;l work holding
devicefs; gad; gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
1) Chucks 2) Centres
3) Face plate 4) Mandrel
5) Steady rest 6) Follower rest
7) Angle plate 8) Carrier or dog
9) Catch plate or driving plate 10) Fixture
Centres, catch plate kw;Wk; carrier, face plate, angle plate,
mandrel Mfpait lathe acessories vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLk;.
4.13.1 Chucks
ePsk; Fiwthd> nghpa msT tpl;lk; nfhz;l kw;Wk;
xOq;fw;w work piecefis gpbf;f chuck gad;gLfpwJ. ,jpy;
fPo;f;fz;l %d;W tiffs; cs;sd.
1) Three jaw self centering chuck
2) Four jaw independent chuck
3) Magnetic chuck
1) Three jaw self centering chuck
Bevel teeth

Scroll disc

Jaw

Chuck body Jaws

Fig.4.19 Three jaw chuck

,e;j chucky; %d;W jawf;fSk; bevel pinion kw;Wk;
scroll disc %yk; chuck keyapdhy; ,aq;Fk; tifapy;
,izf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. Chuck key %yk; %d;W jawf;fSk; xNu
Neuj;jpy; rkJ}uk; chuckd; ikaj;ij Nehf;fp efUtjhy;
workpiece MdJ ikakhf ,Wf;fpg; gpbf;fg;gLfpwJ.
4.30
2) Four jaw independent chuck
Chuck body Jaw screw
Concentric circles

Jaws

Jaw

Chuck body

Fig.4.20 Four jaw chuck

,jpy; cs;s ehd;F jawf;fs; jdpj;jdp jaw screwy;
nghUj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;. Chuck key %yk; xt;nthU jawTk;
jdpj;jdpNa efh;tjhy; ,jid independent chuck vdTk;
miof;fyhk;. Njitahd msTf;F xt;nthU jaw itAk;
efh;j;jp irregular workpieceI nghUj;jyhk;. ,jpy; cs;s
concentric circlesI mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L workpieceI
vspjpy; centering nra;a KbAk;.

3) Magnetic chuck

Magnet

Chuck body

Fig.4.21 Magnetic chuck

4.31
 ,e;j chuck MdJ fhe;jj; jd;ik nfhz;l nky;ypa
workpieceI gpbf;fg; gad;gLfpwJ. Jawfshy; workpieced; kPJ
Vw;gLk; mOj;jj;ij ,e;j chuckI gad;gLj;jp jtph;f;fyhk;.
Chuckfpw;F electromagnetic Kiwapy; magnetic power fpilf;fpwJ.

4.13.2 Centres
nghJthf ePskhd workpiecefis ,U
centrefSf;fpilapy; nghUj;jyhk;. Head stock spindley; live
centrek; tail stocky; dead centrek; nghUj;jg;gLk;. Live centre
MdJ workpice cld; Rw;Wk;. Dead centre MdJ workpieced;
tyJ Kidia support nra;fpwJ. Dog my;yJ carrierI
workpiecey; nghUj;jp mjd; tail gFjpahdJ catch platey;
,izf;fg;gLfpwJ. Spindle Rw;Wk; NghJ catch plate kw;Wk;
dog %yk; workpiece Rw;WfpwJ.

Head stock Driving plate

Dog Dead centre
Work piece Tail stock

Lathe bed
Live centre

Fig.4.22 Work held between centres

Lathe centes
Morse taper shank xU gFjpapYk;> 60O $k;G Kid kW
gFjpapYk; cs;s hardening nra;ag;l;l steel piece MdJ
centre vdg;gLk;. Main spindley; cs;s centre MdJ live centre
vd;Wk; tail stocky; cs;s centre MdJ dead centre vd;Wk;
miof;fg;gLk;. ,J workpieceI support nra;aTk; machining
nra;Ak; NghJ Vw;gLk; forceI jhq;fTk; gad;gLfpwJ.
nghJthf fPo;f;fz;l centrefs; lathey; gad;gLj;jg;
gLfpd;wd.
1) Ordinary centre 2) Ball centre 3) Tipped centre
4) Half centre 5) Pipe centre 6) Inserted centre
7) Rotating centre

4.32
 Ordinary centre Pipe centre

Insert Shank

Ball centre

Inserted type centre

Tip

Roller bearing
Nut
Ball bearing
Insert centre
Tipped centre

Half centre Rotating centre

Fig.4.23 Lathe centres
1) Ordinary centre : nghJthf vy;yh NtiyfSf;Fk;
ordinary centre gad;gLfpwJ.
2) Ball centre : Set over methody; taper turning nra;Ak; NghJ
ball centre gad;gLfpwJ.
3) Tipped centre : ,e;j centrey; fbdkhd alloy tip $k;G
Kidapy; brazing nra;ag;gl;bUf;Fk;. ,e;j tip vspjpy;
NjahJ.
4) Half centre : ,e;j centrey; $k;G Kidapd; xU gFjp
ntl;b vLf;fg;gl;bUg;gjhy; half centre vdg;gLfpwJ.
Half centreI tail stocky; nghUj;jp facing operation vspjpy;
nra;a KbAk;.
5) Pipe centre : ,e;j centre MdJ piped; Kidia
support nra;ag; gad;gLfpwJ.
6) Inserted centre : ,e;j centre MdJ high speed steelMy;
nra;ag;gl;lJ. ,e;j centrey; insert gFjp Nja;khdk;
mile;J tpl;lhy; KO centreIAk; khw;Wtjw;F gjpyhf
insert gFjpia kl;Lk; khw;wyhk;.
4.33
 7) Rotating centre : ,J mjpf Ntfj;jpy; Rw;Wk; heavy
work pieceI support nra;fpwJ. ,e;j centre MdJ tail
stocky; nghUj;jg;gl;L bearingy; Rw;Wtjhy; friction
FiwfpwJ. vdNt ,J frictionless centre vd;Wk;
miof;fg;gLk;.

4.13.3 Face plate

,J threaded bore cld; $ba circular plate MFk;.
,jid lathe spindled; Kd;Gwj;jpy; jpUfp nghUj;jyhk;. Face
platey; slots kw;Wk; holes ,Uf;Fk;. T-bolts, clamps kw;Wk; nuts
%yk; workpieceI face platey; clamp nra;ayhk;. Chucky;
gpbf;f ,ayhj xOq;fw;w tbtKs;s workpieceI vspjpy;
face platey; nghUj;j KbAk;.
Balance
weight Face plate
Slots Threaded Balance weight
to spindle
Work piece
Tail stock

Clamping
plate
Angle plate
Work piece clamping nut Work piece
clamping nut
Angle plate
Fig.4.24 Face plate Fig. 4.25 Angle plate and face plate
4.13.4 Angle plate
Angle plate vd;gJ nrq;Nfhzj;jpy; ,uz;L facefis
cila plate MFk;. Jy;ypakhf machining nra;ag;gl;l ,jd;
facefspy; slots kw;Wk; holes ,Uf;Fk;. Angle plated; xU facey;
workpieceI bolt, nut %yk; clamping nra;ayhk;. kw;nwhU face
MdJ platey; clamping nra;ag;gl;bUf;Fk;. Workpiece rPuhf
Rw;w face platey; balancing weight nghUj;j Ntz;Lk;.
4.13.5 Mandrell
,U centrefSf;fpilNa hallow workpieceI gpbf;fg;
gad; gLtNj mandrell MFk;. Mandrelld; ,U gf;fKk; cs;s
Jisfs; live centre kw;Wk; dead centrey; nghUe;Jk;. Mandrell
cld; workpiece Rw;Wk;.
4.34
Lathey; fPo;f;fz;l mandrellfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
1) Plain mandrell 5) Cone mandrell
2) Step mandrell 6) Gang mandrell
3) Collar mandrell 7) Expansion mandrell
4) Screwed mandrell
Plain mandrell
Work piece

Mandrel

Fig.4.26 Plain mandrell

nghJthf gad;gLk; ,e;j mandrell MdJ solid

mandrell vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;. WorkpieceI grip Mfg; gpbf;f
mandrelly; rpwpJ rha;thd gFjp cs;sJ. ,jd; ePsk; 55
Kjy; 430 mm tiu ,Uf;Fk;. Workpieced; gy;NtW bore
diameterfSf;F Vw;g ntt;NtW mandrellfs; gad;gLj;jg;
gLfpd;wd.

4.13.6 Steady rest

ePskhd workpieceI lathey; turning nra;Ak;NghJ> mjpf
cutting forced; tpisthf workpiece MdJ mjph;tilaNth
my;yJ tise;J tplNth nra;ayhk;. Workpieced;
vilahdJ mij NkYk; fPOk; mirar; nra;Ak;. NkYk;
mjpf msT bending momentIAk; cUthf;Fk;. ,jd;
tpisthf jukw;w machining kw;Wk; tool failure Vw;gl tha;g;G
cUthFk;. ,jid jLg;gjw;fhf workpiece MdJ mjd;
eLg;gFjpapy; support nra;ag;gl Ntz;Lk;. ,j;jifa
supportI nfhLg;gjw;F steady rest my;yJ centre rest
gad;gLfpwJ.

4.35
 Hinge
Workpiece

Bed

Fig.4.27 Steady rest

Lahte bedd; kPJ steady rest nghUj;jg;gLk;. ,jpy; xU
frame kw;Wk; workpieceI mOj;jpg; gpbg;gjw;F %d;W
adjustable jawf;fs; cs;sd. ,e;j jawf;fspd; Kidapy;
nghUj;jg;gl;Ls;s quil vdg;gLk; supportd; kPJ workpiece
RoYk;. Jawf;fis nghUj;Jtjw;F bearing surface Vw;gLj;j
Ntz;Lk;. ,e;j bearing surface MdJ Neubahf workpiecey;
machining nra;J cUthf;fg;gLk;. Nky;gf;fk; cs;s jaw
mlq;fpa over arm MdJ jpUfg;glhky; ,Uf;Fk;. ,jdhy;
jawf;fis adjust nra;ahky;> xNu khjphpahd workpiecefis
vspjpy; nghUj;jyhk;.
Steady restd; nray;ghLfs; :
 ePskhd workpirce NkYk; fPOk; MlhkYk; tise;J
tplhkYk; jLf;fpwJ.
 mjpf depth of cut nfhLf;Fk; tifapy; workpieceI
support nra;fpwJ.
 Drilling, boring kw;Wk; internal threading Nghd;w nraypd;
NghJ workpieceI jhq;fpg; gpbf;fpwJ.

4.13.7 Follower rest

ePskhd kw;Wk; Fiwe;j msT diameter nfhz;l
shaftI lathey; machining nra;Ak;NghJ> mJ mjph;tilaNth
my;yJ tise;J tplNth nra;ayhk;. ,jidj; jtph;g;gjw;F>
shaft MdJ toold; cutting edgef;F kpf mUfpy; support

4.36
nra;ag;gl Ntz;Lk;. ,jw;F follower rest gad;gLfpwJ. Lathe
carriagey; cs;s saddled; kPJ ,J nghUj;jg;gLk;. Operation
KbAk tiu ,J tool cld; Nrhe;J efh;e;J (follow) nry;Yk;.

Workpiece

Tool

Cross slide
Fig.4.28
(b) Follower
Follower rest
rest
Cutting tool MdJ workpieceI NknyOg;gp tplhky;
upper jaw jLf;fpwJ. Workpiece MdJ cutting tooly; ,Ue;J
Kd;gpd; efh;tij lower jaw jLf;fpwJ. ,e;j jawf;fspd;
Kidapy; nghUj;jg;gl;Ls;s quil vdg;gLk; supportd; kPJ
workpiece RoYk;. Shaft MdJ kpfr; rhpahf ikaj;jpy; RoYk;
tifpay; jawf;fs; adjust nra;J nghUj;jg;gLk;. ePskhd
shaftfspy; thread cutting nra;Ak;NghJ follower rest ngUk;ghYk;
gad;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ.

4.13.8 Carrier or dog

Clamping screw
Clamping screw
Eye

Slot

Straight leg
Hole for job
Bent leg

(a) (a)
Straight legleg
Straight carrier
carrier (b) Bent leg carrier
(b) Bent (c) Double
leg carrier (c)slotted
Doublecarrier
slotted carrier
Fig.4.29 Lathe carrier
4.37
 Catch platey; ,Ue;J ,af;fj;ij ,U centrefSf;F
,ilapy; cs;s workpiecef;F khw;WtJ dog my;yJ carrier
MFk;. Dogd; eye gFjpapy; workpieced; xU Kidia clamping
nra;ayhk;. Dogd; leg gFjp catch platey; cs;s projecting pin
cld; nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;.

4.13.9 Catch plate or driving plate

Threaded
to spindle

Pin

Fig.4.30 Catch plate

Catch plate vd;gJ threaded bore cld; $ba tl;l

tbt cast iron plate MFk;. ,jid lathe spindled; Kd;Gwj;jpy;
jpUfp nghUj;jyhk;.
Catch platey; projecting pin xd;W cs;sJ. ,e;j piny;
,Ue;J ,af;fk; dogd; %yk; workpiecef;F ngwg;gLfpwJ.
,t;thW catch plate MdJ dog %yk; ,uz;L centrefSf;F
,ilNa cs;s workpieceI Rw;WfpwJ.

4.13.10 Turning Fixture

Chuck, face plate Nghd;witfshy; vspjpy; gpbf;f
,ayhj workpiecefis gpbf;f fixture gad;gLfpwJ.
Fwpg;gpl;l workpieceI gpbg;gjw;fhf fixture gpuj;jpNafkhf
tbtikf;fg;gLfpwJ. Turning fixturey; V - blocks, step blocks,
angle plates, bolts, clamps kw;Wk; leverfs; ,Uf;Fk;.

4.38
 Movable v-block
Fixture body
Fixed V-block Work piece Clamping screw

Fig.4.31 Turning fixture

Functions of turning fixture

1) WorkpieceI rhpahf nghUj;JfpwJ.
2) Machining nra;Ak; NghJ work pieceI gripMf gpbj;Jf;
nfhs;fpwJ.
3) Workpieced; loading kw;Wk; unloading tpiuthf
nra;tjhy; clamping Neuk; FiwfpwJ.
4) Workpiecey; marking nra;aj; Njitapy;iy. Mass
productionf;F Vw;wJ.

Turning fixture MdJ face platey; nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;.

,jpy; workpiece MdJ fixed v-block kw;Wk; movable v-blockf;F
,ilapy; vspjhf setting nra;ag;gLk;.

4.14 Machining operations done on lathe

nghJthf lathey; fPo;f;fz;l Kf;fpa operationfs;
nra;ag; gLfpd;wd.
1) Straight turning 2) Step turning
3) Facing 4) Chamfering
5) Grooving 6) Parting off
7) Knurling 8) Forming
9) Eccentric turning 10) Drilling
11) Reaming 12) Boring
13) Taper turning 14) Thread cutting
4.39
1) Straight turning

Work piece

Feed

Tool

Fig.4.32 Straight turning

Straight turningy; cUis tbt nghUl;fis cw;gj;jp
nra;ayhk;. WorkpieceMdJ chucky; my;yJ centrefSf;F
,ilapy; gpbf;fg;gl;L lathe mr;rpy;; RoYk;. Tool posty; turning
tool rhpahf nghUj;jg;gLfpwJ. Cross slideI efh;j;jp depth of
cut nfhLj;J turning toolI lathe mr;rpw;F ,izahf efh;j;j
Ntz;Lk;.

Rough turning nra;tjw;F feed (0.3 to 1.5 mm / rev) kw;Wk;

depth of cut (2 to 5 mm) mjpfkhfTk;> speed FiwthfTk;
nfhLf;fyhk;. Finish turning nra;tjw;F feed (0.1 to 0.3 mm/rev)
kw;Wk; depth of cut (0.5 to 1 mm) FiwthfTk;> speed
mjpfkhfTk; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.

2) Step turning

Work piece

Feed

Fig.4.33 Step turning

4.40
 Workpiecey; ntt;NtW diameterfSf;F turning nra;tJ
step turning vdg;gLk;. WorkpieceMdJ chucky;; gpbf;fg;gl;L
lathe mr;rpy;; RoYk;. Tool posty; turning tool rhpahf
nghUj;jg;gLfpwJ. Cross slideI efh;j;jp depth of cut nfhLj;J
turning toolI lathe mr;rpw;F ,izahf efh;j;j Ntz;Lk;.

Straight turning nray;Kiwiaf; nfhz;L> mjpf gl;r

diameter msTf;F nfhLf;fg;gl;l ePsj;jpy; Kjy; step
cUthf;fg; gLfpwJ. ,NjNghd;W Njitahd diameter
kw;Wk; ePsj;jpw;F mLj;jLj;j stepfs; cUthf;fg;gLk;.

3) Facing

Work piece

Facing tool
Feed

Fig.4.34 Facing

Workpieced; Kidfis flatMf machining nra;Ak;

Kiwf;F facing vd;W ngah;. Workpiece MdJ chucky; my;yJ
centrefSf;F ,ilapy; gpbf;fg;gl;L lathe mr;rpy; RoYk;.
Facing toolI lathe mr;rpw;F nrq;Fjhf workpieced; ikaj;ij
Nehf;fp efh;j;j Ntz;Lk;. Hand feed my;yJ automatic feed
nfhLf;fyhk;.
4) Chamfering
Workpieced; Kidapy; cs;s sharp edgeI chamfering
tool %yk; ePf;FtJ chamfering vdg;gLk;. nghJthf turning,
drilling, boring kw;Wk; thread cutting Nghd;w operationfs; nra;j
gpwF chamfering nra;ag;gLfpwJ. Workpiece MdJ chucky;
gpbf;fg;gl;L lathe mr;rpy; RoYk;. Chamfering toolI tool posty;
nghUj;jp lathe mrrpw;;F nrq;Fj;jhf efh;j;j Ntz;Lk;.

4.41
 Work piece

Feed
Chamfering tool
Fig.4.35 Chamfering
5) Grooving
Groove Work piece Groove

Tool Tool
Feed Feed

Fig.4.36 Grooving
,ij undercutting kw;Wk; recessing vd;Wk;
miof;fyhk;. nghJthf thread cs;s gFjpia mLj;J
grooving nra;ag;gLk;. Workpiece MdJ chucky; gpbf;fg;gl;L
lathe mr;rpy; RoYk;. Grooving toolI lathe mr;rpw;F
nrq;Fj;jhf efh;j;jp workpieceI Njitahd mstpw;F under
cutting nra;ayhk;. ,e;j operation nra;Ak; NghJ carriageI
lock nra;a Ntz;Lk;.

6) Parting off
Njitahd msT kw;Wk; tbtj;jpw;F turning nra;j
gpwF workpieceI ntl;b gphpg;gJ parting off MFk;. Workpiece
MdJ chucky; gpbf;fg;gl;L lathe mr;rpy; Fiwthd
Ntfj;jpy; RoYk;. Parting toolI lathe mr;rpw;F nrq;Fj;jhf
workpieced; ikaj;ij Nehf;fp efh;j;j Ntz;Lk;. Parting off
nra;Ak; NghJ carriageI lock nra;a Ntz;Lk;.
4.42
 Jaw
Work piece

Feed

Parting tool

Fig.4.37 Parting off

7) Knurling
Workpieced; Nky; gripMd gug;ig Vw;gLj;j knurling
nra;ag; gLfpwJ. ,e;j gug;ghdJ nghJthf diamond
tbtpy; ,Uf;Fk;. Knurling tooly; fbdg;gLj;jg;gl;l cUz;il
tbt steel rollerfs; cs;sd. Rollerd; gw;fs; fine, medium
my;yJ coarse Mf ,Uf;Fk;.

Work piece

Feed
Knurling tool

Fig.4.38 Knurling

Workpiece MdJ chucky; gpbf;fg;gl;L lathe mr;rpy;

RoYk;. Tool posty; knurling tool nghUj;jg;gl;L workpiece kPJ
mOj;jp lathe mr;rpw;F ,izahf efh;j;j Ntz;Lk;. Knurling
toold; Fwpg;gpl;l pattern MdJ workpiece surfacey; Vw;gLfpwJ.
Workpiece kpf Fiwthd Ntfj;jpy Roy Ntz;Lk;. Knurling
nra;Ak; nghJ workpieced; diameter rpwpjsT mjpfhpf;fpwJ.

4.43
7) Forming
Convex form Concave form
End radius

Feed

Form tools
Fig.4.39 Forming
Form toolIg; gad;gLj;jp concave, convex kw;Wk;
xOq;fw;w tbtq;fis workpiecey; Vw;gLj;JtJ forming
MFk;. Toold; cutting edgeMdJ Njitahd tbtj;jpw;F vw;g
grinding nra;ag;gl;bUf;Fk;. Form tool MdJ Rw;wpf;
nfhz;bUf;Fk; workpieceI Nehf;fp lathe mr;rpw;F
nrq;Fj;jhf efh;j;jg;gLfpwJ.
9) Eccenitric turning
Work piece
Eccentric centre axis
True centre axis

Eccentric
Live centre Dead centre

Fig.4.40 Eccentric turning

ntt;NtW ikak; nfhz;l (crank shaft Nghd;w)
workpiecey; Njitahd ikaj;ij mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L
turning nra;tJ eccentric turning vdg;gLk;. Eccentric turning
nra;tjw;F workpieced; ,uz;L KidfspYk; ,uz;L
Jisfs; ,l Ntz;Lk;. Kjypy; workpieceI true center axisy;
nghUj;jp turning nra;ag;gLfpwJ. gpwF workpieceI eccentric
centre axisy; nghUj;jp eccentric gFjpahdJ turning
nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
4.44
10) Drilling
nghJthf workpiecey; JisapLtJ drilling vdg;gLk;.
Workpiece MdJ chuck my;yJ face platey; nghUj;jg;gl;L lathe
mr;rpy; RoYk;. Drill bitI tail stock spindley; Neubahf my;yJ
drill chuck my;yJ socket %yk; nghUj;jyhk;. Tail stockI bedy;
efh;j;jp workpiecef;F mUfpy; clamp nra;a Ntz;Lk;.
Work piece Drill Tail stock

Fig.4.41 Drilling
Tail stock hand wheelI Row;wp drill bitf;F feed
nfhLf;fg;gLfpwJ. Drilling nra;Ak; NghJ coolant gad;gLj;j
Ntz;Lk;. Tail stock spindley; cs;s msTfs; %yk; Jisapd;
ePsj;ij mwpayhk;.
11) Reaming
Work piece Reamer Tail stock

Hole

Fig.4.42 Reaming
Drilling nra;ag;gl;l Jisia rhpahd tbtk; kw;Wk;
msTf;F finishing nra;tJ reaming vdg;gLk;. ReamerI tail
stock spindley; nghUj;jp RoYk; workpiecey; feed nfhLf;f
Ntz;Lk;.
12) Boring
Drilling nra;ag;gl;l Jisia nghpjhf;FtJ boring
vdg;gLk;. Workpiece MdJ chuck my;yJ face platey;
4.45
gpbf;fg;gl;L lathe mr;rpy; RoYk;. Boring tool MdJ tool posty;
nghUj;jg;gl;L cross slide %yk; depth of cut nfhLf;fg;gLk;.
CarriageI lathe mr;rpw;F ,izahf efh;j;jp boring
nra;ag;gLfpwJ.

Work piece
Boring bar

Tool
Hole

Fig.4.43 Boring

12) Taper turning

WorkpieceI $k;G tbtj;jpy; turning nra;tJ taper
turning vdg;gLk;. fPof
; ;fz;l Kiwfspy; taper turning
nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
a) Form tool method
b) Compound rest method
c) Tail stock set over method
d) Taper turning attachment method
e) By combining longitudinal and cross feed

a) Form tool method

Chuck

Work piece

(Half taper angle)


Form tool

Fig.4.44 Form tool method

4.46
 ,e;j Kiwapy; Njitahd taper anglef;F toolI grinding
nra;a Ntz;Lk;. Form tool MdJ tool posty; nghUj;jg;gl;L
lathe mr;rpw;F nrq;Fj;jhf efh;j;jp taper turning
nra;ag;gLfpwJ. ,k;Kiwapy; taper length MdJ tool d; cutting
edge ePsj;ij tpl Fiwthf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. Workpiecey;
Fiwe;j ePsj;jpw;F kl;Lk; taper turning nra;a KbAk;.
b) Compound rest method
,e;j Kiwapy; lathe mr;rpy; RoYk; workpieceI
Nehf;fp tool MdJ Fwpg;gpl;l Nfhzj;jpy; efh;j;jg;gl;L taper
turning nra;ag; gLfpwJ.
Nfhz msTfs; Fwpf;fg;gl;l circular based; kPJ
compound rest nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;. Circular baseI Njitahd
Nfhzj;jpw;F (Half taper angle) Row;wp compound restI
nghUj;jyhk;. Compound resty; cs;s hand wheel %yk; toolI
lathe mr;rpw;F rha;thf efh;j;jp taper turning nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
Toolf;F hand feed kl;LNk nfhLf;f KbAk;.
Chuck

Work piece

Half taper angle)

Tool
Swivel

Compound rest

Half taper
angle)
Degree
marking
Fig.4.45 Compound rest method
𝑫−𝒅
Half taper angle, 𝜶 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 ( )
𝟐𝒍
𝐷 – Large diameter of taper
𝑑 – Small diameter of taper
𝑙 – length of taper
4.47
c) Tail stock set over method
𝑫−𝒅
Set over, 𝑺 = 𝑳 × ( )
𝟐𝒍
𝐷 – Large diameter of taper
𝑑 – Small diameter of taper
𝐿 – Length of work piece
𝑙 – length of taper
Workpieced; KO ePsj;jpw;Fk; taper turning nra;a Ntz;Lnkdpy;>
𝑫−𝒅
Set over, 𝑺 = ( )
𝟐

L
l
Tail stock centre
D

Set over
d

Work piece
Tool
Head stock centre

Fig.4.46 Tail stock set over method

Set over screwit jpUfp tail stockI FWf;F thf;fpy;

(cross wise) efh;j;jyhk;. Tail stock centreI lathe mr;rpypUe;J
efh;j;jp mikf;Fk; J}uk; set over MFk;. Workpiece MdJ
dead centre kw;Wk; live centref;F ,ilapy; nghUj;jg;gLfpwJ.
Set over nra;tjhy; workpieced; mr;rhdJ lathe mr;rpypUe;J
Fwpg;gpl;l Nfhzj;jpy; ,Uf;Fk;. RoYk; workpieceI Nehf;fp
tool MdJ lathe mr;rpw;F ,izahf efh;j;jg;gl;L taper
turning nra;ag;gLfpwJ.

,k;KiwahdJ ePskhd workpiecey; Fiwe;j Nfhz

msTf;F taper nra;a gad;gLfpwJ.
4.48
d) Taper turning attachment method
,e;j attachmenty; cs;s bracket MdJ lathe bedd;
gpd; gf;fk; nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;. ,jpy; Nfhz msTfs;
Fwpf;fg;gl;l guide barI Row;wp lathe mr;rpy; ,Ue;J
Njitahd Nfhzj;jpy; setting nra;ayhk;. Guide bary; guide
block cs;sJ. ,J cross slide cld; ,izf;fg; gl;bUf;Fk;.
Binder screw it ntspNa vLj;J cross slide MdJ
guide block cld; Nrh;e;J efUk; tifapy; nghUj;j Ntz;Lk;.
Workpiece MdJ chucky; gpbf;fg;gl;L mjd; mr;rpy; RoYk;.
Toolf;F longitudinal feed nfhLf;Fk; NghJ guide bar
mikf;fg;gl;l Nfhzj;jpy; tool efh;e;J taper turning
nra;fpwJ. Compound restI lathe mr;rpw;;F nrq;Fj;jhfg;
nghUj;jp depth of cut nfhLf;f Ntz;Lk;.
Bracket Guide block
Guide bar

Builder screw Cross slide

Work piece

Tool

Fig.4.47 Taper turning attachment method

Taper turning attachment %yk; steep taper, long taper,
internal taper Nghd;wit nra;a KbAk;.
𝑫−𝒅
Half taper angle, 𝜶 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 ( )
𝟐𝒍
𝐷 – Large diameter of taper
𝑑 – Small diameter of taper
𝑙 – length of taper
4.49
 e) By combining longitudinal and cross feed
Toolf;F xNu Neuj;jpy; longitudinal kw;Wk; cross feed
nfhLf;fg;gl;L taper turning nra;ag;gLfpwJ. ,e;j Kiwapy;
Jy;ypakhf taper nra;a KbahJ. ,ij nra;tjw;F
jpwikahd operator Njit.
14) Thread cutting
Cylindrical workpiecey; V kw;Wk; square tbt helical
grooveit Vw;gLj;JtJ thread cutting vdg;gLk;. Cylindrical
jobd; Nkw;gug;gpy; thread cutting nra;tjw;F external thread
cutting vd;W ngah;. Jisapd; cs; gug;gpy; thread cutting
nra;tjw;F internal thread cutting my;yJ tapping vd;W ngah;.
Die kw;Wk; cutting toolI gad;gLj;jp external thread cutting
nra;ayhk;. Tap kw;Wk; cutting toolI gad;gLj;jp internal thread
cutting nra;ayhk;.
Head stock
spindle Work piece Tail stock
Driver spindle

Threading tool
Change gears

Carriage

Driven Lead screw

Fig.4.48 Thread cutting
Lead screwI change gears %yk; main spindle cld;
,izf;f Ntz;Lk;. Workpieced; xt;nthU Rw;Wf;F
ntl;lg;gl Ntz;ba threadd; pitchf;F rkkhf longitudinal feed
nfhLf;f Ntz;Lk;. Lead screw kw;Wk; main spindle xNu
Ntfj;jpy;; Roy;tjw;F change gearfs; MdJ Fwpg;gpl;l gear
ratioy; nghUj;jg;gl Ntz;Lk;. Threading toolI tool posty;
rhpahfg; nghUj;jp depth of cut nfhLf;fg;gLfpwJ. Lead
screwit carriage cld; half nut %yk; engage nra;a Ntz;Lk;.
,g;NghJ tool MdJ lead screw %yk; longitudinal directiony;
automatic Mf efh;e;J thread cutting nra;fpwJ.
4.50
 ntt;NtW pitch nfhz;l threadfis Vw;gLj;j
rhpahd change gearfis nghUj;jp lead screwtpd; Ntfj;ij
khw;w Ntz;Lk;. Change gearfspd; gear ratio fPo;f;fz;lthW
fzf;fplg;gLfpwJ.

Driver teeth
Gear ratio =
Driven teeth
spindle gear teeth
,

=
Leads crew gear teeth
Pitch of the work
=
Pitch of the lead screw

Driver
(Stude gears)
Driver
First stud

Intermediate Second
Idler gears stud

Driven

Driven
(Gear on lead screw) Lead screw
(a) Simple gear train (b) Compound gear train

Fig.4.49 Gear train

ngUk;ghYk; lathefspy; 5d; klq;fhf 20 Kjy; 120 teeh

tiu cs;s gearfs; ,Uf;Fk;. Simple gear train, compound gear
train vd ,uz;L tif change gearfs; %yk; Njitahd
gear ratio ngwg;gLfpwJ.

Right hand thread cutting nra;Ak; NghJ lead screw

kw;Wk; spindle xNu directiony; Rw;Wk;. Tool (carriage) MdJ
head stockI Nehf;fp efUk;. Left hand thread cutting nra;Ak;
NghJ lead screw MdJ spindlef;F vjph; jpirapy; Rw;Wk;.
Tool (carriage) MdJ tail stockI Nehf;fp efUk;.

4.51
4.15 Cutting speed, feed, depth of cut and metal removal rate

1) Cutting speed ( Vc )
RoYk; workpiecey; ,Ue;J tool xU epkplj;jpy; ntl;b
vLf;Fk; chipd; ePsk; cutting speed vdg;gLk;.
πDN
Cutting speed, Vc = (m / min)
1000
,q;F, D – Workpieced; diameter (mm),
N – Workpiece RoYk; Ntfk; (rpm)
2) Feed
Workpieced; xU KOr; Rw;Wf;F tool efUk; J}uk; feed
vdg;gLk;. ,J mm/revolution vd;w myfhy; Fwpg;gplg;
gLfpwJ.
L
Feed , f =
N × Tm
,q;F, L – Length of cut (mm)
N – Workpiece RoYk; Ntfk; (rpm)
Tm – Machining time / Cutting time (min)

xU Fwpg;gpl;l cutting speedy;> kpff; Fiwe;j feed

nfhLf;Fk; NghJ tool faced; Nky; fle;J nry;Yk; chipfspd;
gug;gsT mjpfkhf ,Ug;gjhy; tool Nja;khdk; milfpwJ.
mNj Neuj;jpy; mjpf feed nfhLj;jhYk; toold; Nky;
nray;gLk; force mjpfhpf;fpwJ. ,jdhy; tool vspjpy;
Nja;tile;J tool life FiwfpwJ. vdNt tool lifeI mjpfhpf;f
rhpahd feed nfhLf;f Ntz;Lk;.

3) Depth of cut
Cutting toolI xU Kiw efh;j;Jk; NghJ workpiecey;
,Ue;J ePf;fg;gLk; materiald; jbkd; MdJ depth of cut
vdg;gLk;.
Di  Df
Depth of cut , t 
2
,q;F, Di – Workpieced; Muk;g diameter
Df – Workpieced; ,Wjp diameter

4.52
 xU Fwpg;gpl;l cutting speedy;> depth of cut mjpfkhf
,Uf;Fk; NghJ toold; Nky; nray;gLk; cutting force
mjpfhpf;fpwJ. ,jdhy; tool vspjpy; Nja;khdk; mile;J tool
life FiwfpwJ. vdNt tool lifeI mjpfhpf;f rhpahd depth of
cut nfhLf;f Ntz;Lk;.

4) Metal Removal Rate (or) Material Removal Rate (MRR)

XuyF Neuj;jpy; ntl;b ePf;fg;gLk; metald; fd
msthdJ Metal Removal Rate (MRR) vdg;gLk;. xU
workpiecey; ,Ue;J Fwpg;gpl;l msT metalI ntl;b
ePf;Ftjw;F Njitg;gLk; Neuj;ij fzf;fpl ,J
cjTfpwJ.
MRR  Cutting speed  Feed  Depth of cut
πDN
MRR  Vc  f  t   f  t (mm3/min)
1000
,q;F, D – Workpieced; diameter (mm),
N – Workpiece RoYk; Ntfk; (rpm)
f – feed (mm/rev)
t – Depth of cut (mm)

4.16 SEMI AUTOMATIC LATHE

Semi automatic lathe vd;gJ loading, unloading kw;Wk;
toolI machining positionf;F nfhz;L tUtJ Mfpait
manualMfTk; kw;w vy;yh operationfSk; automatic MfTk;
nra;af; $ba xU machine MFk;.
4.16.1 Types of semi automatic lathes
Semi automatic lathey; fPo;fz;l ,uz;L tiffs; cs;sd.
1) Capstan lathe my;yJ Ram type lathe
2) Turret lathe my;yJ Saddle type lathe

4.17 Capstan and turret lathe

Capstan my;yJ turret lathey; fPo;f;fz;l Kf;fpa ghfq;fs;
cs;sd.
1) Bed 2) Head stock
3) Cross slide 4) Turret head and saddle
5) Preset stops
4.53
 Head stock Hexagonal turret
Cross slide
tool post Ram slide
Ram

Preset
stop rods

Feed rod Lathe bed

Cross slide
saddle

Fig.4.50 Capstan lathe

Capstan my;yJ turret lathey; tail stock ,y;iy. mjw;F
gjpyhf hexagonal turret head xd;W nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;.
,jpy; 6 toolfis nghUj;jp preset nra;a KbAk;.
4.17.1 Bed
,J cast ironMy; nra;ag;gl;lJ. Vibration kw;Wk; heavy
load Mfpatw;iw jhq;Ftjw;Nfw;g bed tbtikf;fg;
gl;bUf;Fk;. Bedd; xU Kidapy; head stockk; kWKidapy;
turret saddlek; nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;. ,jd; Nky; turret
efUtjw;F guideways mikf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;.
4.17.2 Head Stock
Capstan my;yJ turret lathey; fPo;f;fz;l VNjDk; xU
head stock mikf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;.
1) Step cone pulley head stock
2) Electric motor driven head stock
3) All geared head stock
Step cone pulley head stocky; 3 my;yJ 4 stepfis
cila pulleyia main spindle cld; nghUj;jp gy;NtW
Ntfq;fs; ngwg;gLfpwJ. Rw;wpf; nfhz;bUf;Fk; xU shafty;
,Ue;J belt %yk; step cone pulleyf;F Row;rp ngwg;gl;L main
spinldle Rw;WfpwJ.
4.54
 All geared head stock xU constant speed motor %yk; ,af;fg;
gLfpwJ. Motor shaftypUe;J V - belt %yk; power MdJ gear
boxf;F khw;wg;gLfpwJ. Gear boxy; cs;s leverfis khw;Wtjd;
%yk; ntt;NtW spindle speed ngwg;gLfpwJ. ,t;tif head
stock MdJ heavy duty kw;Wk; smooth operationfSf;F Vw;wJ.

4.17.3 Cross Slide

Head stock kw;wk; turret headf;F ,ilapy; cross slide
nghUj;jg; gl;Ls;sJ. ,J spindle mr;Rf;F ,izahfTk;
nrq;Fj;jhfTk; efUk;. ,jpy; Kd;Gwk; front tool post, gpd;Gwk;
rear tool post vd ,uz;L tool postfs; cs;sd. Front tool posty;
cs;s square turrety; 4 toolfSk; rear tool posty; xU toolk;
nghUj;j KbAk;. Square turretI 90°f;F indexing nra;J
ntt;NtW toolfis working positionf;F nfhz;L tuyhk;.

nghJthf front tool posty; facing, forming, chamfering

Nghd;w operation nra;Ak; toolfs; nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;. Rear
tool posty; parting my;yJ cutting off tool jiyfPohf
nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;.
Head stock
Hexagonal turret
Cross slide
tool post

Turret saddle

Feed rod Lathe bed

Cross slide
saddle

Fig.4.51 Turret lathe

4.55
4.17.4 Turret Head and saddle
Turret head vd;gJ 6 ntt;NtW toolfis nghUj;jf; $ba
hexagonal tbt mikg;G MFk;. ,J nrq;Fj;J mr;rpy;
indexing (xU Fwpg;gpl;l Nfhzj;jpw;F Rw;wtJ) MfpwJ.

Xt;nthU faceYk; cs;s threaded holesy; tool holderfs;

nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;. xU machining operation Kbe;jTld;
turret head MdJ starting positionf;F tUk; NghJ jhdhfNt
60°f;F Indexing nra;J mLj;j toolI working positionf;F
nfhz;L tUk;. Turret indexing mechanism %yk; turret head
MdJ mLj;jLj;j positionf;F nfhz;L tug;gLfpwJ.

Capstan lathey; cs;s turret head MdJ ramy;

nghUjjg;gl;L saddle kPJ efUk;gb mikf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;.
Machining nra;Ak; NghJ saddle Njitahd ,lj;jpy;
epiyahf nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;. Mdhy; turret lathey; turretk;
saddlek; xNu gFjpahf ,ize;J bedy; cs;s guidewaysy;
efUk;. Turret lathey; ram fpilahJ.

Hexagonal turrety; 6 toolfSk; front tool posty; 4 tool fSk;

rear tool posty; xU toolk; nkhj;jk; 11 toolfis nghUj;jp
ntt;NtW operationfs; nra;a Kbak;.

4.17.5 Preset stops or Feed stop rods

Turret heady; cs;s 6 toolfspd; mjpfgl;r efh;tpid
fl;Lg;gLj;j 6 adjustable stopfs; cs;sd. Turret head MdJ
index MFk; NghJ ,e;j adjustable stopfSk; index Mfp
Fwpg;gpl;l adjustable stop MdJ control positionf;F tUk;. xU
Fwpg;gpl;l toolf;fhd turretd; efh;tpid adjustable stop %yk;
preset nra;ayhk;.

4.18 Working principle of turret and capstan lathe

Hexagonal turrety; nghJthf drilling, reaming, boring,
turning, knurling Nghd;w operationfs; nra;tjw;Fhpa tool fs;
nghUj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;. Cross slidey; cs;s front tool posty;
4.56
turning, facing, forming
kw;Wk; undrer cut Nghd;w operation
fSf;Fg; gad;gLk; toolfs; mjd; operation thpirg;gb
nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk; Rear tool posty; parting off tool jiyfPohf
nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;. Front kw;Wk; rear tool post fs; efUk;
J}uj;ij preset stopfs; nfhz;L fl;Lg;gLj;jyhk;.

Head stock Rear tool post

Cross slide Hexagonal turret
Chuck

11 6 5

1 4
7
8 10 3
2
9

Front tool post

Fig.4.52 Simple sketch of capstan / turret lathe

Cylinder my;yJ hexagonal tbtpy; cs;s bar stock

(ePskhd bar)I ,Wf;fpg; gpbg;gjw;F collet my;yJ jaw chuck
gad;gLfpwJ. Automatic bar feeding mechanism %yk; bar
stock MdJ machining positionf;F efh;j;jg;gLfpwJ. Bar stock
ntsptu Ntz;ba msit turret heady; cs;s bar stop
fl;Lg;gLj;JfpwJ.

Operationfspd; thpirg;gb turret head kw;Wk; tool post fs;

efh;j;jg;gLk;. Machining nra;Ak; NghJ turret headI ,lJ
Gwkhf efh;j;j Ntz;Lk;. xt;nthU operation Kbe;jJk; turret
headI gpd;Ndhf;fp efh;j;jp mjd; gioa epiyf;F nfhz;L
tUk; NghJ> turret indexing mechanism %yk; 60°f;F indexing
nra;ag;gl;L turrety; cs;s mLj;j tool positionf;F tUk;. mNj
Neuj;jpy; turret heady; cs;s 6 adjustable stopfSk; index Mfp
positionf;F nfhz;L tug;gLk;. ,t;thW midj;J operation
fSk; Kbe;j gpd;G rear tool posty; cs;s parting off tool %yk;
job MdJ bar stockypUe;J ntl;b gphpf;fg;gLk;.

4.57
4.18.1 Geneva mechanism or turret indexing mechanism
Turret saddley; cs;s vertical spindley; turret head, 6
slotfs; cs;s circular index plate kw;Wk; bevel gear Mfpait
nghUj;jg;gl;Ls;sd. Saddley; cs;s spring %yk; ,aq;Fk;
plunger MdJ index plateI lock nra;fpwJ. Plungery; projecting
pin xd;W nghUj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;. Spring %yk; ,aq;Fk; cam
kw;Wk; indexing pawl Mfpait lathe bedy; Njitahd
,lj;jpy; nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;. Turret efUk; J}uj;ij set
nra;tjw;F xU shaft cs;sJ. ,jd; xU Kidapy; bevel
pinionk; kWKidapy; 6 adjustable stopfs; cs;s circular platek;
nghUj;jg; gl;Ls;sd.

Spring

Plunger
Turret
Cam
Index plate

Ratchet wheel

Turret spindle

Pawl pin
Pawl

Fig.4.53 Turret indexing mechanism

xU operation Kbe;J turretI gpd;Ndhf;fp efh;j;Jk;

NghJ plungery; cs;s projecting pin MdJ camd; rha;thd
gFjpapd; Nky; efUfpwJ. ,jdhy; plunger MdJ index
plated; sloty; ,Ue;J ntspNaWfpwJ. Indexing pawl MdJ
ratchety; nghUe;jp index plate kw;Wk; turretI 60°f;F (1/6 Rw;W)
Rw;WfpwJ. ,g;NghJ projecting pin MdJ camy; ,Ue;J
tpLgLtjhy; plunger MdJ index plated; sloty; lock MfpwJ.
Turret Rw;Wk; NghJ bevel gear kw;Wk; bevel pinion Rod;W
circular plateI 60of;F (1/6 Rw;W) Rw;WfpwJ.

4.58
4.18.2 Bar feeding mechanism
Turret kw;Wk; capstan lathefspy; bar stockMdJ bar
feeding machanism %yk; automaticMf feed nra;ag;gLfpwJ.

,jpy; head stockd; gpd;Gwk; slotted tube xd;W

standfshy; jhq;fg; gl;bUf;Fk;. ,e;j tubey; xU pusher
efuf; $bajha; mike;jpUf;Fk;. ,uz;L Gs;spfs; topahf
nry;Yk; wire rope (v/F fapW)d; xU Kid pusher clDk;
kWKid dead weight clDk; ,izf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;.

Tube Wire rope Head stock

Slot Pusher

Pulley

Weight Stand

Fig.4.54 Bar feeding mechanism

Bar stock MdJ head stock spindley; cs;s colletf;Fs;

nrYj;jg;gLfpwJ. Dead weightd; %yk; fpilf;Fk;
mOj;jj;jpdhy; pusher MdJ bar stockd; xU Kidia
mOj;jpf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;. ColletI jpwe;jTld; pusherd;
mOj;jj;jpdhy; bar stock Kd;Ndhf;fp efh;e;J vjph; Kidapy;
turret heady; cs;s bar stopy; Nkhjp epd;W tpLk;. gpd;G collet
leverI ,af;Fk;NghJ> bar stockI collect ,Wf;fpg; gpbj;Jf;
nfhs;fpwJ. ,t;thW machineI epWj;jhkNyNa bar stock
MdJ automatic Mf feed nra;ag;gLfpwJ.

4.59
4.19 Difference between capstan lathe and turret lathe
Capstan lathe
1) ,J xU light duty
machine.
2) Turret head, ramy;
nghUj;jg;gl;L ramMdJ
saddled; kPJ efUk;.
3) Machining nra;Ak; NghJ
saddle efuhJ.
4) Turret headd; lengthwise
movement FiwT.
5) ePsk; Fiwthd
workpiecefi kl;LNk
machining nra;a KbAk;.
6) Turet head, ram d; kPJ
cs;sjhy; efh;j;JtJ
vspJ.
7) Turret headf;F cross wise
movement ,y;iy.
8) Lathed; construction
cWjpahdjy;y. vdNt
heavy cut nfhLf;f
KbahJ.
9) 60mm tiu tpl;lk; cs;s
work piecefis machining
nra;ayhk;.
10) Workpiecefis
gpbg;gjw;F collet
gad;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ.
4.60
Turret lathe
,J xU heavy duty
machine.
Turret head Neubahf
saddley; nghUj;jg;gl;L
bed waysy; efUk;.
Machining nra;Ak; NghJ
turret head cld; saddlek;
Nrh;e;J efUk;.
Turret headd; legnthwise
movement mjpfk;.
ePskhd
workpiecefisAk;
machining nra;a KbAk;.
Saddle cld; turret
headI efh;j;JtJ
fbdk;.
rpy turret lathefspy;
turret headf;F cross wise
movementk; cz;L.
Lathed; construction cWjp
ahdJ. vdNt heavy cut
nfhLf;f KbAk;.
200 mm tiu tpl;lk;
cs;s work piecefis
machining nra;ayhk;.
Workpiecefis
gpbg;gjw;F jaw chucks
gad;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ.
4.20 Difference between centre lathe and capstan / turret lathe
Centre lathe Capstan / Turret lathe
1) ,J xU manually operated ,J xU semi automatic
lathe. lathe.
2) ,jpy; xU tool post ,jpy; front kw;Wk; rear vd
kl;LNk cs;sJ. ,uz;L tool postfs; cs;sd.
3) Tail stock cs;sJ. Tail stockf;F gjpy; turret
head cs;sJ.
4) Tail stocky; xU tool Turret heady; 6 ntt;NtW
kl;LNk nghUj;j KbAk; toolfis nghUj;jyhk;.
5) Number of speeds FiwT. Number of speeds mjpfk;.
6) Tool changing time mjpfk; Tool changing time FiwT
7) ToolI khw;Wk; NghJ ToolI khw;Wk;NghJ
machineI epWj;j machineI epWj;j
Ntz;Lk;. Ntz;bajpy;iy.
8) Mass productionf;F Mass productionf;F Vw;wJ.
Vw;wjy;y.
9) Tool I control nra;a feed Feed stopfs; cjtpahy; tool
stopfs; fpilahJ. MdJ control nra;ag;
gLfpwJ.
10) Toolfis nghUj;jpa Tool centering MdJ
gpd;G manual Mf centering automatic Mf nra;ag;gLk;.
nra;a Ntz;Lk;.
11) xNu Neuj;jpy; xU operation xNu Neuj;jpy; gy
kl;LNk nra;a KbAk;. operationfs; nra;ayhk;.

4.21 Work holding devices

WorkpieceI ,Wf;fp gripMf gpbf;fg; gad;gLtNj work
holding device MFk;. fPo;f;fz;l VNjDk; xU work holding device
MdJ capstan kw;Wk; turret lathey; gad;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ.
Work holding devices

Collets Jaw chucks Fixtures

1) Draw back collet 1) Two jaw chuck
2) Push out collet 2) Three jaw chuck
3) Dead length collet 3) Four jaw chuck
4) Air operated chuck
4.61
4.21.1 Collet or collet chuck
Collet vd;gJ taper nose cld; $ba cUis tbtpyhd
steel bush MFk;. ,J capstan kw;Wk; turret lathefspy; bar stockI
,Wf;fpg; gpbg;gjw;F gad;gLfpwJ. ,jpy; cs;s %d;W
slitfs; %yk; spring action fpilf;fpwJ. Colletd; bore MdJ
cgNahfg;gLj;Jk; bar stockd; msitAk; shapeIAk;
nghUj;J circularMfNth hexagonal shapeMfNth ,Uf;Fk;.
ntt;NtW msTs;s bar stockI gpbf;f ntt;NtW collet
chuckI gad;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;. ColletI gad;gLj;jp workpieceI
accurate centering cld; quick setting nra;a KbAk;. ,jpy;
fPo;f;fz;l %d;W tiffs; cs;sd.
i) Draw back collet ii) Push out collet iii) Dead length collet
i) Draw back collet or draw in collet
Spindle nose
Nose Collet
Slot

Bar stock

Fig.4.55 Collet Fig.4.56 Draw back collet

,jpy; collet nosek; spindle nosek; ,lJ Gwk; Nehf;fp taper

Mf ,Uf;Fk;. Colletd; gpd;Gwk; cs;s thrust tubeI leverd;
cjtpahy; Kd;gpd; efh;j;jyhk;. ColletI Kd;Ndhf;fp
efh;j;Jk; NghJ collet jaws jpwf;fpwJ. ColletI gpd;Ndhf;fp
efu;j;Jk; NghJ colletd; taper gFjp spindled; taperf;Fs;
cs;Nehf;fp efh;tjhy; collet nose FWfp bar stockI ,Wf;fpg;
gpbf;fpwJ. Collety; bar stock ,Wf;fg;gLk; NghJ bar stock
rpwpjsT cs;Nehf;fp ,Of;fg;gLfpwJ.
ii) Push out collet
,jpy; collet nosek; spindle nosek; tyJ Gwk; Nehf;fp
taper Mf cs;sJ. ColletI Kd;Ndhf;fp efh;j;Jk; NghJ
colletd; taper nose MdJ spindled; taper nosef;Fs; efh;e;J
bar stockI ,Wf;fpg; gpbf;fpwJ. ,jpy; collet Kd;Ndhf;fp
4.62
efUk;NghJ bar stock MdJ turrety; cs;s bar stopd; kPJ
Nkhjp rhpahd ePsk; cWjpg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
Spindle nose Spindle
Collet
Collet

Bar stock
Sliding sleeve

Fig.4.57 Push out collet Fig.4.58 Dead length collet

iii) Dead length collet

,jpy; ,lJGwk; Nehf;fp taper Mf cs;s sliding
sleeve, spindlef;Fk; colletf;Fk; ,ilapy; mike;Js;sJ. ,J
collet nosed; taper cld; rhpahf nghUe;Jk;. Thrust tubed;
cjtpahy; sliding sleeve Kd;Ndhf;fp efUk;NghJ collet noseI
neUf;fpf; FWfr; nra;tjhy; bar stockI ,Wf;fpg; gpbf;fpwJ.
,jpy; collet Kd;gpd; efuhky; ,Ug;gjhy; bar stock rhpahd
msTf;F feed nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
4.22.2 Jaw chucks
nghJthf jaw chuckfs; fdkhd> nghpa kw;Wk;
xOq;fw;w nghUl;fisg; gpbg;gjw;F gad;gLfpd;wd.
,tw;wpy; fPo;fhZk; tiffs; cs;sd.
1) Two jaw chuck 2) Three jaw chcuk
3) Four jaw chuck 4) Air operated chuck.
1) Two jaw chuck
,J ,uz;L jawf;fSld; $ba self centering chuck
MFk;. ,tw;wpy; rpwg;G tbt holding deviceI nghUj;jp
irregular shapeMd nghUl;fisAk; gpbf;fr; nra;ayhk;.

2) Three jaw chuck

,jpy; radial directiony; efUk; %d;W jawf;fs; cs;sd.
,J self centering chuck my;yJ universal chuck vdTk;
miof;fg;gLk;. Chuck key %yk; Row;Wk;NghJ %d;W

4.63
jawf;fSk; xNu Neuj;jpy;(simultaneously) rk J}uk; chuckd;
centerI Nehf;fp efUtjhy; bar stock MdJ center positiony;
,Wf;fpg; gpbf;fg;gLfpwJ. ,J nghJthf round my;yJ
hexagonal bar stockI gpbf;Fk;.

Key socket Jaw

Jaw

Body

Fig.4.59 Three jaw chuck

3) Four jaw chuck

Concentric
circles
Key socket
Work

Jaw

Body

Fig.4.60 Four jaw chuck

,jpy; cs;s ehd;F jawf;fSk; jdpj;jdp

(independent)Mf radial directiony; efUk;gb
mikf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. vdNt ,J four jaw independant chuck
vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;. ,e;j tif chuckfs; irregular shape,
square kw;Wk; cylindrical work pieceI gpbf;fg; gad; gLfpd;wd.
,jpy; cs;s concentric circlefis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L
work pieceI vspjhf centering nra;a KbAk;.

4.64
4) Air operated or pneumatic chuck
Chuck
Link
Cylinder Piston
Piston rod

Head stock
spindle
Air passages Body
Sliding unit

Fig.4.61 Air operated chuck

,t;tif chuck MdJ compressed aird; cjtpahy;

,aq;Fk; ,uz;L jawf;fis cilaJ. Head stockd;
gpd;Gwj;jpy; piston cld; $ba cylinder cs;sJ. Piston rod
MdJ linkfspd; cjtpahy; jawf;fSld; ,izf;fg;
gl;bUf;Fk;.

Pistond; tyJ Gwj;jpy; compressed air MdJ

cylinderf;Fs; nrYj;jg;gLk;NghJ piston ,lJ Gwk; efh;fpwJ.
,jdhy; piston rod cld; ,ize;Js;s jawf;fs; cs;Nehf;fp
efh;e;J bar stockI gripMf ,Wf;fpg; gpbf;fpwJ. Compressed
air MdJ pistonf;F ,lJ Gwj;jpy; nrYj;jg;gLk; NghJ
jawfs; ntsp Nehf;fp efh;e;J bar stockI release nra;fpwJ.
Hand operated valve %yk; air supply control nra;ag;gLfpwJ.

4.21.3 Fixture
Fixture vd;gJ mass productionf;F gad;gLk; special
work holding device MFk;. kw;w work holding devicefshy;
vspjpy; gpbf;f ,ayhj workpiecefis ,jpy; rhpahfTk;
tpiuthfTk; gpbf;f KbAk;. FixtureI gad;gLj;Jtjd; %yk;
loading, locating, clamping kw;Wk; unloading Neuk; ntFthf
Fiwf;fg;gLfpwJ.

4.65
4.22 Tool holding devices
ToolI ,Wf;fp gripMfg; gpbf;fg; gad;gLtNj tool
holding device MFk;. Capstan kw;Wk; turret lathefspy;
gytpjkhd toolfis nghUj;Jtjw;F fPo;f;fz;l nt;NtW
tool holderfs; gad;gLfpd;wd.
1) Straight cutter tool holder
2) Adjustable angle cutter tool holder
3) Multiple cutter tool holder
4) Offset cutter tool holder
5) Sliding tool holder
6) Knee tool holder
7) Flange tool holder
8) Roller steady box tool holder
9) Combination tool holder
10) Self opening die holder
11) Collapsible tap.

1) Straight cutter tool holder

Tool
Tool holder

Feed Shank

Work piece

Fig.4.62 Straight cutter tool holder

,t;tif tool holdery; shank mr;Rf;F nrq;Fj;jhf xU

tool kl;LNk nghUj;j KbAk;. Tool bit MdJ set screw %yk;
holdery; nghUj;jg; gLfpwJ. nghJthf turning, facing, boring
chamfering Mfpa operationfs; nra;Ak; toolfisg; ,jpy;
nghUj;jyhk;.
4.66
2) Adjustable angle cutter tool holder
Adjustable
micrometer screw

Feed
Tool
Work piece

Fig.4.63 Adjustable angle cutter tool holder

,t;tif tool holdery; tool MdJ angular sloty; set

screw %yk; nghUj;jg; gLfpwJ. ,jpy; cs;s adjustable
micrometer screwit jpUfp accurate Mf toolI setting
nra;ayhk;. Tool rha;thf ,Ug;gjhy; jaw my;yJ shoulder
gf;fk; tiu operation nra;ayhk;.

3) Multiple cutter tool holder

Tools

Feed

Work piece

Fig.4.64 Multiple cutter tool holder

,t;tif tool holdery; ,uz;L my;yJ mjw;F Nky;

toolfis nghUj;jp xNu Neuj;jpy; xd;wpw;F Nkw;gl;l operationfs;
nra;a KbAk;. ,jdhy; machining time FiwfpwJ.

4.67
4) Offset cutter tool holder
Holder body
Tool holder axis
Shank axis

offset

Fig.4.65 Offset cutter tool holder

,jpy; tool holder body MdJ shank mr;rpypUe;J offset
nra;ag;gl;bUf;Fk;. ,jd; %yk; nghpa diameter cs;s work
piecefis machining nra;a KbAk;.

5) Sliding tool holder

Hand wheel
Micrometer dial
Vertical slide
Tool

Base

Boring bar
Flange
Fig.4.66 Sliding tool holder

,t;tif tool holdery; NkYk; fPOk; efuf; $ba vertical

slide xd;W cs;sJ. ,e;j slided; movementI hand wheel cld;
nghUj;jg; gl;Ls;s micrometer %yk; accurateMf adjust
nra;ayhk;. ,e;j slidey; cs;s ,uz;L Jisfspy; ,uz;L
toolfisg; nghUj;jyhk;. fPo; cs;s Jisapy; drill, reamer,
boring bar Nghd;w toolfisAk;> Nky; cs;s Jisapy; turning
kw;Wk; facing toolfisAk; nghUj;jyhk;.
4.68
6) Knee tool holder
Pilot bar
guide bush

Knee

Turning tool

Boring bar

Fig.4.67 Knee tool holder

,e;j tif tool holdery; cs;s knee mikg;gpy; %d;W
Jisfs; ,Uf;Fk;. fPNo cs;s Jisapd; centre MdJ lathe
mr;Rld; nghUe;Jtjhy; drill kw;Wk; boring toolfis ,jpy;
nghUj;jyhk;. eLtpy; cs;s Jisapy; turning tool
nghUj;jyhk;. NkNy cs;s Jisapy; guide bush nghUe;Jk;.

7) Flange tool holder

Screws Flange

Fig.4.68 Flange tool holder

4.69
 ,t;tif tool holdery; cs;s cylindriacal borey; drill,
reamer, boring tool Nghd;wtw;iw socket cjtpahy;
nghUj;jyhk;. FlangeI turret facey; Neubahf nghUj;jyhk;.
8) Roller steady box tool holder
Rollers

Work piece
Tool

Fig.4.69 Roller steady box tool holder

,e;j tif tool holdery; cutting toolf;F vjphpy; cs;s

,uz;L rollerfs; machining nra;Ak;NghJ work pieceI support
nra;fpwJ. vdNt heavy cut nfhLf;fyhk;. Rollerfspd;
burnishing action %yk; ey;y surface finish fpilf;fpwJ. ,e;j
rollerfis jobd; diameterf;F Vw;g adjust nra;ayhk;.

9) Combination tool holder

Guide bush

Pilot bar

Workpiece

Boring bar
Fig.4.70 Combination tool holder

4.70
 ,e;j tif tool holdery; xNu Neuj;jpy; gy turning
kw;Wk; boring toolfis nghUj;jp machining nra;a KbAk;.
,e;j tool holderI turret heady; Neubahfg; nghUj;jyhk;.
,jpy; cs;s guide bushy; head stockd; pilot bar nghUe;Jtjhy;
$Ljy; support fpilf;Fk;.

10) Self opening die holder

Handle

Die or chasers

Shank
Die holder

Fig.4.71 Self opening die holder

Self opening die holderMdJ work pieced; Fwpg;gpl;l

ePsj;jpw;F external threadI Jy;ypakhf ntl;Ltjw;F
gad;gLfpwJ. ,jpy; chaserfs; my;yJ die vdg;gLk; ehd;F
thread cutting bladefs; ,Uf;Fk;. Thread cutting Kbe;jTld; die
holdery; ,Uf;Fk; tripper pin MdJ rear tool posty; cs;s stopy;
NkhJtjhy; tripping mechinism ,af;fg;gLfpwJ. ,jdhy;
chaserfs; Muthf;fpy; jpwe;J jobI tpl;L ntspNehf;fp
tUfpwJ. vdNt die holderI gpd;Ndhf;fp efh;j;j spindleI
reverse nra;aNth, epWj;jNth Njitapyiy. ,jdhy;
production time ntFthff; FiwfpwJ.

11) Collapsible tap

Collapsible tap MdJ work pieced; Fwpg;gpl;l ePsj;jpw;F
internal threadI Jy;ypakhf ntl;Ltjw;F gad;gLfpwJ.
,jpy; cs;s shank MdJ tool holdery; nghUe;Jk;. Collapsible
tap bodyapy; bladefs; my;yJ chaserfs; cs;s plunger
nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;.
4.71
 Handle
Body
Chasers or
blades Shank

Trip ring

Fig.4.72 Collapsible tap

Njitahd ePsj;jpw;F thread cutting Kbe;jJk; handle

,af;fg;gLtjhy; chaser MdJ Muthf;fpy; cs;Nehf;fp
efh;fpwJ. ,jdhy; tapd; diameter Fiwe;J tpLk;. ,g;NghJ
spindleI epWj;jhky; my;yJ reverse nra;ahky; tapI
gpd;Ndhf;fp efh;j;jyhk;. ,jdhy; production time ntFthf
FiwfpwJ.

12) Bar stop or work stop

Knurled head Body
Lock nut

Fig.4.73 Bar stop

Colletf;F ntspNa tu Ntz;ba barstockd; rhpahd

ePsj;ij turrety; nghUj;jg;gl;Ls;s bar stop %yk; control
nra;ayhk;. Bar stopy; threaded hole cs;s cylinder body ,Uf;Fk;.
,J turrety; cs;s holdery; nghUe;Jk;. ,e;j threaded holey;
knurling nra;ag;gl;l head screw xd;W nghUj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;.
Njitahd ePsj;jpw;F Vw;g screwI jpUfp lock nut %yk;
,jid lock nra;ayhk;.

4.72
 R e vi e w Qu e s t i o n s

5 marks questions
1) What are the desired properties of cutting tool material?
2) What are the different materials used for manufacturing cutting
tool? State their applications.
3) Discuss the composition and properties of H.S.S cutting tool.
4) What are the principal cutting angles of a single point lathe tool?
Draw and indicate the angles.
5) What is the function of chip breaker?
6) What are the defects you find in the work piece if the tool is not set
properly?
7) What is tool life? Write the equation for determining the tool life.
8) Explain briefly, about any two factors that influence the tool life.
9) Name the different types of lathe and explain any one type briefly.
10) How do you specify the size of lathe?
11) Draw the sketch of a centre lathe and indicate the parts.
12) Sketch and explain the back gear mechanism in a lathe
13) How is tail stock useful in a lathe?
14) Name the types of lathe tool posts and briefly explain any one.
15) Sketch the carriage mechanism of a lathe and label the parts.
16) How automatic longitudinal feed is given in a lathe?
17) Sketch any one work holding device for lathe.
18) Sketch and explain the working of three jaw chuck.
19) Sketch the mechanism of a four jaw chuck and explain.
20) Explain face plates.
21) What are the methods used to support and drive work pieces in a
lathe? Explain any one method.
22) List out the accessories used in a lathe. Write the specific
application of any two.
23) Name the types of lathe centres. Sketch a half centre.
24) Compare steady rest with follower rest.
4.73
25) Explain knurling with a sketch.
26) Explain the principle of thread cutting in a lathe.
27) What are the different methods of taper turning? Explain any one
method.
28) Explain cutting speed for lathe work.
29) Compare a capstan and turret lathe.
30) Distinguish between engine lathe and turret lathe
31) What are the advantages of semi automatic lathe?
32) Sketch a turret indexing mechanism of a lathe.
33) What are the types of collet chucks used in semi automatic lathe?
34) Explain a draw back collet with a neat sketch.
35) Explain an air operated chuck with a sketch.
36) Name any five tool holders used in semi automatic lathes.
37) Sketch and explain an adjustable angle cutter tool holder.
38) Sketch and explain combination tool holder
39) Sketch a self opening die head and name the parts
40) Draw a sketch of collapsible tap and name the parts.
41) Draw a neat sketch of bar stop and describe its functions

10 Marks questions
1) Discuss about various cutting tool materials.
2) Describe with a sketch the nomenclature of single point cutting tool.
3) What are chip breakers? Briefly describe any three types.
4) Define cutting speed and feed. What are the factors considered in
determining the speeds and feeds?
5) Define tool life. What are the factors affecting the tool life?
6) Draw a neat sketch of a lathe and explain the functions of each part.
7) Describe a back geared head stock with a neat sketch.
8) What are the types of head stock used in lathe? Explain the
working of all geared head stock in lathe.
9) What is the importance of carriage in a lathe? Explain with a sketch.

4.74
10) Draw and describe tumbler gear mechanism.
11) Draw and explain apron mechanism of a lathe.
12) By means of a neat sketch explain the function and working of a
quick change gear box.
13) What are the various work holding devices used in lathe? Explain
any two of them with simple sketches.
14) List out the various machining operations done on a lathe. Explain
any two of them with sketch.
15) What are the methods of taper turning in a lathe? Explain any one
method with a sketch.
16) Draw and describe the taper turning by setting over the tail stock
in a lathe.
17) Sketch and explain a milling attachment for lathe.
18) Explain the working of tool post grinder in a lathe.
19) With a neat sketch explain the principal parts of capstan lathe.
20) With the help of a neat sketch describe the working of a turret lathe.
21) Explain with a neat sketch, the working of a bar feeding
mechanism of an automatic lathe.
22) Briefly give an account of differences between turret and capstan
lathe.
23) With a sketch, explain any two work holding devices for a capstan
lathe.
24) With a sketch, explain any two tool holding devices for a turret lathe.
25) Explain the following:
(i) Flange tool holder (ii) Knee tool holder.
26) Explain the self opening die head with the help of a neat sketch.
27) With the help of a neat sketch explain the working of a collapsible
tap used in turret and capstan lathes



4.75
 Unit – V
DRILLING AND METROLOGY
5.1 Introduction
xU work piecey; tl;lkhd Jisia Vw;gLj;Jk;
Kiwf;F drilling vd;W ngah;. ,jw;F gad;gLk; ,ae;jpuk;
drilling machine vdTk;> ,jpy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; tool MdJ drill
my;yJ drill bit vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;. Rod;W
nfhz;bUf;Fk; drillI mjd; mr;R thf;fpy; fPNo efh;j;jp work
pieced; kPJ mOj;Jk;NghJ Jis Vw;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ.

5.2 Types of drills

Jisaplg; gad;gLk; drilly; nghJthf fPo;f;fz;l
tiffs; cs;sd.
1) Flat drill or spade drill
2) Straight fluted drill
3) Twist drill
4) Oil tube drill

Flat drill Straight fluted drill

Straight shank oil tube drill Taper shank twist drill

Fig.5.1 Types of drill

1) Flat drill
,J ‘V’ tbtpy; flat cutting edgeI nfhz;bUf;Fk;.
,jd; cutting angle MdJ 90° apypUe;J 120° tiu NtWgLk;.
SteelMy; Md round rodd; xU Kid forging %yk;
jl;ilahf;fg;gl;L ‘V’ tbt cutting edge cUthf;fg; gLfpwJ.
Cutting edgey; 3° Kjy; 8° tiu clearance nfhLf;fg;
gl;bUf;Fk;. gpj;jis> gpsh];bf;> kuk; Nghd;w kpUJthd
nghUl;fspy; Jisapl ,jidg; gad; gLj;jyhk;. Mdhy;
,e;j drillIf; nfhz;L rhpahd mstpy; Jisapl Kbahjjhy;
,J mjpf mstpy; gad;gLj;jg; gLtjpy;iy.
5.1
2) Straight fluted drill
,e;j tif drilld; fluteMdJ Neuhf ,Uf;Fk;.
,jidf; nfhz;L JisapLk;NghJ chips vspjpy;
ntsptUtjpy;iy. vdNt ,J jw;NghJ mjpfk;
gad;gLj;jg;gLtjpy;iy. Sheet metal kw;Wk; kpUJthd
nghUl;fspy; Jisapl ,jidg; gad;gLj;jyhk;.
3) Twist drill
,e;j tif drill jhd; jw;NghJ mjpf mstpy; gad;
gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. cUis tbtpy; cs;s ,jd; bodyy; helical
flutefs; ntl;lg; gl;bUf;Fk;. Fluted; Kbtpy; cutting edge
$k;G tbtpy; cUthf;fg; gl;bUf;Fk;. HSS my;yJ carbon
steelMy; nra;ag;gl;l ,e;j tif drillfs; gy;NtW
msTfspy; fpilf;fpd;wd. nghJthf 12 kp.kP tiu staright
shankk;> mjw;F Nky; taper shankk; nfhz;L twist drillfs;
jahhpf;fg; gLfpd;wd.
4) Oill tube drill
Twist drill tifiar; Nrh;e;j ,jpy; flute topahf cutting
edge tiu cl;Gwkhf ,uz;L Jisfs; Nghlg;gl;bUf;Fk;.
Drilling eilngWk;NghJ> ,j;Jisfs; topahf coolant oil
nrYj;jg;gl;L cutting edge Fspu;tpf;fg;gLk;. NkYk;
mOj;jg;gl;l fhw;iw nrYj;Jk;NghJ chips vspjpy;
ntspNaw;wg;gLk;.
5.3 Twist drill nomenclature
ngUk;ghYk; gad; gLj;jg;gLk; xU twist drilld;
ghfq;fs; glj;jpy; fhl;lg; gl;Ls;sd.
1) Tang : ,J taper shankd; jl;ilahd Kid MFk;. Spindley;
cs;s sloty; ,J rhpahf nghUe;jp drill bitf;F Row;rpiaf;
nfhLf;fpwJ.

2) Shank: Machine spindle my;yJ VNjDk; xU tool holding

devicey; nghUe;Jk; ,e;jg; ghfk; NeuhfNth my;yJ taper
MfNth ,Uf;Fk;. ngUk;ghYk; Morse taper cs;s shank
gad; gLj;jg; gLfpwJ.

5.2
3) Neck: ,J drilld; bodyf;Fk; shankf;Fk; ,ilg;gl;l ghfk;
MFk;. Bodyd; tpl;lj;ij tpl ,jd; tpl;lk; Fiwthf
,Uf;Fk;. Drilld; msT kw;Wk; gy tpguq;fs; ,jd; kPJ
Fwpf;fg; gl;bUf;Fk;.
Flute length
Helix angle

Drill axis Neck Flute Land

Tang Heel

Shank Body
Overall length
Fig.5.2 Nomenclature of twist drill

4) Body : ,J drilld; Kf;fpa gFjp MFk;. Bodyy; fPo;f;fz;l

ghfq;fs; cs;sd.
a) Flutes : ,it bodyd; Nkw;gug;gpy; ntl;lg;gl;l helical
grooves MFk;. Flute fPo;f;fz;l Ntiyfisr; nra;fpwJ.
i) Cutting edgeI cUthf;FfpwJ.
ii) ChipsI RUs; tbtpy; Vw;gLj;JfpwJ.
iii) Chips ntspNaw top mikf;fpwJ.
iv) Cutting edgef;F coolantI nfhz;L nry;y topahf cjTfpwJ.
b) Land or Margin : ,J fluted; tpspk;gpy; cs;s FWfyhd
Nklhd gug;G MFk;. Drilld; tpl;lk; vjpnujpNu cs;s ,uz;L
landfSf;F ,ilg;gl;l J}uj;ijNa Fwpf;Fk;. Landd;
cjtpahy; drill bit MdJ align nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
c) Heel : ,J fluted; kw;nwhU tpspk;G MFk;.

5) Point : Drilld; $k;G tbt Kid point vdg;gLk;. ,J

fPo;f;fz;l ghfq;fisf; nfhz;Ls;sJ.
a) Flank : ,J $k;G tbt Kidapd; rhpthd gug;G MFk;.

5.3
 b) Lip or cutting edge : Flankk; facek; ,izAk; tpspk;G lip
vdg;gLk;. ,JNt drilld; ntl;L Kidahf mikfpwJ. ,J
ngUk;ghYk; drill mr;Rf;F rha;thf 59° Nfhzj;jpy;
,Ugf;fKk; rkkhf tbtikf;fg; gl;bUf;Fk;.

c) Face : Lipf;F mUfpy; flutey; cs;s ghfNk face vdg;gLk;.

Chips ,jpy; NkhJtjhy; RUs; tbtpy; ntspNa nry;fpwJ.
d) Chisel edge or dead center : ,J ,uz;L flank $b
cz;lhFk; $h;ikahd Kid MFk;. ,J flat drill Nghy
nray;gl;L Kjypy; workpiecey; rpwpa Jisia Vw;gLj;Jk;.
GpwF cutting edge %yk; NkYk; metal ePf;fg;gl;L drill msTf;F
Jis Vw;gLj;jg;gLk;.
Point
Chisel edge Flank

Diameter

Chisel edge
angle Land Lip Point
angle
Chisel edge corner Face

Rake
angle

Fig.5.3 Nomenclature twist of drill

6) Important drill angles

a) Point angle : Cutting edge (lip)fSf;F ,ilg;gl;l Nfhzk;
point angle vdg;gLk;. ,J nghJthf 118° ,Uf;Fk;.
fbdkhd nghUl;fspy; Jisapl mjpf point angle cila
drill gad;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;.

b) Rake angle or Helix angle : Drill mr;rpypUe;J helical grooved;

rha;thd Nfhzk; rake angle my;yJ helix angle vdg;gLk;.
,J nghJthf 30° ypUe;J 45° tiu ,Uf;Fk;.
5.4
 c) Chisel edge angle : Chisel edge kw;Wk; lipf;F ,ilapYs;s
tpupNfhzk; chisel edge angle vdg;gLk;. ,J ngUk;ghYk;
120°apypUe;J 135° tiu ,Uf;Fk;.

5.4. Types of drilling machines

Drilling machiney; fPo;f;fz;l tiffs; cs;sd.
1) Portable drilling machine
2) Bench type - sensitive drilling machine
3) Floor type - upright drilling machine
4) Radial drilling machine
(i) Plain type (ii) Semi universal type (iii) Universal type
5) Gang drilling machine
6) Multi spindle drilling machine
7) Deep hole drilling machine
(i) Vertical type (ii) Horizontal type

5.4.1 Portable drilling machine

,J vspjpy; Njitahd ,lj;jpw;F vLj;Jr; nry;Yk;
tifapy; tbtikf;fg;gl;l rpwpa drilling machine MFk;. ,J
ngupa workpiecefspy; 12 kp.kP tiu tpl;lKila Jisfis
Vw;gLj;jg; gad;gLfpwJ. xU electric motor my;yJ pneumatic
power %yk; mjpf Ntfj;jpy; ,J ,af;fg;gLfpwJ.
ifapdhy; feed jug;gLk;.
5.4.2. Bench type – sensitive drilling machine
,J benchd; kPJ nghUj;jg;gl;L mjpf Ntfj;jpy;
,aq;Fk; xU light duty machine MFk;. 1.5 kp.kP Kjy; 15 kp.kP
tiu tpl;lKila Jisfis Vw;gLj;j ,ij
gad;gLj;jyhk;. ,jpy; hand feed kl;LNk ju KbAk;.
JisapLk; NghJ drill efh;tij operator czu Kbtjhy;
,J sensitive drilling machine vdg;gLfpwJ. ,jd; Kf;fpa
ghfq;fs; fPNo tpsf;fg; gl;Ls;sd.
1) Base
,J benchd; kPJ nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;. ,J column
kw;Wk; ,ae;jpuj;jpd; gpw ghfq;fisj; jhq;FfpwJ>
5.5
 Cone pulley V - belt

Feed handle
Motor
Spindle head
Spindle Vetical column

Table

Base

Fig.5.4 Sensitive drilling machine

2) Column
cUis tbtpy; cs;s ,J based; kPJ nrq;Fj;jhf
nghUj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;. ,J table, spindle head kw;Wk; driving
mechanismj;ij jhq;FfpwJ.
3) Table
nrt;tf my;yJ tl;l tbtpy; cs;s table MdJ
coumnj;Jld; ,izf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. WorkpieceI table kPJ
nghUj;j ,jd; Nkw;gug;gpy; T-slotfs; cs;sd. TableI
columnj;jpd; kPJ NkYk; fPOk; efh;j;jp Njitahd ,lj;jpy;
nghUj;jpf; nfhs;syhk;. NkYk; columnj;ijg; nghWj;J
Row;wTk; KbAk;.
4) Spindle head
Columnj;jpd; Nky; Kidapy; xU gf;fk; motork;
kWgf;fk; spindle headk; nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;. Step cone pulley
kw;Wk; V-belt %yk; spindle ,af;fg;gLfpwJ. V-beltI
ntt;NtW pulleyfspy; khw;Wtjd; %yk; spindle speed khw;wp
mikf;fg; gLfpwJ. 50 rpm Kjy; 2000 rpm tiu 6 tifahd
ntt;NtW speedfis ,t;thW ngwyhk;.
5.4.3 Floor type – Upright drilling machine
,J jiu kPJ nghUj;jg;glf; $ba xU heavy duty
machine MFk;. 25 kp.kP tiu tpl;lKila Jisfis Vw;gLj;j
,J cjTfpwJ.
5.6
 Main drive
Feed handle
Motor

Sensitive
feed handle
Vetical column
Spindle
Table locking
handle
Table

Base

Fig.5.5 Upright drilling machine

,jd; Kf;fpa ghfq;fs; fPNo tpsf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.

1) Base
jiu kPJ nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk; ,J> dirlling machined;
kw;w ghfq;fisj; jhq;FfpwJ. Jy;ypakhf machining
nra;ag;gl;l ,jd; Nkw;Gwj;jpy; nghpa workpiecefis
nghUj;Jtjw;F T- slotfs; ,Uf;Fk;.

2) Column
Based; kPJ nrq;Fj;jhf nghUj;jg;gl;Ls;s ,J
upright vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;. ,J table, spindle head kw;Wk;
driving machaninsm j;ij jhq;FfpwJ. mjpf cutting forceI
jhq;FkhW ,J tbtikf;fg; gl;bUf;Fk;.

3) Table
Coumnj;Jld; ,izf;fg;gl;Ls;s tabled; kPJ
workpieceI nghUj;Jtjw;F T-slotfs; cs;sd. Table nrt;tf
my;yJ tl;l tbtpy; ,Uf;Fk;. TableI coulmnj;jpd; kPJ
NkYk; fPOk; efh;j;jyhk;. Columnj;jpd; mr;irg; nghWj;J
Row;wyhk;. NkYk; tabled; mr;irg; nghWj;Jk; mij Row;wp
Njitahd ,lj;jpy; nghUj;jyhk;.

5.7
4) Spindle head
Columnj;jpd; Nky; Kidapy; xU gf;fk; motork; kWgf;fk;
spindle headk; nghUj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;. Step cone pulley kw;Wk; V-
belt %yk; spindle ,af;fg;gLfpwJ. 75 rpm Kjy; 3500 rpm tiu
ntt;NtW speedfspy; spindleI ,af;fyhk;. Spindle headd;
fPo;Kidapy; cs;s Morse tapery; drill chuck nrUfg;gl;L mjpy;
drill nghUj;jg;gLfpwJ. ,jpy; sensitive hand feed kw;Wk; quick
traverse feed cs;sJ. DrillI JisapLk; ,lj;jpw;F tpiuthf
vLj;Jr; nry;yTk;> Jisapl;l gpd;G tpiuthf ntspNa
vLf;fTk; quick traverse feed cjTfpwJ.

5.4.4 Radial drilling machine

Elevating arm motor
Spindle motor
Radial arm Drill head
Guide ways
Locking
handle
Locking handle
Hand feed wheel
Elevating screw Spindle
Colmn

Table

Base

Fig.5.6 Radial drilling machine

ngUk;ghYk; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; ,e;jtif drilling

machiney; fdkhd kw;Wk; nghpa workpiecefis Jisaplyhk;.
,jd; Kf;fpa ghfq;fs; fPNo tpsf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
1) Base
,J nghpa nrt;tf tbt casting MFk;. Jy;ypakhf
machining nra;ag;gl;l ,jd; Nkw;Gwj;jpy; nghpa workpiecefis
nghUj;Jtjw;F T-slotfs; ,Uf;Fk;. ,jd; xU gf;fj;jpy; tablek;
kw;nwhU gf;fj;jpy; columnk; nghUj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;.

5.8
2) Table
Based; kPJ nghUj;jg;gl;Ls;s tabled; Nkw;Gwj;jpy;
workpieceI nghUj;Jtjw;F T-slotfs; ,Uf;Fk;.
3) Column
,J xU cUis tbt hollow casting MFk;.
Columnj;jpw;F nrq;Fj;jhf xU radial arm cs;sJ. MotorMy;
,af;fg;gLk; xU elevating screw %yk; ,ij NkYk; fPOk;
efh;j;jyhk;.
4) Radial arm
,J columnj;jpw;F nrq;Fj;jhf nghUj;jg;gl;Ls;s
tYthd casting MFk;. Radial army; cs;s guidewaysy; spindle
head nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;. Workpieced; cauj;jpw;F Vw;g
radial armI NkYk; fPOk; efh;j;jp mikf;fyhk;. Columnj;jpd;
mr;irg; nghWj;J ve;j Nfhzj;jpYk; Row;wp nghUj;jyhk;.
5) Spindle head
Radial army; nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk; spindle head kPJ xU
motor cs;sJ. ,jDld; ,izf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk; gear box
%yk; spindlef;F gy;NtW speed kw;Wk; feed nfhLf;fg;
gLfpwJ. Radial army; cs;s guidewaysy; spindle headI
Muthf;fpy; efh;j;jp nghUj;jyhk;. ,jpy; cs;s spindled; fPo;
Kidapy; Morse taper cs;sJ. ,jpy; drill chuck nrUfg;gl;L
mjw;Fs; drill nghUj;jg;gLfpwJ.

Types of radial drilling machine.

(a) Plain radial drilling machine :
,e;j tif machiney;
1). Radial arm I NkYk; fPOk; efh;jj; yhk;.
2). Radial armI columnj;jpd; mr;irg; nghWj;J Row;wyhk;.
3). Spindle headI Muthf;fpy efh;j;jyhk;.

(b) Semi universl radial drilling machine

,e;j tif machiney; NkNy $wg;gl;Ls;s %d;W
,af;fq;fSld; ehd;fhtjhf xU ,af;fKk; ,Uf;Fk;.
mjhtJ radial armf;F nrq;Fj;jhd xU mr;irg; nghWj;J
spindle headI Njitahd Nfhzj;jpw;F jpUg;gp mikf;fyhk;.
,jd; %yk; workpieced; rhpthd gug;Gfspy; Jisaplyhk;.
5.9
(c) Universal drilling machine
,e;j tif machinefspy; NkNy $wg;gl;l ehd;F
tif ,af;fq;fSld; Ie;jhtjhf xU ,af;fKk; ,Uf;Fk;.
mjhtJ columnj;jpw;F nrq;Fj;jhd xU mr;irg; nghWj;J
radial armI Njitahd msT Row;wp mikf;fyhk;. ,jd;
%yk; workpieced; kPJ ve;j xU Nfhzj;jpYk; Jisaplyhk;.

5.4.5 Gang drilling machine

Saddle

Spindle
Feed lever
Column

Table

Table elevating Table elevating

screw handle

Base
Fig.5.7 Gang drilling machine
xU workpiecey; gy operationfis xd;wd; gpd; xd;whf
njhlh;e;J nra;tjw;F gang drilling machine gad;gLfpwJ.
,t;tif machiney; xU ePskhd table kw;Wk; base ,Uf;Fk;.
gy spindle headfs; mLj;jLj;J jdpahf mikf;fg;
gl;bUf;Fk;. xt;nthU spindle headYk; cs;s jdpj;jdp motor
%yk; mjd; speed kw;Wk; feed fl;Lg;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ.
xt;nthU spindleypYk; Njitahd operation
nra;tjw;F Vw;w tool rhpahf nghUj;jg;gLfpwJ. Table kPJ
workpiece nghUj;jg;gl;L Kjy; spindlef;F fPNo nfhz;L
tug;gLk;. ,q;F operation ele;J Kbe;j gpwF work piece
mLj;j spindef;F efh;j;jg;gLk;. ,uz;lhtJ spindle %yk;
operation eilngWk; NghJ> work pieced; NtnwhU ,lj;jpy;
Kjy; spindle %yk; operation eilngWk;. ,t;thW drilling,
boring, reaming kw;Wk; tapping Nghd;w operationfs; xd;wd;
gpd; xd;whf njhlh;e;J eilngWk;.
5.10
5.4.6 Multispindle drilling machine
Work pieced; gy ,lq;fspy; xNu Neuj;jpy; xU
Fwpg;gpl;l operationI nra;tjw;F multi spindle drilling machine
gad;gLfpwJ. ,t;tif machinefspy; gy spindlefs;
Njitahd J}uj;jpy; efh;j;jpg; nghUj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;. ,e;j
midj;J spindlefSk; xNu motorMy; ,af;fg;gLk;. Motory;
,Ue;J ,uz;L gearfs; %ykhf spindlef;F Row;rp
flj;jg;gLfwpJ. xNu Neuj;jpy; midj;J spindlefSk;
workpieceI Nehf;fp feed nra;ag;gLk;. TableI cah;j;jpNah>
spindle headI fPo;Nehf;fp efh;j;jpNah feed nfhLf;fyhk;. ,e;j
tif machineIf; nfhz;L pipe flange, pump housing Nghd;w
ghfq;fspy; xNu Neuj;jpy; gy Jisfis Vw;gLj;jyhk;.
5.5 Specification of drilling machine
xU drilling machined; Kf;fpa specifcation fPNo jug;gl;Ls;sd.
1) Drilling machine d; tif
2) Spindley; nghUj;jf; $ba drilld; mjpfgl;r tpl;lk;.
3) Machiney; nghUj;jf; $ba workpieced; mjpfgl;r msT
4) Tabled; msT
5) Spindle efUk; mjpf gl;r J}uk;
6) Spindle speed kw;Wk; feedfspd; vz;zpf;if
7) Drilling machined; epfu vil
8) kpd; Nkhl;lhhpd; ,af;fj;jpwd;
9) MachineI nghUj;j Njitahd gug;G (Floor area)
5.6 Principle of operation
Spindle heady; quill vd;w cs;sPlw;w cUis Nghd;w
ghfk; cs;sJ. ,jd; ntspg; gFjpapy; rack
ntl;lg;gl;bUf;Fk;. ,jDld; gpize;Js;s xU pinionI
Row;wp quilI NkYk; fPOk; efh;j;jyhk;.
Spindle MdJ quilf;Fs; bearing cjtpahy; jhq;fg;
gl;bUf;Fk;. ,jdhy; spindle Rod;W nfhz;bUf;Fk; NghNj>
quil cld; Nrh;e;J mij NkYk; fPOk; efh;j;jyhk;. Spindled;
Nky; Kidapy; cs;s ePz;l keywayy; ,ioAkhW xU bevel
gear nghUj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,jdhy; spindle NkYk; fPOk;
efUk;NghJ> bevel gear mNj ,lj;jpypUe;J Row;rp
,af;fj;ij spindlef;F flj;JfpwJ.
5.11
 Spindled; fPo;Kidapy; cs;s Morse tapery; drillI
NeubahfNth my;yJ sleeve cjtpahNyh nghUj;jyhk;.
Taper Jisapd; Kbtpy; cs;s sloty; taper shank
nghUe;Jtjhy; positive drive fpilf;fpwJ. Jisaplg;gl
Ntz;ba workpiece jFe;j work holding device %yk; tabley;
nghUj;jg; gLfpwJ. Spindlef;F ifapdhNyh my;yJ
automatic MfNth workpieceI Nehf;fp feed nfhLj;J Jis
cUthf;fg; gLfpwJ.

5.7 Feed mechanism

Spindlef;F ifapdhNyh my;yJ automatic MfNth feed
nfhLf;fyhk;.
1) Hand feed
Quily; cs;s rack cld; nghUe;jpapUf;Fk; pinion gear xU
worm gear cld; ,izf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. ,e;j mikg;Gld; hand
feed handleI nrUfp Row;Wk;NghJ spindle fPo;Nehf;fp
efh;j;jg;gLfpwJ.

2) Automatic feed
key way
Spindle
head
Bevel gear
Worm &
worm gear

Rack
Worm gear

Pinion

Quil Worm
Feed handle
Spindle

Fig.5.8 Auto feed mechanism

5.12
 Auto feed jUk;NghJ hand feed handleI ntspapy;
,Oj;J tpl Ntz;Lk;. Worm gear cld; xU worm
gpize;jpUf;Fk;. ,e;j worm ,uz;L bevel gearfs; %yk; feed
gear box cld; ,izf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. ,e;j gear boxf;F main
shafty; ,Ue;J jpwd; fpilf;fpwJ. Worm RoYk;NghJ
mjDld; gpize;Js;s worm gearI Row;Wk;. ,g;NghJ
pinionk; Rod;W quilI fPo;Nehf;fp efh;j;Jtjhy; spindlef;F feed
nfhLf;fg;gLk;.

Gear boxy; cs;s gearfis khw;wp khw;wp gpizg;gjd;

%yk; worm shaftI ntt;NtW speedy; Royr; nra;ayhk;.
,t;thW nghUj;jkhd ,uz;L gearfis gpizj;J
Njitahd mstpy; spindlef;F feed nfhLf;fyhk;.

5.8. Cutting speed and feed

1. Cutting speed
Drilld; tl;lg; gupjp (periphery) efUk; tPjNk cutting
speed vdg;gLk;. ,J m/min. vd;w myfhy; Fwpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
𝝅𝑫𝑵
Cutting speed, 𝑽 = m/min
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
,q;F, 𝒅 – diameter of drill (mm)
𝑵 – Spindle speed (rpm)

Ntt;NtW tifahd workpiecefspy; JisapLk;NghJ

gad;gLj;j Ntz;ba cutting speed fPNo ml;ltidapy;
nfhLf;fg; gl;Ls;sJ.

Work piece Cutting speed (m/min)

material HSS drill Carbon steel drill
Mild steel 24 – 45 9 –17
Stainless steel 18 – 21 7 –11
Cast iron 21 – 30 9 –15
Copper 18 – 30 7 –15
Aluminium & Alloys 60 – 90 24 – 45
Brass & Bronze 60 – 90 24 – 45

5.13
2. Feed
Spindled; xU Kor; Rw;Wf;F drill ePsthf;fpy; efUk;
J}uk; feed vdg;gLk;. ,J mm / revolution my;yJ mm / min
vd;w myfhy; Fwpf;fg;gLk;. nghJthf cutting speed kw;Wk;
feed fPo;f;fz;l fhuzpfisg; nghWj;Nj Njh;T nra;ag;gLk;.
1) Workpiece material
2) Cutting tool material
3) Njitahd surface finish
4) gad;gLj;jg;gLk; cutting fluidd; tif
5) Work holding device kw;Wk; drilling machined; cWjp

5.9 Methods of holding drill bit

Taper shank kw;Wk; straight shank cs;s drillfis
spindley; nghUj;j cjTk; gy;NtW topfs; fPNo tpsf;fg;
gl;Ls;sd.
1) Fitting directly in the spindle
Drilling machine spindley; 1:20 vd;w mstpy; Morse taper
cs;sJ. ,Nj mstpy; drilly; cs;s taper shank MdJ
spindle tapery; nghUe;JkhW mOj;jp nrUfg;gLfpwJ. Spindle
taperd; KidapYs;s sloty; drilld; shank MdJ rhpahf
nghUj;jg;gLk; NghJ drillf;F positive drive fpilf;fpwJ. Drift
vdg;gLk; taper wedgeI sloty; itj;J mOj;jp spindley;
,Ue;J drill ntspNa vLf;fg;gLfpwJ.
2) Sleeve
Tang

Slot for Tapered

drift pin shank

Inside
taper hole

Body

Fig.5.9 Drill sleeve Fig.5.10 Drill Socket

5.14
 Spindle taperd; msit tpl drilld; taper shank msT
rpwpajhf ,Uf;Fk; NghJ sleeve gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. Spindle
tapery; rhpahf nghUe;JkhW sleeved; ntspg;Gwj;jpy; taper
,Uf;Fk;. Sleeved; cl;Gw taper MdJ drillI nghUj;Jtjw;F
Vw;w tifapy; ,Uf;Fk;. ntt;NtW taper shank msTs;s
drillI nghUj;Jtjw;F mNj msT cl;Gw taper nfhz;l
ntt;NtW sleeve gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.
3) Socket
Spindle taperd; msit tpl drilld; taper shank msT
nghpajhf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ socket gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. Spindle
tapery; rhpahf nghUe;JkhW socketd; ntspg;Gwj;jpy; taper
,Uf;Fk;. Spindle taperd; msittpl socketd; cl;Gw taper
msT ngupjhf ,Uf;Fk;. vdNt nghpa taper shank cs;s
drillI sockety; nghUj;jyhk;.
4) Drill Chuck
Straight shank cs;s drillfis nghUj;Jtjw;F drill
chuck gad;gLfpwJ. Spindle tapery; rhpahf nghUe;JkhW drill
chucky; taper shank ,Uf;Fk;. ngUk;ghYk; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;
xU self centering chuck glj;jpy fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
Body

Sleeve

Ring nut
Key

Bevel teeth
Jaw
Fig.5.11 Drill chuck
,jpy; %d;W jawf;fs; nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;.
Jawf;fspd; gpd;Gwk; cs;s thread cld; xU ring nut
,ize;jpUf;Fk;. ntspg;Gwk; bevel teeth cs;s xU sleeve
5.15
cld; ,e;j ring nut ,ize;jpUf;Fk;. SleeveI Row;wpdhy; ring
nut Rod;W jawf;fis mjd; ikaj;ij Nehf;fp neUq;fr;
nra;Ak;. ,jdhy; jawf;fSf;F ,ilapy; itf;fg;gLk; drill
,Wf;fpg; gpbf;fg; gLfpwJ. Bevel teeth cld; $ba xU
keyia sleevey; cs;s bevel teeth cld; gpizj;J
Row;wpdhy; sleeve Rw;Wk;.

5.10. Drilling machine operations

Drilling machiney; fPo;f;fz;l operationfs; nra;ayhk;.
1) Drilling 2) Reaming 3) Boring
4) Counter boring 5) Counter sinking 6) Spot facing
7) Tapping

1) Drilling
Drill %yk; work piecey; Jisia Vw;gLj;Jk; Kiwf;F
drilling vd;W ngah;. Kjypy; workpiecey; Jisaplg;gl
Ntz;ba ,lj;jpd; ikaj;ij center punchMy; mark nra;a
Ntz;Lk;. Njitahd msT cs;s drillI spindley; nghUj;j
Ntz;Lk;. Mark nra;ag;gl;l ,lj;jpy; spindleI fPo;Nehf;fp
mOj;Jk; NghJ drilld; cutting edge cyhfj;ij ngau;j;J
RUs; tbtpy; chipsfshf ntspNa js;Sk;.

Drill %yk; cUthf;fg;gl;l Jisapd; cl;Gwk;

nrhunrhug;ghfNt ,Uf;Fk;. JisapLk;NghJ drilly; vibration
Vw;gLtjhy;> Jisapd; msT drilld; msit tpl rw;W
ngupjhf ,Uf;Fk;. Work pieced; Mok; KotJk; Jisapl;lhy;
mJ through hole vdTk;> xU Fwpg;gpl;l Mok; tiu
Jisapl;lhy; mJ blind hole vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;.
Drill
Reamer
Work piece

Fig.5.12 Drilling Fig.5.13 Reaming

5.16
2) Reaming
Vw;fdNt cUthf;fg;gl;l Jisia rhpahd
msTf;F fininshing nra;Ak; Kiwf;F reaming vd;W ngah;.
gy cutting edgefis cila reamer vdg;gLk; tool ,jw;F
gad;gLfpwJ. ,J kpfTk; Fiwe;j msT (0.375mm) metalI
ntl;b vLf;Fk;. Reaming eilngWk;NghJ spindled; Ntfk;>
drillingd; NghJ ,Ue;j Ntfj;jpy; ghjpahf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
,jw;F nghJthf automatic feed gad; gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.

3) Boring
Vw;fdNt cUthf;fg;gl;l Jisapd; msit xU single
point cutting tool %yk; nghpjhf;Fk; Kiwf;F boring vd;W ngah;.
kpfg;nghpa JisapLtjw;F Njitahd mstpy; drill
fpilf;fhj NghJ> xU rpwpa Jisia boring %yk;
Njitahd msT ngupjhf;fpf; nfhs;syhk;. Spindley;
nghUe;JkhW taper shank cs;s xU boring bary; tool nghUj;jg;
gLfpwJ. SpindleI fPo; Nehf;fp efh;j;Jk;NghJ cutting toolMdJ
metalI ntl;b> Njitahd msT Jisia Vw;gLj;JfpwJ.
Boringd; NghJ spindled; Ntfk; Fiwf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;.
Boring tool Counter boring tool
Work piece
Pilot

Fig.5.14 Boring Fig.5.15 Counter boring

4) Counter boring
xU Jisapd; Kfg;ig kl;Lk; nghpjhf;Fk; Kiw
counter boring vdg;gLk;. Bolt, stud kw;Wk; pin Nghd;wtw;wpd;
jiyfis gba itf;f ,t;thW nra;ag;gLfpwJ. Machine
spindley; rhpahf nghUe;Jk;gb taper shank cs;s counter bore
vdg;gLk; tool ,jw;F gad;gLfpwJ. ToolI Jisapy; rhpahf
guide nra;a ,jd; Kidapy; xU pilot ,Uf;Fk;. Drillingd;
NghJ ,Uf;Fk; Ntfj;ij tpl Fiwthd Ntfj;jpy; counter
boring nra;ag;gl Ntz;Lk;.
5.17
5) Counter sinking
xU Jisapd; Kfg;ig kl;Lk; $k;G tbtpy;
nghpjhf;Fk; Kiwf;F counter sinking vd;W ngah;. $k;G tbt
jiyAila rivetfis gba itf;f ,t;thW nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
$k;G tbt cutting edgefisf; nfhz;l counter sink vdg;gLk;
tool ,jw;F gad;gLfpwJ. ,ilg;gl;l Nfhzk; 60°, 82° kw;Wk;
90° cs;s counter sink toolfs; fpilf;fpd;wd. Drillingd; NghJ
cs;s Ntfj;ij tpl Fiwthd Ntfj;jpy; counter sinking
eilngw Ntz;Lk;.
Counter sink
Spot facing tool
Pilot
Workpiece

Fig.5.16 Counter sinking Fig.5.17 Spot facing

6) Spot facing
xU Jisapd; Kfg;gpy; Nklhf cs;s ghfj;ij
rkjskhf machining nra;Ak; Kiwf;F spot facing vd;W
ngah;. Screw head, nut, washer Nghd;w ghfq;fs; kl;lkhf
mkUtjw;F ,t;thW nra;ag;gLfpwJ. Spot facing toolI
rhpahf guide nra;a ,jd; Kidapy; xU pilot ,Uf;Fk;.
7) Tapping

Tap
Work piece

Fig.5.18 Tapping
5.18
 xU Jisapy; internal thread Vw;gLj;Jk; Kiwf;F
tapping vd;W ngah;. Thread tbtpy; cutting edgefis cila
tap vdg;gLk; tool ,jw;F gad;gLfpwJ. Tapd; msit tpl
rw;W rpwpa msTs;s Jis Kjypy; Vw;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;.
TapI Jisapy; itj;J Row;Wk;NghJ> metal ntl;b
ePf;fg;gl;L internal thread cUthf;fg;gLk;.

5.11. Deep hole drilling.

Oil hole

100°

Wear strip
Fig.5.19 Deep hole drill
Crank shaft, cam shaft, rifle barrel Nghd;w ePskhd shaft
fspy; Mokhd Jisfis Vw;gLj;j deep hole drilling
gad;gLfpwJ. ,jpy; 1000 ,ilg;gl;l Nfhzj;Jld; ‘V’
tbtpy; xU flute MdJ drilld; ePsthf;fpy; ntl;lg;
gl;bUf;Fk;. ntspapy; ePl;bf; nfhz;bUf;Fk; ,e;j flute
MdJ metalI ntl;b vLf;fpwJ. Drilly; cs;s ePskhd hole
topahf cutting fluid nrYj;jg; gLfpwJ.

Jisaplg;gl Ntz;ba ePskhd workpiece tise;J

tplhky; jLf;f gy ,lq;fspy; support nra;ag;gl;bUf;Fk;.
Work piece Rod;W nfhz;bUf;Fk;NghJ mjw;F vjpuhf drillI
efu;j;jp feed nfhLj;J Jis Vw;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ. rpy
tifapy; drillk; Rod;W nfhz;L efUk; mikg;Gk; ,Uf;Fk;.
JisapLk;NghJ drill mbf;fb ntspapy; ,Of;fg;gl;L chips
mfw;wg;gLk;.

5.12 Micro drills or miniature drills

kpfr;rpwa msTs;s Jisia Vw;gLj;j cjTk;
drillf;F micro drill my;yJ miniature drill vd;W ngah;.
ngUk;ghYk; ,jd; tpl;lk;. 0.1kp.kP Kjy; 3 kp.kP tiu
,Uf;Fk;. ,tw;wpd; ePsk; mjd; tpl;lj;ij tpl 40 Kjy; 60
5.19
klq;F mjpfkhf ,Uf;Fk;. ,J rpwpajhfTk; ePskhfTk;
,Ug;gjhy; JisapLk; NghJ gy ,lq;fspy; support
nra;ag;gl Ntz;Lk;. ,jidg; nghUj;Jtjw;F chuck
my;yJ collet gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. rhpahd speed kw;Wk;
feed Njh;e;njLj;J nfhLf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;. ,y;iynadpy;
,e;j drill cile;J tpLk;. nghJthf ,jpy; hand feed
jug;gLfpwJ.

5.13. Regrinding of drill.

Grinding wheel 55°

60°

59° 0
10
20
30
118°

Axis of drill bit Drill gauge

Fig.5.20 Regrinding of drill

DrillI gy kzp Neuk; gad;gLj;jpa gpd;G mjd; cutting

edge kOq;fp tpLk;. chpa Neuj;jpy; regrinding nra;ahky;
gad;gLj;jpdhy; mjpf ntg;gk; cz;lhfp drill cile;J
tpLk;. Grinding nra;Ak;NghJ> drilld; mr;R wheel facef;F 59°
rha;e;J ,Uf;FkhW gpbf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,jd; %yk; 118° point
angle ngwg;;gLfpWJ. LipI grinding nra;Ak;NghJ drillI
nkJthf Row;w Ntz;Lk;.

Lip length kw;Wk; slope ,UGwKk; rkkhf ,Uf;f

Ntz;Lk;. 10kp.kPf;Fk; mjpfkhd tpl;lKila drillfis
grinding nra;a rpwg;G tif drill grinder gad;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ.
Grinding Kbe;j gpwF drill gauge %yk; point angle, chisel edge
angle kw;Wk; lip length Mfpait rhpghu;f;fg; gLfpd;wd.

5.20
5.14 Metrology
Metrolgy vd;gJ mstPLfs; kw;Wk; mstpLk; fUtpfs;
gw;wp njhpe;J nfhs;s cjTk; xU mwptpay; gphpT MFk;.
xU nghUspd; juj;ij NrhjidapLk;NghJ mjd;
msTfis mse;J njhpe;J nfhs;s Ntz;bAs;sJ. xU
nghUspd; juk; vd;gJ mjd; tbtk;> rhpahd msT kw;Wk;
surface finish Mfpatw;iwg; nghWj;J mikfpwJ. ,tw;iw
msg;gjw;F gy;NtW tifahd mstpLk; fUtpfs;
gad;gLj;jg; gLfpd;wd.
Vernier caliper, micrometer Nghd;w fUtpfs; nghUspd;
rhpahd msTfis msg;gjw;F gad;gLfpwJ. nghUspd;
msT Fwpg;gpl;l vy;iyf;Fs; ,Uf;fpwjh vd;gij mwpa
gad;gLj;jg;gLk; fUtpfs; limit gauges vdg;gLk;. NkYk; rpy
fUtpfs; nghUspd; msit xU njhpe;j rhpahd msTld;
xg;gpl;Lg; ghh;j;J tpj;jpahrj;ij fz;lwpa gad;gLk;. ,it
compartors vdg;gLk;.

5.15 Inspection
nghUl;fis cw;gj;jp nra;jy;> xd;whf ,izj;jy;>
packing nra;jy; kw;Wk; Xhplj;jpy; nghUj;Jjy; Mfpa
nray;Kiwfspd; gy;NtW epiyfspy; nghUl;fs; kw;Wk;
mtw;wpd; ghfq;fis NrhjidapLtJ mtrpak; MFk;.
eph;zapf;fg;gl;l ju msTfSld; xg;gpl;L ghh;j;J
nghUl;fs;> ghfq;fs; kw;Wk; cw;gj;jp nray;Kiwfs;
Mfpatw;wpd; juj;jpid cWjpgLj;Jk; nray;KiwNa
inspection MFk;.
Need of inspection
fPo;f;z;litfSf;fhf inspection Njitg;gLfpwJ:
1) eph;zapf;fg;gl;l ju msTfSld; nghUl;fs; kw;Wk;
ghfq;fis xg;gpl;L mtw;wpd; rhpahd msTfis
cWjpnra;tjw;F.
2) cw;gj;jp nray;Kiwapy; interchangeabilityI
cUthf;Ftjw;F.
3) Vw;Wf;nfhs;sf; $ba juepiyapy; nghUl;fis
cUthf;Ftjw;F.
4) Scrap kw;wk; wastagefisf; Fiwg;gjw;F.
5.21
 5) rpwe;j juKs;s nghUl;fs;> fUtpfs; kw;Wk;
,aj;jpuq;fis thq;Ftjw;F.
6) nghUl;fspd; epuhfhpg;gLk; rjtPjj;ij Fiwg;gjw;F
7) FiwghLs;s nghUl;fis rhpnra;tjw;fhd rhj;jpaf;
$Wfis jPh;khdpg;gjw;F.

5.16 Metrological terms

1) Accuracy
xU nghUspy; mse;jwpag;gl;l kjpg;ghdJ mjd;
cz;ikahd kjpg;Gf;F mUfpy; ,Ug;gNj accuracy vdg;gLk;.
Accuracy vd;gJ mstpLk; fUtpfSf;fhd xU Kf;fpa gz;G
MFk;. cz;ikahd kjpg;gpid kpfr; rhpahf mse;jwpa
KbahJ vd;gjhy;> xU Fwpg;gpl;l vz;zpf;ifapyhd
mstPLfspd; ruhrhp kjpg;gpid cz;ikahd kjpg;ghf
vLj;Jf; nfhs;syhk;.
Example : xU micrometer MdJ xU ghfj;jpd; msit
10mm vd mstpLtjhff; fUJNthk;. Njh;e;njLf;fg;gl;l
accuracy ±0.01mm vdpy;> czikahd msthdJ 9.99mm
kw;Wk; 10.01mm Mfpatw;wpw;F ,ilapy; mikAk;. vdNt xU
micrometerd; accuracy ±0.01mm vd;gJ> mjidf; nfhz;L
mse;jwpag;gLk; msTfs; ±0.01mm tiu NtWgLk;
vdgijf; Fwpf;Fk;.
Average Value
Dimension

Dimension

Error Average Value

True Value Error True Value

Frequency Frequency
(a) Precise but not accurate (b) Accurate but not precise
Dimension

True Value &

Average Value

Frequency
(c) Accurate & Precise
Fig. 5.21 Accuracy and Precision
5.22
2) Precision
Fwpg;gpl;l khwhj #o;epiyfspy;> xU mstpid
gyKiw mstpLk;NghJ> me;j msTfspd; kjpg;G xd;Wf;
nfhd;W mUfpy; ,Ug;gNj precision vdg;gLk;. Precision
vd;gJ xd;wpw;Fk; Nkw;gl;l mstPLfSf;F nghUe;JtJ
MFk;. xU fUtp precise Mf ,y;yhky; Nghdhy;> xNu
mstpid jpUk;g jpUk;g mstpLk;NghJ ntt;NtW
kjpg;Gfisj; jUk;.

,J mstpLk; nray;Kiwapd; repeatabilityI

eph;zapf;Fk; FwpaPL MFk;. ,jd; vz; kjpg;ghdJ> gyKiw
mse;jwpag;gLk; msTfspd; standard deviation %yk;
Fwpf;fg;gLk;. rhpahd msT precisisonI ngWtjw;F>
Njitg;gLk; tolerance kjpg;igg; Nghd;W gj;J klq;F
precision nfhz;l mstpLk; fUtpia gad;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;.
cjhuzkhf> ±0.01mm tolerance kjpg;Gld; mstpLtjw;F>
±0.001mm precision nfhz;l mstpLk; fUtpia gad;gLj;j
Ntz;Lk;. Precision kw;Wk; accuracy Mfpatw;wpw;F
,ilNaahd njhlh;G glj;jpy; tpsf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.

3) Error
xU mstpLk; fUtpapd; error (gpio) vd;gJ fUtpapd;
%yk; mse;jwpag;gl;l kjpg;gpw;Fk; mjw;Nfw;w cz;ikahd
kjpg;gpw;Fk; ,ilNaAs;s tpj;jpahrk; MFk;.

4) Magnification
msTfspd; kpfr;rpwpa tpj;jpahrq;fis mse;jwp
tjw;F> workpieceI njhl;Lf; nfhz;bUf;Fk; mstpLk;
Kidapd; efh;thdJ nghpjhf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;. msTfis
vspjhf gbj;jwpa> mstpLk; fUtpapd; output signal MdJ
gy klq;F nghpjhf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;. ,JNt magnification
vdg;gLk;. Mechanical, electrical, optical kw;Wk; pneumatic Mfpa
Kiwfspy; maginification ngwg;gLfpwJ.

5) Repeatability
khwhj #o;epiyfspy;> xNu khjphpahd mstpLk;
Kiwapy; xU nghUspd; mstpid xUtNu gyKiw
5.23
mstpLk;NghJ khwhj xNu kjpg;gpidf; fhl;Lk; mstpLk;
fUtpapd; xU rpwe;j gz;G repeatability vdg;gLk;.

6) Resolution
mstpLk; fUtpapd; msTfhl;bapy; khw;wj;ij
Njhw;Wtpf;ff; $ba> mse;jwpAk; kjpg;gpd; kpfr;rpwpa khw;wk;
rosolution vdg;gLk;.

7) Sensitivity
mstpLk; fUtpapy; khw;wj;ij J}z;Lk; tifapy;>
mse;jwpAk; kjpg;gpy; Vw;gLj;jg;gLk; kpfr;rpwpa khw;wk;
sensitivity vdg;gLk;. ntspaPL kjpg;gpy; ve;j xU khw;wj;ijAk;
Vw;gLj;jhj tifapy;> cs;sPL kjpg;gpy; Vw;gLj;jf;$ba
mjpfgl;r NtWghl;bidAk; sensitivity Fwpf;Fk;.

8) Calibration
mjpf accuracy nfhz;l epu;zapf;fg;gl;l juj;Jld;>
mstpLk; fUtpfis xg;gpl;L Fwpg;gpl;l fhy ,ilntspapy;
NrhjidapLk; KiwNa calibration vdg;gLk;. xU rpwe;j
calibration system fPo;f;fz;ltw;iw ngw;wpUf;f Ntz;Lk;.

1) mstpLk; fUtpia NrhjidapLk; fUtp Njitahd

accuracy kw;Wk; precison cilajhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
2) mikg;gpy; cs;s NrhjidapLk; fUtpahdJ
NghJkhd msT stability kw;Wk; range nfhz;ljhf
,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
3) NrhjidapLk; kw;Wk; mstpLk; fUtpfs; midj;Jk;
njspthf milahsk; ,lg;gl;bUf;f Ntz;Lk;.
4) NrhjidapLk; kw;Wk; mstpLk; fUtpfs; Fwpg;gpl;l
fhy ,ilntspapy; NghJkhd accuracy kw;Wk;
juj;Jld; calibration nra;ag;gl;bUf;f Ntz;Lk;.
5) mikg;gpy; cs;s NrhjidapLk; kw;Wk; mstpLk;
fUtpfs; Fwpj;J midj;J Mtzq;fSk; Kiwahf
guhkhpf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;.

5.24
5.17 Comparators
nghUspd; msTfis eph;zapf;fg;gl;l xU standard
msTld; xg;gpl;Lg; ghh;f;f gad;gLk; fUtpfs; comparator
vdg;gLk.; ,jd; %yk; nghUspd; cz;ikahd msit
Neubahf mstpl KbahJ. nghUspd; mstpy; cs;s
tpj;jpahrj;ij kl;LNk ,jd; %yk; fz;lwpayhk;.

Requirements of a comparator
xU rpwe;j comparatorfPo;f;fz;l gz;Gfisg;
ngw;wpUf;f Ntz;Lk; :
1) fUtpapy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; msTNfhyhdJ linear
MfTk; mstpLk; tuk;G (range) mjpfk; nfhz;l
jhfTk; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
2) ghfq;fspd; efh;TfSf;F ,ilNa backlash kw;Wk; lag
,Uf;ff; $lhJ.
3) fUtpahdJ mjpf precision kw;Wk; accuracy
nfhz;ljhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
4) mstpidf; fhz;gpf;Fk; Kiw njspthf ,Uf;f
Ntz;Lk;.
5) kpfr;rhpahf zero mstpw;F jpUk;g Ntz;Lk;.
6) cWjpahd fl;likg;G kw;Wk; tbtj;ijf;
nfhz;bUf;f Ntz;Lk;.
7) mstpLk; nray; KbAk; tiu mOj;jk; rkr;rPuhf
,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
8) ntg;gepiy NtWghl;bdhy; mstPl;by; Vw;gLk;
khw;wj;jpid <L nra;Ak; trjp ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.

5.18 Classification of comparators

msTfspy; cs;s tpj;jpahrj;ij nghpJ gLj;jp
fhz;gpf;Fk; mikg;G (magnifying device) midj;J comparator
fspYk; ,Uf;Fk;. ,J ,aq;Fk; tpjj;jpd; mbg;gilapy;
comparatorfs; fPo;f;fz;lthW tifg;gLj;jg; gLfpd;wd.
1) Mechanical comparator
2) Electrical comparator
3) Pneumatic comparator
4) Optical comparator
5.25
5.18.1 Meehanical comparator

Gear
Rack
Set of
gears

Pointer

Pointer gear
Stand
Slip gauges Plunger
Work piece
Table

Fig.5.22 Mechanical comparator

xU dial gauge MdJ mechanical comparatorMf

gad;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ. ,jpy; xU work table cs;sJ. ,jd;
Kidapy; xU stand nrq;Fj;jhf mikf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. ,e;j
standy; dial gaugeI xU screw %yk; Njitahd cauj;jpy;
nghUj;jyhk;.
,jpy; spring %yk; jhq;fg;gLk; xU plunger cs;sJ.
Plungery; rack ntl;lg;gl;bUf;Fk;. ,jDld; xU nghpa gear
,izf;fg; gl;bUf;Fk;. glj;jpy; fhl;bAs;sgb NkYk;
,uz;L gearfs; ,jDld; ,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. Pointer
,izf;fg;gl;l rpwpa gear mdJ plunger cld; njhlh;G
,y;yhky; jdpahf hinge nra;ag;gl;bUf;Fk;. Plungerd; rpwpa
efh;T $l ,e;j gear mikg;G %yk; nghpjhf;fg;gl;L
pointerMy; fhz;gpf;fg;gLk;. ,jpy; cs;s dial scaley;
xt;nthU divisionk; 0.01 mm msitf; Fwpf;Fk;.
Kjypy;> xg;gpl Ntz;ba rhpahd mstpw;F rkkhf
slip gaugefis mLf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,jid dial gauged;
plungerf;F mbapy; itf;f Ntz;Lk;. Pointer MdJ ‘0’ tpy;
,Uf;FkhW dial rhp nra;ag; gLfpwJ. gpd;G slip gauge
5.26
mLf;if vLj;Jtpl;L> me;j ,lj;jpy; workpiceceI itf;f
Ntz;Lk;. ,g;NghJ work pieced; mstpy; tpj;jpahrk;
,Ue;jhy; me;j msT pointer %yk; fhz;gpf;fg;gLk;.

Advantages of mechanical comparator

1) kw;w comparatorfistpl tpiy kypthdJ.
2) vspjpy; gbj;jwpaf; $ba linear scaleI cilaJ.
3) fr;rpjkhd kw;Wk; cWjpahd fl;likg;ig cilaJ.
4) ,jid ifahs;tJ kpf vspJ.
5) ,jw;F electricity, air Nghd;w external supply
Njitapy;iy.
6) rhjhuz workshopfSf;Fk; ,J Vw;wJ.

Disadvantages of mechanical comparator

1) mjpf vz;zpf;ifapyhd efUk; ghfq;fshy; mjpf
cuha;T Vw;gLk;. vdNt accuracy FiwAk;.
2) efUk; ghfq;fspy; Vw;gLk; slackness tpisthf
fzprkhd mstpy; accuracy FiwAk;.
3) mjpf inertiatpdhy; Vw;gLk; vibration fhuzkhf
mstPl;by; khw;wk; Vw;glyhk;.
4) xU epiyahd scale kPJ pointer efh;tjhy;> mstpLk;
tuk;G fl;Lg;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ.
5) ,lkhW Njhw;wg;gpio (parallex error) Vw;glyhk;.

5.18.2 Electrical comparator

,e;j comparatory; xU jplkhd base cs;sJ. ,jd;
xU Kidapy; xU nrq;Fj;J J}z; nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;.
,e;j nrq;Fj;Jj; J}zpy; xU casing fpilkl;lkhf
nghUj;jg; gl;Ls;sJ. ,e;j casingI nrq;Fj;jhf efh;j;jp
Njitahd ,lj;jpy; nghUj;jyhk;. Casingd; xU Kidapy;
,Uk;ghyhd armature xd;W hinge nra;ag; gl;bUf;Fk;.
Armatured; NkYk; fPOk; rkJ}uj;jpy; ,uz;L electro
magnetfs; nghUj;jg;gl;Ls;sd. Armature cld; xU plunger
nrq;Fj;jhf nghUj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;. Electromagnetfspy;
Rw;wg;gl;l coilfs; xU wheat stone bridge circuit cld;
,izf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;.

5.27
 Casing
Magnet
Armature Winding Amplifier

Wheatstone Meter
Stand bridge circuit
Table Plunger
Base

Fig.5.23 Electrical comparator

Kjypy; rhpahd msT nfhz;l specimen MdJ

plunger kw;Wk; tablef;F ,ilapy; itf;fg; gLfpwJ. Metery;
‘0’ msT fhz;gpf;FkhW circuitd; resistance msT rhpnra;ag;
gLfpwJ. gpd;G specimenI vLj;Jtpl;L Nrhjidapl
Ntz;ba workpiece me;j ,lj;jpy; itf;fg;gLfpwJ.
,g;NghJ workpieced; mstpy; tpj;jpahrk; ,Ue;jhy; plunger
NkYk; fPOk; efUk;. ,jdhy; mjDld; ,ize;Js;s
armature NkYk; fPOk; efUk;. ,g;NghJ armature kw;Wk;
electromagnetfSf;F ,ilapYs;s J}uk; khWgLtjhy; wheat
stone bridge MdJ unbalance MfpwJ. ,jd; %yk;
kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpy; Vw;gLk; rpwpa khWghL amplifier %yk;
nghpjhf;fg;gl;L metery; fhz;gpf;fg;gLk;. Electrical comparator
cgNahfpj;J 0.001 mm Jy;ypakhf NtWghLfis
fz;lwpayhk;.

Advantage of electrical comparator

1) Fiwthd vz;zpf;ifapy; efUk; ghfq;fis cilaJ.
2) mjpf msT magnification nra;Ak; mikg;G nfhz;lJ.
3) gy;NtW tuk;G epiyfspy; gad;gLj;jyhk;.
4) kpf ,Nyrhd pointer mikg;G cs;sjhy;> vibration
tpisthf mstPL khwhJ.
5) fr;rpjkhd fl;likg;G cilaJ.

5.28
Disadvantages of electrical comparator
1) kpd;dOj;j NtWghl;bdhy; accuracy ghjpf;fg;gLk;.
2) mstpLk; mikg;gpy; cs;s heating coilfspdhy; zero
msT ,lk; khwp> calibrationy; khw;wk; Vw;glyhk;.
3) gpwtw;iw xg;gpLk;NghJ tpiy mjpfk;.
4) mjpfgl;r msT tuk;G fl;Lg;gLj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;.
5.18.3 Pneumatic comparator
,jpy; manometer nghUj;jg;gl;l xU ePu;j;njhl;b
cs;sJ. Manometerd; gf;fthl;by; mstPLfs; Fwpf;fg;gl;l
scale cs;sJ. jz;zPh;j; njhl;bapy; xU dip tube %o;fp
,Uf;Fk;. ,jd; Nky; Kidapy; restriction chamber mikf;fg;
gl;bUf;Fk;. Dip tubed; fPo; Kid jpwe;jpUf;Fk;. Nky; Kid
xU control orifice topahf flexible pipe xd;Wld; ,izf;fg;
gl;bUf;Fk;. NkYk; manometerd; Nky; Kid flexible pipe
cld; ,izf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. Flexible piped; KidAld;
measuring head nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;.
mOj;jg;gl;l fhw;whdJ restriction chamber topahf dip
tubef;Fs; nrYj;jg;gLfpwJ. Restriction chambery; fhw;wpd;
Ntfk; Fiwf;fg;l;L> control orifice topahf flexible pipef;F
nry;fpwJ. Flexible pipeypUe;J fhw;W measuring headI
mile;J mjpYs;s Jis topahf ntspNaWk;.
Restriction chamber
Control orifice
Flexible pipe External
measuring head

Gap
Work piece

h
constant pressure

Internal
measuring head

Work piece

Scale Air escaping

Manometer
Fig.5.24 Pneumatic comparator
5.29
 Measuring
heady; ,Ue;J fhw;W jilapy;yhky;
ntspNaWk; NghJ> manometer kw;Wk; jz;zPh; njhl;bapy;
cs;s ePh;kl;lk; rkkhf ,Uf;Fk;. fhw;W ntspNaw jil
Vw;gLk; NghJ back pressure cz;lhfp> flexible pipe kw;Wk; dip
tubef;F ,ilapy; mOj;j NtWghL cUthfpwJ. ,jdhy;
manometery; cs;s ePh;kl;lk; NtWgLk;.

a) Internal measurement
Jisfspd; mstpid Nrhjidapl> flexible pipecld;
internal measuring head ,izf;fg;gLk;. cUis tbtpy;
cs;s ,jd; gf;fthl;by; fhw;W ntspNaw ,uz;L Jisfs;
,Uf;Fk;. Kjypy; rhpahd msTs;s specimen my;yJ ring
gaugey; measuring head Eiof;fg;gLfpwJ. ,g;NghJ
manometery; cs;s ePh;kl;lj;ij ‘0’ msthf Fwpj;Jf;
nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;. gpd;G Nrhjidapl Ntz;ba workpieced;
Jisapy; measuring head Eiof;fg;gLk;.

Jisapd; msT rpwpajhf ,Ue;jhy; fhw;W ntspNaw

Vw;gLk; jil mjpfkhFk;. ,jdhy; manometery; ePh;kl;lk; ‘0’
msTf;F fPo; ,wq;Fk;. Jisapd; msT nghpajhf ,Uf;Fk;
NghJ fhw;W ntspNaw Vw;gLk; jil FiwfpwJ. vdNt
manometery; ePh;kl;lk; ‘0’ mstpw;F mjpfkhf NkNy caUk;.
,jd; %yk; 0.001 mm msTf;F Jy;ypakhf NtWghLfis
msf;fyhk;.

b) External measurement
nghUspd; jbkd;> cauk; Nghd;wtw;iw Nrhjidapl
flexible pipe cld; external measuring head ,izf;fg;gLk;.
Njitahd rhpahd mstpw;F slip gaugefis measuring
headf;F fPNo mLf;fp> manometery; ‘0’ msT
Fwpf;fg;gLfpwJ. gpd;G slip gaugefis vLj;J tpl;L
Nrhjidapl Ntz;ba workpiece me;j ,lj;jpy; itf;fg;
gLfpwJ. Workpieced; msTfspy; cs;s NtWghLfSf;F
Vw;g measuring head kw;Wk; workpieced; Nkw;gug;Gf;F
,ilNaAs;s ,ilntsp NtWgLk;. ,e;j NtWghL
manometery; cs;s ePh;kl;lj;jhy; fhz;gpf;fg;gLk;.
5.30
Advantages of pneumatic comparator
1) mstpLk; fUtpfs; Nja;khdk; miltjpy;iy.
2) Fiwthd inertia kw;Wk; Fiwthd cuha;tpdhy;
accuracy mjpfkhfpwJ.
3) mjpf msT magnification ngw KbAk;.
4) kpfr;rpwpa msT nfhz;l ghfq;fisAk; kpfj;
Jy;ypakhf Nrhjidapl KbAk;.
5) mstpLk; mikg;gpy; ,Ue;J msT fhl;Lk;
mikg;gpid njhiytpy; itf;f ,aYk;.
6) mstpLtjw;F kpff; Fiwe;j mOj;jk; NghJkhdJ.

Disadvantages of pneumatic comparator

1) msTNfhy; rkr;rPuhf ,Uf;fhJ.
2) Meniscus gpiofisj; jtph;f;f> kpf mjpf msT
magnification Njitg;gLk;.
3) ntt;NtW mstPLfSf;F ntt;NtW mstpLk;
Kidfs; Njitg;gLk;.
4) mjpf vz;zpf;ifapy; Jizf; fUtpfs; Njitg;gLk;.
5) fUtpia ifahs;tJ rpukk;.

5.18.4 Optical Comparator

Condensing Light
lens
Scale

Projection
lens
Beam of
light
Hinge Mirror
Lever

Plunger
Table

Base

Fig.5.25 Optical comparator

5.31
 ,jpy; xU plunger MdJ hinge nra;ag;gl;l xU lever
cld; ,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. Plungerd; ,lg; ngah;r;rpahdJ
,e;j lever %yk; nghpjhf;fg;gLfpwJ. Leverd; kw;nwhU
Kidapy; xU fz;zhb rha;thf nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;. ,e;j
fz;zhbf;F Nky; Gwj;jpy; rw;W njhiytpy; xU bulb
nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;.; ,jpypUe;J tUk; xspf;fjpu;
fz;zhbapy; gl;L mjw;F vjpNu cs;s jpiuapy; gpujpgypf;Fk;.
jpiuapy; mstPLfs; Fwpf;fg;gl;l scale ,Uf;Fk;.
Kjypy; rhpahd mstpw;F slip gaugefis mLf;fp
plungerf;Fk; tablef;Fk; ,ilapy; itf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,t;NghJ
jpiuapy; xspf;fjpu; tpOk; ,lj;ij ‘0’ msthf Fwpj;Jf;
nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;. gpd;G slip gaugefis vLj;J tpl;L
Nrhjidapl Ntz;ba workpiece I me;j ,lj;jpy; itf;f
Ntz;Lk;. Workpieced; mstpy; khWghL ,Ue;jhy; plunger
Kd;gpd; efUk;. ,jdhy; lever %ykhf fz;zhb Fwpg;gpl;l
Nfhzj;jpw;F efh;j;jg;gLk;. ,g;NghJ fz;zhbapypUe;J
gpujpgypf;fg;gLk; xspf;fjpu; jpiuapy; NtnwhU ,lj;jpy;
tpOk;. ,jpypUe;J workpieced; mstpy; cs;s tpj;jpahrj;ij
kpfj; Jy;ypakhf njhpe;J nfhs;syhk;.
Optical comparatorIg; gad;gLj;jp gear teeth, screw
thread, cutting tools, Crpfs; Nghd;w tw;iw Nrhjidaplyhk;.
Advantages of optical comparator
1) kpf mjpf msT magnification ngw Kbak;.
2) Fiwthd efUk; ghfq;fis cilaJ.
3) mjpf msT accuracy nfhz;lJ.
4) fUtpapd; mstpLk; tuk;G mjpfk;.
5) ,lkhW Njhw;wg; gpio ,Uf;fhJ.
6) gpwtw;iwf; fhl;bYk; vil Fiwthf ,Uf;Fk;.
Disadvantages of optical comparator
1) kpfg; nghpa fl;likg;ig cilaJ.
2) fUtpapd; tpiy mjpfk;.
3) Lamp, trnasformer Nghd;wtw;wpy; ,Ue;J ntspg;gLk;
ntg;gk; zero msit khw;wp tpl tha;g;Gs;sJ.
4) ,Ul;lhd miw mtrpak; MFk;.
5) Microscope %yk; ghh;g;gjhy;> njhlh;r;rpahd
gad;ghl;bw;F Vw;wJ my;y.
5.32
5.19 Measuring Instruments
5.19.1 Steel rule

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 29 30

1 2 3 12

Fig. 5.26 Steel rule

,J scale vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;. ,J nghJthf
ePsj;ij mstpl gad;gLk; vspa cgfuzk; MFk;. ,J
fbdkhf;fg;gl;l steel My; nra;ag;gl;l gl;iltbtpidf;
nfhz;lJ. ,jd; ePsthf;F tpspk;gpy; Fwpg;gpl;l
,ilntspfspy; NfhLfs; nghwpf;fg;gl;L msTfs; Fwpff;g;
gl;bUf;Fk;. ,jd; xU tpspk;gpNyh my;yJ ,uz;L
tpspk;Gfspy; ntt;NtW myFfSlNdh mstPLfs; Fwpf;fg;
gl;bUf;Fk;. 150 mm, 300 mm, 600 mm kw;Wk; 1000 mm
msTfspy; scalefs; fpilf;fpd;wd. ,J Jy;ypakhf
mstpLk; cgfuzk; fpilahJ. Foundry, steel njhopw;
rhiyfs;> fabrication Ntiyfs; Nghd;wtw;wpy; nghJthd
mstpLk; cgfuzkhf gad;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ.

5.19.2 Calipers

Outside caliper Inside caliper Jenny caliper

Fig. 5.27 Calipers

5.33
 msTfis msg;gjw;Fk;> workpiecef;F msTfis
ghpkhw;wk; nra;tjw;Fk; caliperfs; gad;gLfpd;wd. nghJthf
gad;gLj;jg;gLk; caliperfs; fPo;f;fz;lthW :
1) Outside caliper 2) Inside caliper 3) Outside spring caliper
4) Inside spring caliper 5) Jenny or Odd leg caliper

Outside caliper MdJ cs;Nehf;fp tise;j ,uz;L

tisthd fhy;fisf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;. Steel rule cjtpAld;
diameter, thickness Nghd;w ntspg;Gw msTfis msg;gjw;F
,J gad;gLfpwJ. ,jd; ,uz;L fhy;fSk; Nkw;Gwj;jpy; xU
hinge %yk; tpiug;ghf nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;.

Inside caliper
MdJ ntspNehf;fp tise;j ,uz;L
Neuhd fhy;fisf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;. Jisfs;> shoulder,
,izahd gug;Gfs; Nghd;wtw;wpd; cl;Gw msTfis
msg;gjw;F ,J gad;gLfpwJ. Screw %yk; fl;Lg;gLj;jf;
$ba spring caliperfisf; nfhz;L kpfj; Jy;ypakhf
msTfis ghpkhw;wk; nra;ayhk;.

Workpieced;
xU Neuhd tpspk;gpw;F ,izahf
NfhLfis tiutjw;F odd leg caliper cjTfpwJ. NkYk; xU
cUis tbt workpieced; ikaj;ij fz;lwpaTk; ,J
gad;gLfpwJ.

5.19.3 Combination set

Graduated protractor head
Centre head Spirit level

Squaring
head

Graduated rule

Fig. 5.28 Combination set

Combination set MdJ

layout kw;Wk; inspection Ntiy
fspy; ngUk;ghYk; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; xU precision Fiwthd
5.34
mstpLk; cgfuzk; MFk;. ,jpy; scale, squaring head,
protractor kw;Wk; centre head Mfpait mlq;fp ,Uf;Fk;.
cWjpahd scaled; ePsthf;F tpspk;gpy; groove ntl;lg;gl;L
,Uf;Fk;.
,jpy; efUk; tifapy; square head nghUj;jg;
gl;bUf;Fk;. Squaring headd; xU tpspk;ghdJ vg;nghOJk;
scalef;F nrq;Fj;jhf ,Uf;Fk;. Locking bolt kw;Wk; nut
cjtpahy; ,jid ve;j ,;lj;jpYk; efh;j;jp nghUj;jyhk;.
gug;Gfs; ,izahf cs;sdth vd;gjid Nrhjidapl
,jpy; xU sprit level cs;sJ.

Nfhz msTfs; Fwpf;fg;gl;l protractor cjtpahy;>

dovetail kw;Wk; Nfhz msTfis workpiecey; Fwpf;fyhk;.
,jpy; cs;s centre head mikg;ig scale cjtpAld;
gad;gLj;jp cUis tbt workpiecefspy; ikaq;fisf;
Fwpf;fyhk;.

5.19.4 Feeler gauges

m
5m mm
0.1
0.0

Fig.5.29 Feeler gauges

,uz;L ,izahd jl;ilg; gug;GfSf;F ,ilapy;
cs;s ,ilntspia msg;gjw;F feeler gauge gad;gLfpwJ.
,J thickness gauge vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;. Feeler gauge
MdJ Fwpg;gpl;l jbkdpy; sheet steel nfhz;L jahhpf;fg;gl;l
gy FWfpa gl;ilfisf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;. ntt;NtW jbkd;
nfhz;l gy gaugefs; xU nghJthd hinge %yk; xd;whf
nghUj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;. ,tw;iw gad;gLj;JgtNu
cz;ikahd msit czh;e;J (feel) mwptjhy; ,it feeler
gauges vdg;gLfpd;wd.

5.35
 0.003 mm Kjy; 1 mm tiu ntt;NtW jbkd; nfhz;l
gy bladefSld; $ba feeler gaugefs; ntt;NtW juj;jpy;
fpilf;fpd;wd. nghJthf bladefspd; xl;Lnkhj;j ePsk;
100 mm ,Uf;Fk;. ,jd; cs;Kid mfykhfTk;> ntspKid
rhpthfTk; ,Uf;Fk;. xU ciwapd; ,UGwKk; hinge nra;ag;
gl;L ,it nghUj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;. gad;gLj;jhj epiyapy;
bladefis KOtJkhf ghJfhf;Fk; tifapy; ,e;j ciw
tbtikf;fg; gl;bUf;Fk;.

msf;f Ntz;ba ,ilntspf;Fs;> bladeI nrYj;jp

rhpahd msT fz;lwpag;gLfpwJ. ,t;thW bladeI
nrYj;Jk;NghJ mJ kpfTk; freeMf nry;yf;$lhJ. mNj
Neuj;jpy; mOj;jp jpzpf;fTk; $lhJ. Njitahd jbkidg;
ngWtjw;F xd;W my;yJ mjw;F mjpfkhd gl;ilfis
,izj;Jk; gad; gLj;jyhk;.

Feeler gauged; rpy gad;fs; gpd;tUkhW:

1) ,ae;jpuq;fspy; tool kw;Wk; workpiecef;F ,ilNaAs;s
,ilntspiaf; fhz cjTfpwJ.
2) Automobiley; spark plug ,ilntspia rhpahd
msTf;F mikf;f cjTfpwJ.
3) Piston kw;Wk; cylinderf;F ,ilNaAs;s clearanceI
msf;f cjTfpwJ.
4) ,ae;jpuq;fspy; guide kw;Wk; guidewaysf;F
,ilapYs;s clearanceI msf;fg; gad;gLfpwJ.

5.19.5 Fillet and radius gauge

Fillet kw;Wk; radius gauge MdJ ,UGwKk; gy steel
bladefs; nghUj;jg;gl;l xU metal caseIf; nfhzbUf;Fk;.
,e;j bladefs; tool steel %yk; cWjpahd nky;ypa gl;ilfshf
nra;ag;gl;bUf;Fk;. ,e;j bladefs; xd;whf ,izf;fg;gl;L
hinge nra;ag;gl;L ,Uf;Fk;. Cased; xU gf;fj;jpy;
nghUj;jg;gl;l bladefspd; KidfshdJ cs;Nehf;fp Fopthf
mike;jpUf;Fk;. Cased; mLj;j gf;fj;jpy; nghUj;jg;gl;l
bladefspd; KidfshdJ ntspNehf;fp Ftpe;J
mike;jpUf;Fk;. Bladefspd; Kidfspy; cs;s tisTfs;
ntt;NtW Mu msTfisf; nfhz;ljhf ,Uf;Fk;.
5.36
 mm
.05
10
6.0
5m
m

Fig. 5.30 Fillet and radius gauge

Fillet kw;Wk; ,ju tisthd gug;Gfspd; cl;Gw kw;Wk;

ntspg;Gw Mu msTfis fz;lwptjw;F ngUk;ghYk; ,it
gad;gLfpd;wd.

5.19.6 Pitch screw gauge

30.057

Fig. 5.31 Pitch screw gauge

gy;NtW threadfspd; pitch msit Jy;ypakhf
mse;jwpaTk; rhpghh;f;fTk; gad;gLk; xU rpwe;j cgfuzk;
pitch screw gauge MFk;. ,jpy; cs;s metal cased; ,UGwKk;
tool steel My; nra;ag;gl;l gy gl;ilfs; xd;whf hinge
nra;ag;gl;bUf;Fk;. xt;nthU gl;ilapYk; ntt;NtW pitch
msT nfhz;l thread Vw;gLj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;. xt;nthU
gl;ilapd; Nkw;GwKk; mjd; pitch kjpg;G Fwpf;fg; gl;bUf;Fk;.
5.37
 ntt;NtW gl;ilfis xd;wd; gpd; xd;whf nghUj;jpg;
ghh;j;J> rhpahd pitch kjpg;G fz;lwpag; gLfpwJ.
NrhjidapLk; threadd; kPJ kpfr;rhpahf nghUe;Jk;
gl;ilapd; Nkw;Gwk; Fwpf;fg;gl;l msitf; nfhz;L pitch
kjpg;ig Neubahf mwpayhk;. ntspg;Gw kw;Wk; cl;Gw
threadfis mstpl ,e;j gauge I gad;gLj;jyhk;. Thread
cUthf;fg;gl;l Jisfspy; vspjhf Eiotjw;F Vw;g blade
fspd; Kidfs; FWfpathW tbtikf;fg; gl;bUf;Fk;.

5.19.7 Vernier caliper

Knife edge for marking

Locking screw
Rule

Main scale

0 2 3 5 6

0 25

Vernier scale Fine adjustment

screw

Sliding jaw
Fixed jaw Work piece

Fig.5.32 Vernier caliper

Vernier caliperI gad;gLj;jp nghUspd; ePsk;> mfyk;>

Mok;> outside diameter kw;Wk; inside diameter Nghd;wtw;iw
msf;fyhk;. ,jidf; nfhz;L 0.02 mm Jy;ypakhf
msTfis msf;fyhk;.
Vernier calipery; rule vdg;gLk; xU main beam cs;sJ.
,jpy; kpy;yp kPl;lhpy; msTfs; Fwpf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. ,jd; xU
Kidapy; fixed jaw cs;sJ. Venier head cld; $ba sliding
jaw xd;W ,jpy; cs;sJ. ,jpy; msTfs; Fwpf;fg;gl;l
vernier scale cs;sJ. Sliding jawit rule kPJ efh;j;jp ve;j
,lj;jpYk; nghUj;jpf; nfhs;s locking screw cs;sJ. xU
5.38
fine adjustment screw MdJ vernier cld; ,izf;fg;
gl;Ls;sJ. ,uz;L jawf;fspd; cl;Gw Kfq;fSk; xd;Wf;
nfhd;W ,izahf ,Uf;Fk;.
ntspg;gf;f msTfis msf;Fk;NghJ> workpieceI
,uz;L jawf;fSf;Fk; ,ilapy; itf;f Ntz;Lk;. Sliding
jawit efh;j;jp nghUspd; gf;fthl;by; rhpahf gbAkhW
nra;a Ntz;Lk;. Locking screwit jpUfp vernier headI
g+l;btpl Ntz;Lk;. Fine adjustment screwit jpUfp sliding
jawit NkYk; efh;j;jp nghUspy; kpfr; rhpahf gba
itf;fyhk;. gpd;G main scale kw;Wk; vernier scale msTfis
Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;.

Reading
Main scaley; xU divisiond; msT 0.5 mm MFk;. Vernier
scaley; cs;s 25 divisionfspd; nkhj;j ePsk; 12 mm Mf
,Uf;Fk;. vdNt xU vernier scale division = 12 / 25 = 0.48 mm.
Least count = Length of one main scale division –
Length of one vernier scale division
= 0.50 – 0.48 = 0.02 mm
rpy vernier caliperfspy;> main scaley; xU divisiond;
msT 1 mm Mf ,Uf;Fk;. Vernier scaley; 50 divisionfs;
,Uf;Fk;. ,jd; nkhj;j ePsk; 49 mm MFk;.
vdNt xU vernier scale division = 49 / 50 = 0.98 mm
Least count = Length of one main scale division –
Length of one vernier scale division
= 1.00 – 0.98 = 0.02 mm
msT vLf;Fk; NghJ> Kjypy; vernier scaled; ‘0’ tpw;F
rw;W Kd;djhf main scaley; cs;s msitf;
Fwpj;Jf;nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;. gpd;G vernier scaley; cs;s
vj;jidahtJ NfhL main scaley; cs;s VNjDk; xU
Nfhl;Lld; Neuhf nghUe;jpAs;sJ vd;gij fz;lwpe;J
Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;. ,e;j vz;iz least countMy;
ngUf;fp tUk; tpilia main scale msTld; $l;bf; nfhs;s
Ntz;Lk;. ,JNt nghUspd; rhpahd msT MFk;.
5.39
 2 3 4

0 5 10 15 20 25

Reading = 28 + (16 x 0.02) = 28.32 mm

Fig.5.33 Reading of vernier

cjhuzkhf, glj;jpy; fhl;bAs;s epiyapy;>

Main scale reading = 28 mm
Vernier scale coincidence = 16 divisions
Vernier scale reading = 16 x 0.02 = 0.32 mm
Correct reading = 28 + 0.32 = 28.32 mm.

Digital vernier caliper

Inside measuring faces
Locking screw

Depth measuring blade

15.44 Main scale

Thump roller
Battery lid
ON switch
OFF switch
Movable jaw
Fixed jaw
Fig.5.34 Digital vernier caliper

rhjhuz vernier caliperIg; Nghd;W midj;Jg;

ghfq;fSk; ,jpYk; ,Uf;Fk;. Mdhy; ,jpy; msTfis
Neubahf liquid crystal display (LCD)y; njhpe;J nfhs;syhk;.
,jpy; nghUj;jg;gl;Ls;s rpwpa battery %yk; ,J
,aq;FfpwJ. ,e;j fUtpiaf; nfhz;L 0.01 mm Jy;ypakhf
msTfis msf;fyhk;. ,jpy; kpy;yp kPl;lhpYk; inchYk;
msTfis njhpe;J nfhs;syhk;. eph;zapf;fg;gl;l VNjDk;
xU mstpw;Fk;> ehk; mstpLk; nghUspd; mstpw;Fk; cs;s
tpj;jp ahrj;ij njhpe;J nfhs;sTk; ,jpy; trjp cs;sJ.

5.40
5.19.8 Vernier height gauge

Fine adjustment Beam

screw

7
6
Clamp Clamping screw

25
Scriber
4
3
0
Vernier scale
Slider
1

Measuring jaw
0

Base

Fig.5.35 Vernier height gauge

nghUspd; cauj;ij mstplTk;> xU Fwpg;gpl;l

msit work piecey; kpfr; rhpahf Fwpf;fTk; vernier height gauge
gad;gLfpwJ. ,jidf; nfhz;L 0.02 mm Jy;ypakhf
msTfis msf;fyhk;. xU surface plate kPJ vernier height
gauge kw;Wk; work pieceI itj;J msTfs; vLf;fg;gLfpd;wd.

,jpy; steelMy; Md xU jplkhd base cs;sJ.

,jd; kPJ xU vertical beam nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;. ,e;j
beamy; main scale mstPLfs; Fwpf;fg;gl;bUfFk;. ,e;j
beamy; NkYk; fPOk; efUkhW xU slider ,izf;fg;
gl;bUf;Fk;. ,jpy; vernier scale mstPLfs; Fwpf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;.
,jpy; cs;s clamping screw %yk; sliderI ve;j ,lj;jpYk;
efh;j;jp nghUj;jyhk;. NkYk; fine adjustment screw %yk;
sliderI kpfj; Jy;ypakhf efh;j;jyhk;. Slidercld; xU
measuring jaw ,izf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. ,jd; kPJ xU scriberI
itj;J clamp nra;J nfhs;syhk;.

nghUspd; cauj;ij msf;f> mij surface platekPJ

itf;f Ntz;Lk;. Sliderd; fPo;g;gf;fk; workpieced; Nky;
5.41
gf;fj;ij rhpahf njhl;Lf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;gb
rhpnra;ag;gLfpwJ. gpd;G main scale kw;Wk; vernier scaley;
msTfs; Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;sg;gLfpwJ. Vernier scaled; least
count 0.02 mm MFk;.
rhpahd msT = Main scale reading +
(Vernier scale coincidence x least count)

nghUspd; cz;ikahd cauj;ij mwpa> Nkw;fz;l

msTld; vernier height gauge cld; nfhLf;fg;gLk; xU base
blockd; msT $l;lg;gl Ntz;Lk;.
nghUspd; cauk; = MSR + (VSC x LC) + Base blockd; cauk;

5.19.9 Gear tooth vernier

Vertical slide

Horizontal slide

Pitch circle Addendum

Gear tooth
Vertical slide
Chordal thickness

Horizontal slide

Fig.5.36 Gear tooth vernier

xU gear gy;ypd; chordal thicknessI msg;gjw;F gear

tooth vernier gad;gLfpwJ. Chordal thickness vd;gJ pitch ircle
nry;Yk; Gs;spapy; xU gy;ypd; jbkidf; Fwpg;gjhFk;. ,e;j
verniery; xU fpilkl;l slidek; xU nrq;Fj;J slidek;
nghUj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;. ,it ,uz;ilAk; jdpj;jdpahf
efh;j;jyhk;. ,it ,uz;bYk; main scale kw;Wk; vernier scale
mstPLfs; Fwpf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;.

5.42
 Kjypy; fPo;f;fz;l tha;g;ghl;il gad;gLj;jp gy;ypd;
addendum fz;lwpa Ntz;Lk;.
𝒛 𝟗𝟎
𝑨𝒅𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒎 = 𝒎 [ (𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( ) + 𝟏 )]
𝟐 𝒛
Where, 𝒎 = Module of the gear
𝒛 = Number of teeth
Addendum vd;gJ xU gy;ypd; Nkw;gFjpapy; ,Ue;J
pitch circle tiu cs;s nrq;Fj;J J}uk; MFk;.

fzf;fplg;gl;l addendum msTf;F rhpahf nrq;Fj;J

slideI NkNy efh;j;jp lock nra;a Ntz;Lk;. Gear gy;ypd; Nky;
gFjpapy; nrq;Fj;J slide mkUkhW nra;a Ntz;Lk;. gpd;G
fpilkl;l slideI efh;j;jp gy;ypd; ,Ugf;fKk; njhLkhW
nra;a Ntz;Lk;. ,g;NghJ fpilkl;l slidey; ,Ue;J
Fwpf;fg;gLk; msNt gear gy;ypd; chordal thicknes MFk;.
5.19.10 Micrometer
rpwpa kw;Wk; eLj;ju nghUl;fspd; ePsk;> mfyk;>
jbkd; kw;Wk; tpl;lk; Nghd;wtw;iw Jy;ypakhf mstpl
micrometer gad;gLfpwJ. ntspg;Gw msTfis mstplg;
gad;gLk; outside micrometer glj;jpy; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ.
Spindle clamp
Thimble
Spindle Main scale
Anvil 0 5 10 15 15
10
5

Barrel Ratchet
Vernier scale

Frame

Fig.5.37 Micrometer

,jpy; steelMy; Md xU ‘C’ tbt frame cs;sJ.

,jd; ,lJ Kidapy; xU anvilk;> tyJ Kidapy; xU
barrelk; nghUj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;. Barreld; kPJ main scale
mstPLfs; Fwpf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. ,e;j barrely; 0.5 mm pitch
cs;s thread cld; $ba Jis cs;sJ. 0.5 mm pitch cld;
5.43
$ba xU screw ,e;j JisapDs; nry;fpwJ. Screw cld;
tyJ Kidapy; spindlek; ,lJ Kidapy; thimblek;
,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. Thimble xU tubular cover MFk;.
ThimbleI Row;Wk; NghJ mjDld; ,ize;Js;s screw
Roy;tjhy; spindle Kd; gpd; efUk;.

Thimbled; ,lJ gf;fk; cs;s rhpthd Kidapy;

vernier msTfs; Fwpf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. Thimbled; tyJ
Kidapy; ratchet nghUj;jg; gl;Ls;sJ. Screwtpy;
nrYj;jg;gLk; mOj;jk; Fwpg;gpl;l msit tpl mjpfhpf;Fk;
NghJ ,e;j ratchet eotp tpLk;. ‘C’ framed; tyJ Kidapy;
xU clamp cs;sJ. ,jd; %yk; spindleI Njitahd
,lj;jpy; lock nra;J nfhs;syhk;.

msTfs; vLf;Fk;NghJ> workpieceI spindle kw;Wk;

anvilfSf;F ,ilapy; itf;f Ntz;Lk;. Spindled; Kid
workpieceI njhLk; tiu rachetI jpUf Ntz;Lk;. gpd;G
spindleI clamp nra;Jtpl;L> main scale kw;Wk; vernier scale
msTfis Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;

Reading

30
0 5
25

20

Fig.5.38 Reading of micrometer

,jd; main scaley; xU divisiond; msT 0.5 mm MFk;.

Thimbled; xU Kor;Rw;Wf;F spindle MdJ 0.5 mm J}uk;
efUk;. Thimble MdJ 50 rk ghfq;fshf gphpf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;.
vdNt xU vernier scale division = 0.5 / 50 = 0.01 mm.

nghUspd; msT = Main scale reading + (datum line cld;

nghUe;Jk; vernier scale division x 0.01 mm)
5.44
cjhuzkhf> glj;jpy; fhl;bAs;s epiyapy;>
nghUspd; msT = 8.50 + (25 x 0.01)
= 8.50 + 0.25 = 8.75 mm

5.19.11 Inside micrometer

Work piece
Handle
Anvil

Barrel

Extension
Thimble rods

Spindle

Fig.5.39 Inside micrometer

Inside micrometer xU Jisapd; tpl;lj;ij msf;fg;

gad;gLfpwJ. ,J outside micrometerIg; Nghd;Nw Ntiy
nra;Ak;. ,jidf; nfhz;L 50mmf;F mjpfkhd msTfis
kl;LNk msf;f ,aYk;. ,jd; xU Kidapy; anvilk; kw;nwhU
Kidapy; spindlek; nghUj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;. ThimbleI Row;Wk;
NghJ spindle efUk;. MicrometerI JisapDs; nfhz;L
nry;y ,jpy; xU ePskhd handle cs;sJ.

SpindleI mjpfgl;rkhf 13 mm msTf;F efh;j;jyhk;.

vdNt ,e;j micrometerI Neubahf cgNahfpj;J 50 mm
Kjy; 63 mm tiuapyhd msTfis msf;fyhk;. ,ijtpl
nghpa msTfis msf;Fk; NghJ micrometer anvilI fow;wp
tpl;L jFe;j extension rod gad;gLj;jg; gLfpwJ. 25, 50,100,
150, 200 kw;Wk; 600 mm msTfspy; extension rodfs; cs;sd.
,e;j micrometerI nfhz;L 0.01 mm Jy;ypakhf msTfis
msf;fyhk;.
5.45
5.19.12 Depth micrometer

Thimble

Barrel
Locking ring
Head

Work piece

Spindle

Fig.5.40 Depth micrometer

Blind holes,
slots kw;Wk; grooves Nghd;wtw;wpd;
Moj;ij fz;lwpa depth micrometer gad;gLfpwJ. ,jpy;
mstpLk; Kiw outside micrometerIg; Nghd;wNj MFk;. ,jpy;
xU head cs;sJ. ,e;j headd; topahf spindle efUk;.
HeadI rhpahf mkh;j;Jtjw;F trjpAs;s ,lq;fspy; kl;LNk
,f;fUtpia gad;gLj;jp mstpl ,aYk;.
Mok; msf;f Ntz;ba Jisapd; Nky; gFjpapy;
rhpahf mkUkhW head itf;fg;gLfpwJ. ThimbleI row;Wk;
NghJ spindle Jisf;Fs; efh;fpwJ. Jisapd; mbg;ghfj;ij
spindle njhl;lTld; mjid lock nra;J> micrometerI
ntspapy; vLf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,jpy; mstPLfshdJ fPopUe;J
Nkyhf ,wq;F thpirapy; Fwpf;fg; gl;bUf;Fk;. mjpfkhd
Moq;fis mstpl ,jpy; ntt;NtW msTs;s extension
rodfs; gad;gLj;jg; gLfpd;wd.

5.19.13 Thread micrometer

xU threadd; pitch diameterI Jy;ypakhf mstpLtjw;F
thread micrometer gad;gLfpwJ. ,jd; mikg;G outside
micrometerIg; Nghd;wNj MFk;. ,jd; spindle MdJ $k;G
tbt KidiaAk;> anvil MdJ ‘V’ tbt KidiaAk;
5.46
nfhz;bUf;Fk;. $k;G tbt kw;Wk; ‘V’ tbt Kidfs;> msf;f
Ntz;ba threadd; tbtj;ijg; Nghd;Nw ,Uf;Fk;. ntt;NtW
threadfis mstpl> mjw;Nfw;w rhpahd tbtKila
Kidfis Njh;e;njLj;J nghUj;jpf; nfhs;syhk;.

Pitch diameter
V-shaped Conical
anvil point

Thread

Fig.5.41 Thread micrometer

mstpl Ntz;ba threadI spindle kw;Wk; anvilfSf;F

,ilapy; itf;f Ntz;Lk;. SpindleI efh;j;jp threadd;
gs;sj;jpy; mkUkhW nra;a Ntz;Lk;. ,g;NghJ micrometery;
,Ue;J Fwpf;fg;gLk; msT thread; pitch circle diameter MFk;.
Three wire method
Anvil
Spindle

Thread
Wire

Distance between
wires (D)

Fig.5.42 Three wire method

Screw threadd; pitch diameterI kpfj;Jy;ypakhf mstpl

,k;Kiw cjTfpwJ. ,jpy; xU rhjhuz micrometer kw;Wk; xNu
msT tpl;lk; nfhz;l 3 wirefs; gad;gLj;jg; gLfpd;wd. ,e;j
5.47
wirefs; fbdkhf;fg;gl;l steelMy; nra;aggl;L lapping Kiwapy;
finish nra;ag;gl;bUf;Fk;. msf;f Ntz;ba threadd; msTf;F
Vw;g rhpahd msTs;s wirefs; Njh;e;njLf;fg; gLfpd;wd.

glj;jpy;; fhl;bAAs;sgb> ,uz;L wirefs; threadd; xU

gf;fj;jpYk;> kw;nwhU wireMdJ threadd; mLj;j gf;fj;jpYk;
itf;fg; gl;bUf;Fk;. Micrometerd; anvil kw;Wk; spindle
,uz;Lk; ,e;j wirefis njhLkhW nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
,g;NghJ micrometery; cs;s msT (D) Fwpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
gpd;G fPo;f;fz;l tha;g;ghl;il gad;gLj;jp threadd; pitch
diameter fz;lwpag;gLfpwJ.
𝜶
𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝑫 − 𝒅 [𝟏 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( )]
𝟐
,q;F, 𝐷 = Distance between the wires
𝑑 = Diameter of wire
𝛼 = Included angle of thread


5.19.14 Slip gauges

1.001

1.002

1.003

1.004

1.005

1.006

1.007

1.008

1.009

1.01

1.02

1.03

1.04

1.05

1.06

1.07

1.08

1.09
1
1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

1.7

1.8

1.9

10
2

20 30 40 50 60

70 80 90

10 20 40

10 20 40

Fig.5.43 Slip gauges

ePs msit msf;fg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; kpfj;
Jy;ypakhd gauge blockfs; slip gauges vdg;gLk;. ,it
fdr;nrt;tf tbtk; cilait. ,it fbdg;gLj;jg;gl;l
alloy steelMy; jahhpf;fg;gl;L> Nkw;gug;G kpfj;Jy;ypakhf
5.48
lapping nra;ag;gl;bUf;Fk;. ,it ntt;NtW jbkd;
nfhz;lit. midj;J slip gaugefspd; ePsKk; xNu msthf
,Uf;Fk;. mNj Nghd;W mfyKk; xNu msthf ,Uf;Fk;.

Comparator
kw;Wk; sine barfspy; slip gaugefs;
ngUk;ghYk; gad;gLfpwJ. Fwpg;gpl;l ePs msit ngWtjw;F>
xd;W my;yJ gy gauge blockfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. Slip
gaugefs; wringing %yk; xd;wpd; kPJ xd;W xl;litf;fg;gLk;.
xU gauged; mstpLk; gug;ig kw;nwhU gauged; mstpLk;
gug;Gld; Nja;j;J xl;l itg;gNj wringing vdg;gLk;.
kpfj;Jy;ypakhd gug;Gfisf; nfhz;l blockfSf;F ,ilNa
adhesion ,Ug;gjhy; mit xl;bf; nfhs;fpd;wd.

nghJthf xU sety; 45 gauge blockfs; ,Uf;Fk.; 1 mm

Kjy; 90mm tiu jbkd; nfhz;l blockfs; ,jpy; ,Uf;Fk;.
xt;nthU blockd; msTk; mjd; kPJ vOjg; gl;bUf;Fk;.
,Nj Nghy 27, 33, 87, 112 kw;Wk; 165 Mfpa vz;zpf;ifapy;
gauge blockfs; nfhz;l slip gauge setfSk; fpilf;fpd;wd.

Requirements of slip gagues

Slip gaugefs; fPo;f;fz;l Kf;fpa gz;Gfisg;
ngw;wpUf;f Ntz;Lk; :
1) Slip gaguefspd; ,Wjp Kidfs; jl;ilahfTk;
xd;Wf;nfhd;W ,izahfTk; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
2) mLj;jLj;J cs;s gf;fq;fs; xd;Wf;nfhd;W
nrq;Fj;jhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
3) gug;Gfs; kpf mjpf surface finish nfhz;ljhf ,Uf;f
Ntz;Lk;.
4) Gauged; msT Fwpg;gpl;l tolerance vy;iyf;Fs; ,Uf;f
Ntz;Lk;.
5) tpspk;Gfspy; gprpW vJTk; ,Uf;ff; $lhJ.

Indian standard on slip gauges (IS:2984-1966)

AccuracyI mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L slip gaugefs; Grade 0,
Grade I, Grade II vd tifg;gLj;jg; gLfpd;wd.
5.49
  Grade II : nghUl;fs;> tools kw;Wk; gagues Nghd;wtw;iw
cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; workshopfspy; ,e;j tif slip
gaguefs; gad;gLfpd;wd.
 Grade I : mjpf accuracy nfhz;l ,e;j tif slip
gaguefs; NrhjiapLk; nray;fspy; gad;gLfpd;wd.
 Grade 0 : Grade I kw;Wk; Grade II tif slip gaguefis
calibration nra;tjw;F Ma;Tf; $lq;fspy; ,e;j tif
slip gaguefs; gad;gLfpd;wd.
M-87 set of slip gauges:
Range Steps No. of pieces
1.001 to 1.009 0.001 9
1.01 to 1.49 0.01 49
0.5 to 9.5 0.5 19
10 to 90 10 9
1.0005 -- 1
Total 87

M-112 set of slip gauges:

Range Steps No. of pieces
1.001 to 1.009 0.001 9
1.01 to 1.49 0.01 49
0.5 to 24.5 0.5 49
25, 50, 75, 100 25 4
1.0005 -- 1
Total 112

Care of slip gauges

Slip gaguefspy; accuracy khwhky; ePz;l ehl;fSf;F
itj;jpUf;f> fPo;f;fz;l ghJfhg;G eilKiwfis
filgpbf;f Ntz;Lk;.
1) gad;gLj;jpa gpd;G> xl;bf;nfhz;L ,Uf;Fk;
epiyapNyNa slip gaguefis itj;jpUf;f $lhJ.
2) gad;gLj;Jtjw;F Kd;G> slip gaguefspd; kPJ J}R
my;yJ grease VNjDk; ,Ue;jhy; mjid KOtJkhf
ePf;f Ntz;Lk;.
5.50
 3) gad;gLj;jhj nghOJ> slip gaguefis mjw;Fhpa
ngl;bapy; ghJfhg;ghf itf;f Ntz;Lk;.
4) gad;gLj;jpa gpd;G> xl;ba epiyapy; cs;s slip
gaguefis Neubahf gphpj;J vLf;ff; $lhJ. xd;wpd;
kPJ xd;W eOTkhW efh;j;jp gphpj;njLf;f Ntz;Lk;.
5) J}R ,y;yhj #o;epiyapy; slip gaguefis gad;gLj;j
Ntz;Lk;.
6) Slip gaguefis gphpj;J vLj;j gpd;G> clNd mjidg;
gad;gLj;jf; $lhJ.
7) Slip gagued; kPJ nky;ypa glykhf jukhd greaseI
G+rpa gpd;G mjid ngl;bapy; itf;f Ntz;Lk;.
Uses of slip gauges
Slip gaguefs; fPo;f;fz;lthW gad;gLfpd;wd :
1) Metrology Ma;tfq;fs;> tool room kw;Wk; machine shop
Nghd;wtw;wpy; gad;gLk; mjpf precision nfhz;l
mstpLk; fUtpfis calibration nra;tjw;F slip
gaguefs; gad;gLfpd;wd.
2) Sine barIf; nfhz;L Nfhzj;ij mstpLk;NghJ>
kpfr; rhpahd cauj;ij mikg;gjw;F slip gaugefs;
cjTfpd;wd.
3) Snap gagues Nghd;w NrhjidapLk; fUtpfspy;
mbg;gil msit mikg;gjw;F ,it gad;gLfpd;wd.
4) Comparator kw;Wk; optical Kiwapy; NrhjidapLk;
fUtpfis rhpghh;f;f slip gaugefs; gad;gLfpd;wd.
5) Milling machinefspy; Jiz mstpLk; mikg;ghf
,it gad;gLfpd;wd.

5.19.15 Bevel protractor

Bevel protactorIg; gd;gLj;jp rhpthd ghfq;fSf;F
,ilNa cs;s Nfhzj;ij 5 minutes Jy;ypakhf
msf;fyhk;. ,jpy; xU tl;l disc cld; nrt;tf tbt stock
xd;W ,izf;fg; gl;bUf;Fk.; kw;nwhU tl;l diald;
ikaj;ijg; nghUj;J RoYk; tifapy; tl;l discMdJ pivot
nra;ag;gl;bUf;Fk;. tl;l dialy; main scale mstPLfs;
Fwpf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;.

5.51
 Work piece
Stock
Movable blade

Locking screw Clamp for blade

0 0

Main scale
Vernier scale
90
Disc
Fig.5.44 Bevel protractor

Disc cld; vernier scale nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;. tl;l

dialy; cs;s groovey; efUk;gb xU blade nghUj;jg;
gl;bUf;Fk;. ,e;j bladeI Njitahd msTf;F efh;j;jp dial
cld; clamp nra;J nfhs;syhk;. tl;l discI diald; kPJ
g+l;Ltjw;F xU locking screw cs;sJ. efUk; bladeIg;
nghWj;J stockI ve;j Nfhzj;jpYk; Row;wp nghUj;jpf;
nfhs;syhk;.
Reading
Main scaley; xU divisiond; msT 1O MFk;. Vernier scale
12 rk ghfq;fshfg; gphpf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. ,jd; nkhj;j msT
main scaley; 23Of;F rkkhf ,Uf;Fk;.
23°
vdNt> xU vernier scale division =
12
Least count = 2 Main scale division − 1 vernier scale division
23°
= 2° − ( )
12
1° 60 minutes
= = = 5 minutes
12 12

5.52
 Main scale

10 20
20 30
40
30
50
40

0 15 0 15 30 45
45 3 60
60

Vernier scale
Fig.5.45 Reading of bevel protractor

glj;jpy; fhl;bAs;s epiyapy;>

Main scale reading = 15
Vernier scale coincidence = 4 divisions
Vernier scale reading = 4 x 5 = 20 minutes
Actual reading = Main scale reading + Vernier scale reading
= 15 + 20 Minutes = 15O 20’
5.19.16 Sine bar
End face Relief holes Upper face

Setting Lower surface

rollers
100 or 200 or 300 mm
Fig.5.46 Sine bar
Nfhz msTfis kpfj; Jy;ypakhf
msf;fg;gad;gLk; fUtp sine bar MFk;. ,J steelMy;
nra;ag;gl;l nrt;tf tbt beam MFk;. ,jd; midj;J
gug;Gk; lapping Kiwapy; finish nra;ag;gl;bUf;Fk;. ,jd; ,U
KidfspYk; cs;s stepfspy; xNu msT tpl;lKila
,uz;L rollerfs; nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;. ,e;j ,uz;L
rollerfspd; ikaq;fSf;F ,ilNaAs;s J}uNk sine bard;
msT MFk;. ,e;j msT 100 mm Kjy; 300 mm tiu
NtWglyhk;. ,e;j rollerfspd; ikaq;fis ,izj;J
tiuag;gLk; NfhlhdJ sine bard; Nkw;gug;G kw;Wk;
fPo;g;gug;GfSf;F ,izahf ,Uf;Fk;.
5.53
Types of sine bar
Sine bard; tiffs; fPo;f;fz;lthW :
1) Sine centre 2) Sine table 3) Compound sine table
1) Sine centre
rhjhuz sine bary; nghUj;j ,ayhj $k;G tbt
workpiecefis nghUj;Jtjw;F sine centre gad;gLfpwJ. ,jpy;
sine bard; fPo;g;gf;f roller MdJ hinge nra;ag;gl;L xU datum
surface kPJ nghUj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;. Sine bard; Nkw;gf;fj;jpy;>
$k;G tbt workpiecefis gpbg;gjw;F Vw;g clamp kw;Wk;
centrefs; nghUj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;. ,jidf; nfhz;L 45°f;Fk;
mjpfkhd Nfhz msTfis mstpl KbahJ.

2) Sine table or sine plate

Sine table my;yJ sine plate vd;gJ nghpa mfykhd
sine bar MFk;. Sine barI Njitahd ,lj;jpy; itj;j gpd;G
mjid lock nra;J nghUj;Jtjw;fhd mikg;G ,jpy;
cs;sJ. Nfhzj;ij mstpLk;NghJ workpieceI jhq;fpg;
gpbf;f ,J cjTfpwJ.
3) Compound sine table
kpfg; nghpa workpiecefspy;$l;Lf; Nfhzq;fis
mstpLtjw;F ,e;j mikg;G cjTfpwJ. ,e;j Kiwapy;>
,uz;L sine tablefs; nrq;Fj;jhf mikAkhW xd;wpd; kPJ
xd;whf itffg;gLk;. ,e;j tablefis Row;wp mikj;J
Njitahd Nfhzj;jpy; nghUj;jyhk;.

Uses of sine bar

1) Measuring unknown angle
Sine bar kw;Wk; slip gauge If; nfhz;L xU workpiecey;
cs;s rhpthd gug;gpd; Nfhzj;ij mstpLk; Kiw glj;jpy;
fhl;lg; gl;Ls;sJ.
WorkpieceI xU surface platekPJ itf;f Ntz;Lk;.
Sine bard; rkjskhd mbg;gFjp workpieced; rhpthd gug;gpd;
kPJ nghUe;jp ,Uf;FkhW mikf;f Ntz;Lk;. Sine bard; xU
roller MdJ surface plateI njhl;Lf; nfhz;bUf;f Ntz;Lk;.
Sine bard; kw;nwhU rollerf;Fk; surface platef;Fk; ,ilapy; slip

5.54
gaugefis mLf;fp itf;f Ntz;Lk;. Sine barf;Fk; work
piecef;Fk; ,ilapy; ,ilntsp ,y;yhjthW slip gaugefis
mLf;fp mjd; nkhj;j cauk; fzf;fplg; gLfpwJ.

Slip gauges
l
ar
eb
Sin

Work Surface plate

 piece

Fig.5.47 Uses of sine bar

glj;jpypUe;J>
Sine bard; ePsk; = 𝑙 vd;f.
Slip gauge mLf;fpd; cauk; = ℎ vd;f.
𝒉
sin 𝜽 =
𝒍
Nkw;fz;l tha;g;ghl;il gad;gLj;jp Nfhz msT
fz;lwpag; gLfpwJ.
2) Setting up known angle
𝒉
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 = vd;w sine Nfhl;ghl;bd;gb> θ kw;Wk; 𝑙 d; kjpg;G
𝒍
njhpAk; gl;rj;jpy;> ℎ vd;w cauj;jpd; kjpg;gpid fzf;fpl
KbAk;. Sine bard; fPo;g;gf;f roller MdJ surface plated; kPJ
itf;fg;gLk;. ℎ cauj;jpw;F mLf;fg;gl;l slip gaguefspd; kPJ
sine bard; kw;nwhU roller itf;fg;gLk;. ,g;NghJ sine bar
MdJ 𝜃 Nfhz mstpy; rha;thf ,Uf;Fk;. ,t;thW xU
workpieceI ve;j xU Nfhzj;jpYk; rhpahf nghUj;j KbAk;.

3) Checking of unknown angles of heavy component

mjpf vil nfhz;l nghpa workpiecefis sine bard;
kPJ nghUj;JtJ fbdkhf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ> workpieced; kPJ
sine bar nghUj;jg;gLk;. xU fpilkl;l gug;gpy; ,Ue;J> sine
bard; ,uz;L rollerfspd; cauq;fs; vernier height gague
cjtpahy; jdpj;jdpNa msf;fg; gLfpwJ. Vernier height
gague cld; xU dial test gagueI gad;gLj;jp cauq;fis
Jy;ypakhf msf;fyhk;.
5.55
 ℎ1 = fPo;g;gf;f rollerd; cauk;> kw;Wk;
ℎ2 = Nky;gf;f rollerd; cauk; vd;f.
gpd;G> fPo;f;fz;l njhlh;ig gad;gLj;jp workpiced;
rha;Tf; Nfhzk; fz;lwpag;gLfpwJ.
𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏
𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜽 =
𝒍
Limitations of sine bar
1) ,uz;L rollerfspd; ikaq;fSf;F ,ilNaAs;s
J}uj;jpid mstpLk; Jy;ypaj;ijg; nghWj;Nj sine
bard; Jy;ypak; mikAk;.
2) Nfhz mstPLfSf;fhd Kjd;ikahd jukhf
,jid gad;gLj;j KbahJ.
3) 15°f;F Fiwthd Nfhz msTfSf;Nf sine jj;Jtk;
Vw;wjhf mikfpwJ. mjw;F Nkw;gl;l Nfhz
msTfs; Jy;ypakhf mikahJ.
4) 45°f;F mjpfkhd Nfhz msTfis mstpLtjw;F
sine bar Vw;wJ my;y.

5.19.17 Clinometer

5 55
0

Minute
Rotatable disc adjustment
screw

Magnetic base Graduated scale

Vial

Fig. 5.48 Clinometer

Clinometer vd;gJ> fpilkl;lj; jsj;jpid nghWj;J
xU nrq;Fj;Jj; jsj;jpd; rha;tpid fz;lwpag; gad;gLk;
xU rpwg;G tif spirit level MFk;. Royf; $ba tifapy;
mike;j xU disc kPJ nghUj;jg;gl;l vial vdg;gLk; ghfNk
5.56
clinometerd; Kf;fpa gFjp MFk;. Vial vd;gJ spirit levelf;Fs;
cs;s kpf Jy;ypkhd msT nfhz;l %ba fz;zhb Foha;
MFk;. ,jDs; jputk; epug;gg; gl;bUf;Fk;. Linear scale
nghwpf;fg;gl;l ,jDs; bubble efUk;. Vial cld; msTfs;
Fwpf;fg;gl;l xU ring ,ize;jpUf;Fk;. Ringd; fpilkl;l
mr;rhdJ fUtpapd; housing cld; ,ize;jpUf;Fk;.

ClinometerI fpilkl;l gug;gpy; itf;Fk;NghJ> vialy;

cs;s bubble mjd; ikaj;jpy; ,Uf;Fk;. RoYk; discd; scale
MdJ zero msitf; fhz;gpf;Fk;. rhpthd gug;gpy;
clinometerI itf;Fk;NghJ> bubble mjd; ikaj;jpy; ,Ue;J
tpyfp ,Uf;Fk;. DiscI Row;wp bubbleI ikaj;jpw;F nfhz;L
tu Ntz;Lk;;. RoYk; disc efh;it scaled; mstpidf;
nfhz;L mwpayhk;. ,e;j; mstpidf; nfhz;L> Nrhjid
apLk; gug;ghdJ fpilkl;lj; jsj;jpy; ,Ue;J rhae;Js;s
Nfhz mstpid fz;lwpayhk;.
ntt;NtW tbtk; kw;Wk; msTfspy; gy;NtW
tifahd clinometerfs; fpilf;fpd;wd. ,it sensitivity kw;Wk
accuracy msTfspy; khWgLk;. mjpf precision nfhz;l
mstpLk; fUtpfSld; xg;gplf;$ba tifapy; Jy;ypahf
mstplf;$ba Nkk;gLj;jg;gl;l rkPgj;jpa clinometerfs;
ngUkstpy; fpilf;fpd;wd. 1 minutes tiu Jy;ypakhf
mstplf; $ba clinometerfs; fpilf;fpd;wd.
Applications
Clinometerfisf; nfhz;L fPo;f;fz;l ,uz;L tif
apyhd mstPLfis mse;jwpayhk;.
a) fpilkl;lj; jsj;jpidg; nghWj;J xU rha;thd
jsj;jpd; Nfhzj;ij mstpLjy;: Nrhjidapl
Ntz;ba jsj;jpd; kPJ fUtpia itf;f Ntz;Lk;.
DiscI Row;wp bubbleI ikaj;jpw;F nfhz;L te;j gpd;G>
scaley; cs;s msT rha;thd Nfhz msT MFk;.
b) xd;Wf;nfhd;W rha;thf cs;s ,uz;L gug;GfSf;F
,ilNaAs;;s Nfhzj;ij mstpLjy; :
xt;nthU
jsj;jpYk; jdpj;jdpNa fUtpia itj;J> fpilkl;lj;
jsj;jpw;F rha;thf me;j jsq;fs; cs;s Nfhz
5.57
 msitf; fz;lwpa Ntz;Lk;. ,e;j ,uz;L
mstPLfspd; tpj;jpahrNk ,uz;L jsq;fSk; xd;Wf;
nfhd;W rha;thf cs;s Nfhz msT MFk;.

5.19.18 Autocollimator
Principle of auto-collimation

90
°
O

Optical axis
Object and
image Collimating lens Plane
(a) reflector
°
Image
O'
°
x

Tilted
O reflector

Object
(b)

Fig. 5.49 Principle of auto-collimation

xU Ftp nyd;R kw;Wk; Ftp mr;rpd; kPJ O vd;w
Gs;spapy; cs;s xU lightIAk; fUJNthk;. xU xspf;fw;iw
rkjs gpujpgypg;ghd; kPJ gLk;NghJ> xspapd; xU gFjp
ftug;gl;L kw;nwhU gFjp jpUg;gp mDg;gg; gLfpwJ. xspapd;
tPoy; Nfhzk; zero Mf> mjhtJ gpujpgypf;Fk; gug;gpw;F
nrq;Fj;jhf xspf;fjph; gLk;NghJ> mit gpujpgypf;fg;gl;L
te;j ghij topahfNt jpUk;gp te;J Gwg;gl;l ,lj;jpw;F
kPz;Lk; nrd;wilfpwJ.

gpujpgypf;Fk; jsj;ij 𝜃°vd;w rpwpa Nfhz mstpw;F

jpUg;gp mikf;Fk;NghJ> gpujpgypf;fg;gLk; xspf;fjph;fs; xsp
mr;Rf;F 2𝜃° Nfhz msT rha;thf jpUg;gp mDg;gg;
gLfpd;wd. ,e;j xspf;fjph;fs;> Ftp jsj;jpd; kPJ njhlf;fg;
Gs;spapy; ,Ue;J 𝑥 J}uj;jpy; cs;s xU Gs;spapy; Ftpf;fg;
gLfpd;wd.
5.58
 glj;jpy; ,Ue;J> 𝑂𝑂′ = 𝑥 = 2𝜃𝑓 MFk;. ,q;F 𝑓 vd;gJ
nyd;rpd; Ftpaj; J}uk; MFk;. 𝑥 njhiyit fz;lwptjd;
%yk;> gpujpgypf;Fk; gug;G rha;thf cs;s Nfhzk; 𝜃I
fzf;fplyhk;.

Working of autocollimator

Light source

Target
graticule
Micrometer

Eyepiece Eyepiece Beam

graticule splitter
Objective Reflector on
workpiece
Reflected beam when reflector is at right angle to the beam
Reflected beam from tilted reflector

Fig. 5.50 Ray diagram of autocollimator

rha;Tf;Nfhzk; mstpl Ntz;ba workpieced;
gug;ghdJ gpujpgypf;Fk; gug;ghf nray;gLfpwJ. kpfTk;
Jy;ypakhd xU microscope %yk; 𝑥 J}uk; mstplg;gLfpwJ.
,e;j microscopey; rha;Tf; Nfhzk; 𝜃 I Neubahf msf;Fk;
tifapy; mstPLfs; Fwpf;fg; gl;bUf;Fk;. Target wirefis
xsph;T+l;l xU kpd;rhu bulb MdJ xsp %ykhf
nray;gLfpwJ.

xsph;T+l;lg;gl;l wirefspd; image MdJ> xU collimating

lens mikg;gpd; topahf> workpieced; gpujpgypf;Fk; gug;gpd;
kPJ project nra;ag; gLfpwJ. Target wirefspd; gpujp
gypf;fg;gl;l image MdJ ,Nj lens mikg;gpd; topahf
jpUg;gp mDg;gg; gLfpwJ. Target wire kw;Wk; mjd;
gpujpgypf;fg;gl;l image Mfpatw;iw nghpJgLj;jp xNu
Neuj;jpy; eyepiece topahf ghh;f;fyhk;.

5.59
Reading on eyepiece
Eyepiece MdJ adjust nra;af;$ba tifapy; mike;j
setting linefs; kw;Wk; epiyahd xU scale Mfpatw;iwf;
nfhz;bUf;Fk;. gpujpgypf;fg;gl;l target wirefspd; image cld;
setting linefs; rhpahf nghUe;Jk; tiuapy;> mircometer control
cjtpAld; mit adjust nra;ag;gLfpwJ.

Reflected image
Target wire 0 10 20 of target wire coincide
with setting lines
Scale
Fig. 5.51 Reading on eyepiece

,e;j epiyapy; eyepiece scale msTld; micrometer

mstpid $l;b rhpahd Nfhz msT ngwg;gLfpwJ.
nghJthf micrometer scaley; cs;s xU division msT
0.5 seconds If; Fwpf;Fk;. 0.1 seconds Jy;ypakhfTk;> 30 kPl;lh;
ePsk; tiuapYk; msf;ff; $ba auto-collimatorfs;
gad;ghl;by; cs;sd.

5.19.19 Angle dekkor

Auto-collimation jj;Jtj;jpd; mbg;gilapy; angle dekkor
Ntiy nra;fpwJ. ,e;j fUtpapy;> angle gauges Nghd;w
tiuaWf;fg;gl;l juj;jpidf; nfhz;L mse;jwpag;gLk;
Nfhz kjpg;igAk;> workpiecef; nfhz;L mse;jwpag;gLk;
Nfhz kjpg;igAk; xg;gpl;Lg; ghh;j;J work pieced; Nfhz
msT fz;lwpag; gLfpwJ. vdNt ,J xU comparatorIg;
Nghd;W nray;gLk;.

,jpYs;s xU tOtOg;ghd glass screen kPJ xU

epiyahd datum scale kw;Wk; xspuf; $ba scale Mfpait
xd;Wf;nfhd;W nrq;Fj;jhf tiuag; gl;bUf;Fk;. Eyepiece
topah Neubahf ghh;f;f Kbahj tifapy; xspuf; $ba
scale tiuag; gl;bUf;Fk;. xd;Wf;nfhd;W nrq;Fj;jhf
Njhw;wk; mspf;Fk; epiyahd datum scale kw;Wk; xspuf; $ba
scaled; gpujpgypf;fg;gl;l image Mfpatw;iw nghpJ gLj;jp
5.60
eyepiece topahf xNu Neuj;jpy; ghh;f;f KbAk;.
gpujpgypf;fg;gl;l scaled; mstPl;bypUe;J> xsp mr;Rf;F
nrq;Fj;jhf cs;s xU jsj;jpd; rha;tpid mwpayhk;. ,e;j;
jsj;jpw;F nrq;Fj;jhf cs;s NtnwhU jsj;jpd; rha;tpid>
epiyahd datum scaled; mstPl;bypUe;J mwpayhk;.

Prism
Microscope
eyepiece
Light source
Graticule
(glasss screen)
TRansmiitted
image

Reflected
image
Collimating lens

Workpiece

Fig. 5.52 Ray diagram of angle dekkor

,t;thW ,uz;L jsq;fspd; rha;Tf; Nfhz NtWghL

fis ,e;j mikg;gpd; %yk; xNu Neuj;jpy; mstplyhk;. xU
adjustable bracketd; kPJ nghUj;jg;gl;l xU tubef;Fs; ,e;j
nkhj;j mikg;Gk; mlq;fp ,Uf;Fk;.

Procedure to measure inclination angle

xU protractor cjtpahy; workpiece rha;Tf; Nfhzk;
Njhuhakhf mstplg; gLfpwJ. gy angle gaugefis mLf;fp
,e;j Nfhz msT cUthf;fg; gLfpwJ. Angle dekkory;
cs;s telescope tubef;F fPohf ,e;j angle gauge mLf;F
itf;fg;gLfpwJ. ,e;j epiyapy; eyepiecey; zero epiy adjust
nra;ag;gl;L nghUj;jg; gLfpwJ. gpwF angle gaugeI ePf;fp
tpl;L me;j ,lj;jpy; workpiece itf;fg;gLfpwJ.

5.61
 glass screen Eye piece
Reflected image Fixed scale
40 of illuminated scale
40
30 30 30
20
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
10 10 10
0 0

Zero reading with Reading with

angle gauge built-up component in
Fixed scale position
Illuminated scale Error = 35 - 20 = 15 divisions
= 15 minutes
Fig. 5.53 Arrangement of scales Fig. 5.54 Reading in the eyepiece
in glass screen

epiyahd datum scale kw;Wk; xspuf; $ba scaled;

gpujpgypf;fg;gl;l image Mfpatw;wpd; epiyiaf; nfhz;L>
angle gauge mLf;fpd; Nfhz mstpw;Fk; workpieced; Nfhz
mstpw;Fk; ,ilNa cs;s tpj;jpahrj;jjpid
mse;jwpayhk;. ,e;j tpj;jpahrj;Jld; angle gauge mLf;fpd;
Nfhz msit $l;bNah my;yJ fopj;Njh workpieced;
rhpahd rha;Tf; Nfhzk; fz;lwpag; gLfpwJ.

Angle dekkorIg; gad;gLj;jp mstpLtjw;F mjpf

jpwikAk; mDgTk; Njitg;gLfpwJ. ,Ug;gpDk;> Fiwthd
J}uq;fspy; mjpf tuk;Gld; Nfhz msTfis msg;gjw;F
,e;j fUtp nghpJk; gad;gLfpwJ. ,e;j fUtpapidf; nfhz;L
0.2 minutes tiu Jy;ypakhf Nfhz msTfis mse;jwpayhk;.

5.62
 R e vi e w Qu e s t i o n s
5 marks questions
1) Distinguish between a flat drill and twist drill
2) What is the purpose of a ‘tang’ in a twist drill?
3) Name the different types of drilling machines.
4) Distinguish between gang drilling and multispindle drilling machine.
5) Give the specifications of a drilling machine.
6) What are the methods of holding a drill bit in a drilling machine?
7) Differentiate between sleeve and socket.
8) Explain drill chuck with a sketch.
9) Name the different types of operations which are performed on a
drilling machine.
10) Explain the counter sinking operation with a sketch.
11) With a neat sketch explain : (i) Spot facing (ii) counter boring.
12) How deep holes are drilled ?
13) Write short notes on regrinding of drill.
14) What is the need of inspection?
15) Define accuracy and precision.
16) Define the terms : Sensitivity, magnification, repeatability, calibration.
17) What is comparator? List out the various types of comparators.
18) What are the requirements for a good comparator?
19) Explain a simple mechanical comparator with sketch.
20) What are the advantages and disadvantages of mechanical
comparator?
21) Explain the optical comparator with a sketch.
22) Briefly explain the types of calipers.
23) What are the uses of feeler gauge and pitch screw gauge?
24) Explain the principle of working of a vernier caliper.
25) Sketch and explain the working of vernier height gauge.
26) Explain the construction and working of depth micrometer.
27) Explain the use of an inside micrometer with example.
5.63
28) Briefly explain screw thread micrometer.
29) List out the care and uses of slip gauges.
30) Draw a line diagram of a bevel protractor and describe how angles
are measured by using it.
31) What are the uses of sine bar? Give an example.
32) Explain the principle of auto-collimation.
33) Eplain the working principle of clinometer.

10 Marks questions
1) Draw a neat sketch of a twist drill bit and explain the various parts
of the same.
2) Explain the principle of operation of a radial drilling machine.
3) Explain the multi spindle drilling machine with neat sketch.
4) Explain the auto feed mechanism of a drilling machine with neat
sketch.
5) Explain the different operations which are performed on a drilling
machine with neat sketches.
6) Explain the electrical comparator with neat sketch. List out the
advantages and disadvantages.
7) Describe the working principle of pneumatic comparator with a
neat sketch. What are the advantages and disadvantages?
8) Explain the construction and working of a gear tooth vernier.
9) Explain the three wire method of measuring the pitch diameter of
a screw thread.
10) Explain the working principle of auto-collimator.
11) Explain the method of measuring angle using angle dekkor?



5.64
Q&A.1
 Unit – I : FOUNDRY TECHNOLOGY
1. What is pattern?
Castingd; khjphp tbtk; (model) pattern MFk;. ,J wood,
metal kw;Wk; plasticMy; nra;ag;gl;;bUf;Fk;. PatternI
gad;gLj;jp moulding sandy; mould cUthf;fg;gLfpwJ.
2. What are the types of pattern?
1) Solid piece pattern 5) Sweep pattern
2) Split piece pattern 6) Skeleton pattern
3) Loose piece pattern 7) Segmental pattern
4) Match plate pattern 8) Shell pattern
3. What is the use of dowel pin?
,uz;L gFjpfshf nra;J gphpf;Fk; tifapy;
nghUj;jg;gl;bUg;gJ split pattern MFk;. xU gFjp
mouldd; fPo; ghjpiaAk; kw;nwhU gFjp mouldd; Nky;
ghjpiaAk; cUthf;FfpwJ. ,e;j ,uz;L gFjpfSk;
dowel pin %yk; rhpahf nghUj;jg;gLfpwJ.
4. What is the need of loose piece pattern?
rpy patternfis mouldy; ,Ue;J xNu pieceMf vLf;f
KbahJ vdNt solid pattern cld; loose piece patternfs;
vspjpy; gphpf;Fk; tifapy; nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk;.
5. List out the various pattern materials.
1) Wood 2) Metal 3) Plaster 4) Plastic 5) Wax
6. What are the advantages of using wood as pattern
material?
1) tpiy FiwT> vspjpy; fpilf;Fk;.
2) ntl;b tbtikg;gJ vspJ.
3) Fiwe;j vil cs;sjhy; ifahs;tJ vspJ.
7. What are the advantages of using aluminium as pattern
material?
1) cWjpahdJ. ePbj;J ,Uf;Fk;. msTfs;
Jy;ypakhf ,Uf;Fk;.
2) <uj;jhy; cUtk; khwhJ.

Q&A.2
 3) Machine moulding y; gad;gLj;jyhk;.
4) mjpf cw;gj;jpf;F Vw;wJ.
5) Metald; gug;G smoothMf ,Ug;gjhy; patternd;
tbtk; mouldy; ed;whf mikAk;.
8. List out the factors for selecting pattern material.
1) cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; castingd; vz;zpf;if.
2) Castingd; juk;.
3) Castingd; msT kw;Wk; tbtk;.
4) Moulding kw;Wk; casting nra;Ak; tpjk;.
5) Castingd; surface finish.
6) Castingd; Jy;ypak;.
9. What are the pattern making allowances?
1) Shrinkage allowance 2) Machining allowance
3) Draft allowance 4) Distortion allowance
5) Rapping allowance
10. What is shrinkage allowance?
Mouldy; cUf;fpa metalI Cw;Wk; NghJ Fsph;e;J jpl
epiyia milfpwJ. FspUk; NghJ metal RUq;fp
msT FiwfpwJ. ,ij epth;j;jp nra;a pattern MdJ
casting msit tpl rw;W nghpjhf nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
,J shrinkage allowance MFk;.
11. What is draft allowance?
PatternI mouldy; ,Ue;J ntspNa vLf;Fk; NghJ
mouldd; Kidfs; Nrjkilayhk;. ,ijj; jtph;f;f
patternd; nrq;Fj;Jg; gf;fq;fs; rw;W rhpthf
nra;ag;gl;l Ntz;Lk;. ,J draft allowance MFk;.
12. List out the various binders used in moulding sand? Give
an example.
a) Clay type binders : Bentonite and kalvanite
b) Organic binders : Wood, resin, linseed oil and dextrin.
c) Inorganic binders : Portland cement and sodium silicate
13. List out the special sand used in moulding.
a) Olivine sand b) Zircon sand c) Chromite sand

Q&A.3
14. What are the types of moulding sand?
1) Green sand 2) Dry sand 3) Loam sand
4) Facing sand 5) Parting sand 6) Core sand
15. List out the properties of moulding sand.
1) Porosity 2) Plasticity 3) Adhesiveness
4) Cohesiveness 5) Refractoriness 6) Collapsibility
16. List out the steps involved in preparation of moulding sand.
1)Mixing of sand 2)Tempering of sand 3)Conditioning of sand
17. List out the various moulding tools?
1) Shovel 2) Riddle 3) Rammer 4) Trowel
5) Slick 6) Lifter 7) Sprue pin 8) Strike off bar
9) Bellows 10) Swab 11) Gate cutter 12) Draw spike
13) Vent rod 14) Mallet
18. List out the uses of rammer, trowel and slick.
1) Moulding boxy; kz;iz mOj;jp epug;Gtjw;F
rammer gad; gLfpwJ.
2) Mouldd; gug;ig smooth Mf khw;wTk; Nrjkile;j
gFjpia rhp nra;aTk; trowel gad;gLfpwJ.
3) Mouldd; gug;Gfis rPuhf;fTk;> tl;l tbt
Kidfis rhp nra;aTk; slick gad;gLfpwJ.
19. Give the uses of lifter, sprue pin and strike off bar.
1) Mouldy; cs;s cjphp kz;iz ntspNa vLf;fTk;>
mouldI rhp nra;aTk; lifter gad;gLfpwJ.
2) Runner kw;Wk; riser Jisfis mouldy; cUthf;f
sprue pin gad;gLfpwJ.
3) Ramming nra;j gpwF moulding boxy; ,Ue;J
mjpfg;gbahd kz;iz mfw;w strike off bar
gad;gLfpwJ.
20. What are the uses of swab, gate cutter and draw spike?
1) Mouldy; ,Ue;J patternI vLg;gjw;F Kd;G patternI
Rw;wp rpwpjsT jz;zhP ; nrYj;j swab gad;gLfpwJ.
2) Mouldy; gate ntl;Ltjw;F gate cutter gad;gLfpwJ.
3) Mouldy; ,Ue;J patternI ntspNa vLg;gjw;F draw
spike gad;gLfpwJ.

Q&A.4
21. What are cope and drag?
Moulding
,uz;L ngl;bfspy; nra;ag;gl;lhy;> Nky;
cs;s ngl;b cope vdTk; fPo; cs;s ngl;b drag
vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;.
22. What are the elements in gating system?
1) Pouring cup 2) Sprue 3) Runner 5)Gate 6) Riser.
23. What is the function of riser?
Mouldy; cUfpa metal epuk;gpaTld; riser topNa Nky;
Nehf;fp tUk;. ,J castingy; shrinkage Vw;gLk; NghJ
cUfpa metalI nfhLj;J rhpahd msT fpilf;fr;
nra;fpwJ.
24. List out the types of mould.
1)Green sand mould 2)Dry sand mould 3)Skin - dry sand mould
4)Loam mould 5) Metal mould
25. What are the methods of moulding?
1) Green sand moulding 2) Dry sand moulding 3) Loam moulding
4) Bench moulding 5) Floor moulding. 6) Pit moulding
7) Sweep moulding 8) Plate moulding 9) Machine moulding
26. What are the advantages of dry sand moulding?
1) Green sand mouldI tpl cWjpahdJ.
2) ifahSk; NghJ cilahJ.
3) msTfs; Jy;ypakhf ,Uf;Fk;.
4) Surface finish ed;whf fpilf;Fk;
5) Blow holes Nghd;w Fiwfs; ,Uf;fhJ.
27. State the applications of loam moulding and pit moulding.
 nghpa cylinder, bells, gears, ,ae;jpug; gFjpfs;
Nghd;wit loam mouldingy; jahhpf;fyhk;.
 Moulding boxy; jahhpf;f Kbahj nghpa castingfis
pit mouldingy; nra;ayhk;.
28. List out the types of moulding machines.
1) Squeezer machine
a. Top squeezer machine
b. Bottom squeezer machine

Q&A.5
 2) Jolt machine
3) Sand slinger
29. What is core and core print?
 Castingy; cs;sPlw;w (hollow)mikg;G kw;Wk; Jis
Vw;gLj;j gad;gLtJ core MFk;.
 Patterny; Vw;gLj;Jk; projection MdJ core print MFk;.
Mouldy; core seatI cUthf;f core print gad;gLfpwJ.
30. What are the essential qualities of core sand?
1) High refractoriness 2) Good permeability
3) Good stability 4) Good collapsibility
5) Sufficient strength and hardness
31. List out the core binders. Give an example.
1) Oil binders : Linseed oil
2) Water soluble binders : Starch and dextrin
3) Resin binders : Phenol formaldehyde and urea
32. List out the types of core boxes.
1) Half core box 4. Stickle core box
2. Dump core box 5. Gang core box
3. Split core box
33. List out the steps in core making.
1) Core sand preparation 2) Core moulding
3) Baking 4) Core finishing
34. What are the types of cores?
1) Green sand core 2) Horizontal core 3) Vertical core
4) Balanced core 5) Hanging core 6) Drop core
35. List out the ovens used for heating the core.
1) Batch type ovens
2) Continuous type ovens
3) Dielectric type ovens
36. What is iron-carbon equilibrium diagram?
 ,Uk;ig ntg;gg;gLj;Jk;NghNjh my;yJ Fsph;
tilar; nra;Ak;NghNjh> ,Uk;gpy; cs;s fhh;gd;
msT kw;Wk; ntg;gepiyia nghWj;J ,Uk;gpd;

Q&A.6
 epiyfspy; Vw;gLk; khw;wj;ijf; fhl;Lk; tiuglNk
iron-carbon equilibrium diagram vdg;gLk;.

 fhh;gd; msit X – mr;rpYk;> ntg;gepiyia

Y– mr;rpYk; vLj;Jf; nfhz;L ,e;j tiuglk; tiuag;
gLfpwJ.
37. What is hypo eutectoid steel and hyper eutectoid steel?
0.8%f;Fk; Fiwthf fhh;gd; fye;Js;s steel MdJ
hypo-eutectiod steel vdg;gLk;. rhpahf 0.8% fhh;gd;
fye;Js;s steel MdJ eutectoid steel vdTk;> 0.8%
Kjy; 2% tiu fhh;gd; fye;Js;s steel MdJ hyper
eutectoid steel vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;.
38. What is the use of blast furnace?
,Uk;G jhJtpy; ,Uf;Fk; ,Uk;G Mf;irLfis
cUf;Fjy; kw;Wk; xLf;Fjy; Kiwapy; pig iron Mf
khw;Wtjw;F blast furnace gad;gLfpwJ.
39. What is the purpose of adding flux during melting of metal?
mjpf ntg;gepiyapy;> flux MdJ silica, alumina,
magnesia, calcia Nghd;w mkpy mRj;jq;fSld;
tpidGhpe;J slag (frL) Mf khWfpwJ. cUfpa pig
irond; Nkw;gug;gpy; kpjf;Fk; slag MdJ Fwpg;gpl;l
,ilntspfspy; furnacey; ,Ue;J ntspNaw;wg;gLk;.
40. What are uses of tap hole and tuyers in cupola furnace?
 cUfpa cNyhfj;ij ntspNaw;w tap hole cs;sJ.
 Tuyers (jpwg;Gfs;) %yk; fuel vhptjw;F fhw;W
nry;fpwJ.
41. List out the furnaces used for melting non-ferrous metals.
1) Pit furnace
2) Coke fired stationary furnace
3) Oil fired tilting furnace
42. Mention the furnaces used for melting steel.
1) Direct arc furnace
2) Indirect arc furnace
3) 3) Induction furnace

Q&A.7
43. List out the various casting processes.
1) Sand casting 5) Continuous casting
2) Gravity die casting 6) Chilled casting
3) Pressure die casting 7) Malleable casting
i) Hot chamber die casting 8) Shell mould casting
ii) Cold chamber die casting 9) Investment casting
4) Centrifugal casting
44. What are the applications of pressure die casting?
Carburettor body, crank case, fuel pump parts, sound horn,
wiper Nghd;wit jahhpf;fyhk;. NkYk; toys, cameras,
clocks, wahing machine parts Nghd;wtw;iw jahhpf;fg;
gad;gLfpwJ.
45. What is the difference between hot chamber die casting
and cold chamber die casting?
 Hot chamber die castingy;> metalI cUf;Ftjw;F
heating chamber cs;sJ. ,e;j chamber MdJ burner
%yk; ntg;gg;gLj;jg; gLk;.
 Cold chamber die castingy;> metalI cUf;Fk; heating
chamber ,y;iy. Metal ntspNa furnacey; jdpahf
cUf;fg;gl;L ladley; nfhz;L tug; gLfpwJ.
46. Mention the applications of centrifugal casting.
Water pipes, gun barrels, flywheel, bush bearings, gears
kw;Wk; brake drum Nghd;w castingfis jahhpf;fg;
gad;gLfpwJ.
47. What is continuous casting? Give its applications.
 Continuous casting Kiwapy;> ePskhd vertical mouldy;
cUf;fpa cNyhfk; njhlh;r;rpahf Cw;wg;gl;L
casting cUthf;fg; gLfpwJ.
 Round, square, hexagon Nghd;w tbtKila ePskhd
bar my;yJ rodfis ,k;Kiwapy; jahhpf;fyhk;.
48. What are the applications of chilled casting and malleable
casting?
 Railway brake shoes, wheel rims, crusher jaws, machine
slide ways Nghd;wit chilled casting Kiwapy;
jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ.

Q&A.8
  Wagon wheel hub, door hinges, pipe fittings, locks, levers,
cranks, textile machine parts Nghd;wit jahhpf;fg;
malleable casting Kiw gad;gLfpwJ.
49. What is shell mould casting? Give its applications.
 ,J Nkk;gLj;jg;gl;l xU sand casting tif MFk;.
,jpy; Fiwe;j jbkd; nfhz;;l shell MdJ mould
cavitiyI cUthf;FfpwJ.
 Cylinder head, connecting rod, gear housing, brake drum,
cam, piston, piston ring Nghd;wtw;iw jahhpf;f
gad;gLfpwJ.
50. What is investment in casting process? Give example.
 Investment vd;gJ mouldI cUthf;Fk;NghJ
mjidr; #o;e;J epug;gg;gLk; refractory nghUl;fis
Fwpg;gJ MFk;.
 Example : Phenolic-resin kw;Wk; dry silica sand
Mfpatw;iw alcohol cld; fye;J ,f;fyit
jahhpf;fg; gLfpwJ.
51. List out the applications of investment casting.
 myq;fhu eiffs;;.
 Computer kw;Wk; electronics cgfuzq;fspd; ghfq;fs;.
 Mfha tpkhdk;> ,ae;jpuq;fs; Nghd;wtw;wpw;fhd
cjphp ghfq;fs;.
 Gas turbiney;gad;gLk; nozzle, bucket, vane kw;Wk;
bladefs;.
52. List out the various defects in casting?
1) Blow holes 2) Slabs 3) Honey combing 4)Swells
5) Shifts 6) Cold shuts 7) Hot tears 8)Fins
9) Internal air pockets 10) Runout
45. What are the causes for blow holes?
1) kz;zpd; mjpf <uj; jd;ik
2) mjpfkhf ramming nra;tJ
3) Vent holes Fiwthf ,Ug;gJ.

Q&A.9
46. What is swells and shift?
 Swells : Castingd; Nkw;gug;G nghpjhfp tpLtJ.
 Shifts : Castingd; gFjpfs; jtwhf nghUe;jp ,Ug;gJ.
47. What is cold shuts and hot tears.
 Cold shuts : Mould cavity rhpahf epug;gg; glhky;
,Ug;gJ
 Hot tears : Castingd; ntspg;Gwk; my;yJ cl;Gwj;jpy;
njhlh;r;rpaw;W ,Ug;gJ
48. What is fins and run out?
 Fins : ,izAk; gFjpapy; cs;s nky;ypa projection
 Run out : Mouldy; ,Ue;J cUfpa metal ntspNaWtJ

Q&A.10
 Unit – II : WELDING TECHNOLOGY

1. Define welding. List out its uses.

 xNu khjphpahd my;yJ NtWgl;l ,uz;L
cNyhfq;fis ntg;gg;gLj;jp ,izg;gJ welding
vdg;gLk;.
 Automobile bodies, air craft, machine frame, boilers, ship
building, railway wagons Nghd;wtw;iw fabrication nra;a
welding gad;gLfpwJ.
2. What are the types of welding? Give example.
1) Plastic welding or pressure welding
Example : Electric resistance welding.
2) Fusion welding or non – pressure welding.
Example : Electric arc welding, gas welding.
3. List out the equipment needed for arc welding.
1) Welding generator(D.C) 6) Protective shield
or transformer(A.C) 7) Gloves
2) Electrode holder 8) Apron
3) Electrode 9) Chipping hammer
4) Welding cables 10) Wire brush
5) Earthing clamps
4. What are the uses of electrode holder and earth clamp.
 Welding cable cld; ,izf;fg; gl;bUf;Fk; electrode
holder topahf electrodef;F kpd;Ndhl;lk; flj;jg;
gLfpwJ.
 Earth cableI workpiece cld; ,izg;gjw;F earthing
clamp gad;gLfpwJ.
5. Name the two basic types of electrode?
1) Consumable electrode 2) Non-consumable electrode
6. What are the types of consumable electrodes?
1) Bare electrodes: flux G+rg;gl;bUf;fhJ.
2) Lightly coated electrodes: nky;ypa layer Mf flux G+rg;
gl;bUf;Fk;.
Q&A.11
 3) Heavily coated electrodes: 1 Kjy; 3 mm tiuapyhd
jbkDf;F flux G+rg;gl;bUf;Fk;.
7. State the functions of flux coating on a metal electrode.
1) Flux MdJ cUfpa metalI Rw;wp gas shieldI
Vw;gLj;Jk;. ,jdhy; fhw;wpy; cs;s oxygen kw;Wk;
nitrogen MdJ cUfpa cNyhfj;Jld; tpidGhptJ
jLf;fg;gLfpwJ.
2) Flux MdJ cUfpa metaly; cs;s mOf;Fld; Nrh;e;J
slagMf khWfpwJ. cUfpa metalI Rw;wp glh;e;jpUf;Fk;
,e;j slag MdJ metalI nkJthf FspUk;gb
nra;fpwJ.
3) cUfpa metalI Rw;wpapUf;Fk; oxidefs; kw;Wk; ,ju
mRj;jq;fis ePf;FfpwJ.
4) Weld metal rpjWtij jLf;fpwJ.
8. Give examples of flux materials.
Asbestos, mica, silica, fluorspar, titanium dioxide, magnesium
carbonate, calcium carbonate, feldspar, cellulose, dolo-mite,
starch, dextrin, Nghd;wit.
9. List out the various methods of arc welding.
1) Metal arc welding
2) Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding
3) Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Welding
4) Submerged arc welding
5) Electro slag welding
10. Give the expansion of MIG and TIG
 MIG - Metal Inert Gas welding
 TIG - Tungsten Inert Gas welding
11. State the difference between MIG and TIG welding.
MIG welding TIG welding
Consumable electrode Non-consumable electrode
gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.
Electrode MdJ filler metal Filler meta jdpahf
Mf gad;gLfpwJ. nrYj;jg; gLfpwJ.
Efficiency mjpfk;. Efficiency FiwT.

Q&A.12
12. Write the applications of submerged arc welding.
Low carbon steel, alloy steel Nghd;wtw;iw weld nra;a
gad;gLfpwJ.
13. What is electro slag welding? Give its applications.
 cUfpa slag topahf kpd;rhuk; nrYj;Jk; NghJ
Vw;gLk; mjpf ntg;gj;jpdhy; ,uz;L fdkhd
metalfis cUf;fp ,izg;gJ electro slag welding
vdg;gLk;.
 Boiler plate, turbine shaft, stainless steel kw;Wk; carbon steel
Nghd;wtw;iw weld nra;a gad;gLfpwJ.
14. What is resistance welding? List out the types of
resistance welding.
 kpd;jil (resistance) %yk; Vw;gLk; ntg;gj;jpdhy;
metal I plastic epiyia milar; nra;J mOj;jk;
nfhLj;J ,izg;gJ resistance welding vdg;gLk;.
 Resistance weldingd; tiffs; :
1) Butt welding 3) Seam welding
2) Spot welding 4) Projection weldi
15. What is spot welding? Give its applications.
 Sheet metalfis xd;wpd; kPJ kw;nwhd;iw itj;J
(lap) rPuhd ,ilntspapy; weld nra;tJ spot welding
vdg;gLk;. ,U xU resistance welding tifahFk;.
 Boxes, cans, automobile frames, air conditioners
Nghd;wtw;iw weld nra;a spot welding gad;gLfpwJ.
16. Give the difference between upset butt welding and flash
butt welding.
 Upset welding Kiwapy; weld nra;a Ntz;ba ,uz;L
metalfspd; Kidfs; njhl;Lf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;gb
copper jaw tpy; nghUj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;.
 Flash butt welding Kiwapy; weld nra;a Ntz;ba
workpiceced; Kidfs; air gap ,Uf;Fk;gb
jawf;fspy; nghUj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;.

Q&A.13
17. What is seam welding? List out its applications.
 Sheet metalfis xd;wpd; kPJ kw;nwhd;iw itj;J
njhlh;r;rpahf weld nra;tJ seam welding vdg;gLk;.
 Radiators, drums, leak proof tanks, automobile silencers
Nghd;wtw;iw weld nra;a seam welding gad;gLfpwJ.
18. What is plasma? List out the advantages of plasma arc
welding.
Ionisedgas jet MdJ plasma vdg;gLk;. ,jpy;
fpilf;fFk; mjpf ntg;gj;jpidf; nfhz;L metalfs;
xd;whf ,izf;fg; gLfpd;wd.
Advantages of plasma arc welding :
1) midj;J metalfisAk; ,e;j Kiwapy; weld nra;ayhk;.
2) Filler rod Njitapy;iy.
3) Welding speed mjpfk;.
4) mjpf thickness cs;s workpieceI vspjpy; weld
nra;ayhk;.
5) jukhd welding joint fpilf;fpwJ.
19. What is thermit? Give the applications of thermit welding.
 Thermit vd;gJ aluminium powder kw;Wk; iron oxide
(1:3) Nrh;e;j fyit MFk;.
 fdkhd gFjpfs;> rails, pipes, shafts, cables kw;Wk;
cile;j machine framefs; Nghd;wtw;iw ,izf;f
thermit welding gad;gLfpwJ.
20. What is the principle involved in electron beam welding?
Give its applications.
,k;Kiwapy; mjpNtf electron beamI nghUspd; kPJ
Ftpar; nra;Ak; NghJ cz;lhFk; ntg;gj;jpdhy;
welding nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
Applications:
1) Automobilekw;Wk; Mfha tpkhd ghfq;fis
,izf;fyhk;.
2) Tungsten, molybdenum, tantalum Nghd;w m;jpf cUF
epiy cila metalfis ,izf;f gad;gLfpwJ.
3) Pressure vessel, turbine ghfq;fis ,izf;fyhk;.

Q&A.14
21. What is LASER? List out the advantages of laser beam
welding.
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
vd;gjd; RUf;fNk LASER MFk;.
Advantages :
1) ntg;gj;ij vspjpy; fl;Lg;gLj;jyhk;.
2) Jy;ypakhf weld nra;ayhk;.
3) Distortion Vw;gLtjpy;iy.
4) Heat treatment nra;j nghUisAk; mjd; gz;G
khwhky; weld nra;ayhk;.
5) Oxidation ghjpg;G ,Uf;fhJ.
22. List out the applications and advantages of friction welding.
Application
Aero engine shafts, gas turbine shafts Nghd;wtw;iw
weld nra;ayhk;. PinionI shaft clDk;> rodI yoke
clDk;> flangeI pipe clDk; ,izf;f friction welding
gad;gLfpwJ.
Advantages
1) Muk;g nryT FiwT.
2) NtWgl;l metalfis ,izf;fyhk;.
3) vspa kw;Wk; Ntfkhd nray;Kiw.
4) jukhd weld fpilf;Fk;.
5) Power Fiwthf Njitg;gLk;.
6) Distortion FiwT.
23. List out the applications of ultrasonic welding.
1) 3mm tiu jbkDila metalfis ,izf;fg;
gad;gLfpwJ.
2) nky;ypa sheetfis fdkhd sheetfSld;
,izf;fyhk;.
3) Electrical kw;Wk; electonic nghUl;fis weld
nra;ayhk;.
4) Plastic nghUl;fisak; ,izf;fyhk;.
5) Nuclear reactor, aircraft NtiyfSf;F gad;gLfpwJ.

Q&A.15
24. What is the principle involved in induction welding? Give
its applications.
 Induction welding nray;Kiwapy;> kpd;fhe;j J}z;lypd;
(electromagnetic induction) tpishf Vw;gLk; mjpf
ntg;gj;jpy;> ,izf;fg;gl Ntz;ba ghfq;fs;
cUf;fp ,izf;fg; gLfpd;wd.
 Pipefs; kw;Wk; sealing containerfspy; butt kw;Wk; seam
welding nra;tjw;Fk;> gy;NtW fl;Lkhd
NtiyfspYk; induction welding gad;gLfpwJ.
25. What is gas welding? Name the gases used in gas welding.
 Oxygen cld; kw;nwhU gas (acetylene) fye;J vhpAk;
NghJ cUthFk; flamed; ntg;gj;jpdhy; metalI
cUf;fp ,izg;gJ gas welding vdg;gLk;.
 Gas weldingy; fPo;f;fz;l thAf;fs; gad;gLfpd;wd.
1) Oxygen – acetylene
2) Oxygen - hydrogen
3) Air- acetylene
26. List out the equipment needed for gas welding.
1) Gas cylinders 2) Pressure regulators 3) Pressure gauges
4) Hoses 5) Welding torch
27. How do you differentiate oxygen and acetylene cylinders
in gas welding?
fWg;G epwj;jpy; cs;s cylindery; oxygen ,Uf;Fk;.
Maroon epwj;jpy; cs;s cylindery; acetylence ,Uf;Fk;.
28. What is the function of a pressure regulator fixed on a gas
cylinder?
Cylindery; ,Ue;J ntsp tUk; oxygen kw;Wk; acetylene
thAf;fspd; mOj;jj;ij fl;Lg;gLj;j pressure regulator
gad;gLfpwJ.
29. What are the three types of flames in gas welding?
1) Neutral flame 2) Carburising flame 3) Oxidising flame

Q&A.16
30. What is neutral flame? Give its application.
 Oxygen kw;Wk; acetylene thAit rk tpfpjj;jpy;
gad; gLj;Jk; NghJ neutral flame cUthfpwJ.
 Steel, cast iron, aluminium, copper kw;Wk; stainless steel
Nghd;wtw;iw welding nra;a neutral flame
gad;gLfpwJ.
31. When carburising flame is produced? State its
applications.
 Oxygen I tpl acetylene mjpf mstpy; gad;gLj;Jk;
NghJ carburising flame cUthfpwJ.
 Steel, alloy steels, non-ferrous metals, nickel, monel metal
Nghd;wtw;iw welding nra;a carburising flame
gad;gLfpwJ.
32. How oxidising flame is produced? List out its applications.
 AcetyleneI tpl oxygen mjpf mstpy; gad;gLj;Jk;
NghJ oxidising flame cUthfpwJ.
 Brass, bronze, manganese, steel Nghd;wtw;iw welding
nra;a oxidizing flame gad;gLfpwJ.
33. What are the two welding techniques?
1) Leftward or forward or forehand welding technique
2) Rightward or backward or backhand welding technique
34. Give the basic difference between two welding techniques.
 Leftward welding Kiwapy; torch flame
MdJ tyJ
Gwj;jpy; ,Ue;J ,lJ Gwk; Nehf;fp efh;j;jg; gLfpwJ.
 Rightward welding Kiwapy; torch flame MdJ ,lJ
Gwj;jpy; ,Ue;J tyJ Gwk; Nehf;fp efh;j;jg; gLfpwJ.
35. What is filler rod? Give examples for flux used in gas welding.
 Welding rod MdJ filler material Mf gad;gLj;jg;
gLfpwJ. Filler rod MdJ base metalfspd;
gz;Gfisg; ngw;wpUf;f Ntz;Lk;.
 Gas welding flux MdJ boric acid, soda ash kw;Wk;
sodium chloride, ammonium sulphate, iron oxide
Nghd;wtw;wpy; rpwpjsT fye;j fyitahf ,Uf;Fk;.

Q&A.17
36. Give the application of flame cutting.
Arc cutting Kiwapy; 100 mm tiu jbkd; cs;s steel
kw;Wk; iron platefis vspjpy; ntl;lyhk;.
37. What is solder and spelter?
 Solder vd;gJ tin kw;Wk; lead Nrh;e;j fyit MFk;.
 Spelter vd;gJ copper kw;Wk; zinc alloy Nrh;e;j fyit
MFk;.
38. Differentiate between soldering and brazing.
 Fiwe;j cUFepiy cila cNyhff; fyit
(solder)ia gad;gLj;jp ,uz;L xNu khjphpahd my;yJ
NtWgl;l metalfis ,izg;gJ soldering vdg;gLk;.
 mjpf cUFepiy cila cNyhff; fyit (spelter)ia
gad;gLj;jp ,uz;L xNu khjphpahd my;yJ NtWgl;l
metalfis ,izg;gJ brazing vdg;gLk;.
39. List out the types of brazing.
1) Torch brazing 3) Furnace brazing
2) Dip brazing 4) Induction brazing
40. What are the types of welded joints?
1) Butt joint 2) Lap joint 3) ‘T’ joint
4) Corner joint 5) Flange joint
41. List out the non-destructive and destructive methods for
welded joints.
Non destructive testing methods :
i) Magnetic particle test ii) X-ray test iii) Ultrasonic test
Destructive testing methods :
i) Nick brake test ii) Bend test iii) Tensile test
42. What are the applications of magnetic particle test, X-ray
test and ultrasonic test.
 Cracks kw;Wk; slag fye;jpUg;gJ Nghd;w Fiwfs;
magnetic particle testy; fz;lwpag;gLfpwJ.
 X-rya testy; porosity, bolw holes, cavities Nghd;w
Fiwfs; fz;lwpag; gLfpwJ.
 Ultrasoic testy; ultrasonic wavesI gad;gLj;jp cracks,
blow holes porosity Nghd;w Fiwfis fz;lwpayhk;.
43. List out the various defects in welding.
1) Incomplete fusion 2) Slag inclusion 3) Crack
4) Undercut 3) Porosity and blow holes

Q&A.18
 Unit – III : FORMING TECHNOLOGY
1. Define : i) Hot working ii) Cod working
 MetalI recrystalization ntg;gepiyf;F Nky;
ntg;gg;gLj;jp plastic deformation milar; nra;J
Njitahd tbtj;ijg; ngWtJ hot working
vdg;gLk;.
 Recrystallisation ntg;gepiyf;F Fiwthd ntg;g
epiyapy; metalfspd; kPJ cold working nra;ag; gLfpwJ.
2. List out the advantages of hot working.
1) Metald; toughness kw;Wk; ductility jd;ik mjpfhpf;Fk;.
2) Metal y; internal stress cUthtjpy;iy.
3) MetalI deform milar; nra;a Fiwe;j force
NghJkhdJ.
4) Metaly; cracks, blow holes, porosity Nghd;w FiwghLfs;
Vw;gLtjpy;iy.
5) Gjpa grain structure cUthtjhy; strength mjpfhpf;Fk;.
6) Ntfkhd kw;Wk; rpf;fdkhd nray;Kiw MFk;.
3. List out the limitations of hot working.
1) Neh;j;jpahd Nkw;gug;G fpilf;fhJ.
2) nghUspd; Nkw;gug;gpy; de-carbiruzation Vw;gLk;.
3) Dimensional accuracy FiwT.
4) Toold; tpiy mjpfk;.
5) nghUl;fis ifahs;tJ fbdk;.
4. State the advantages of cold working?
1) nghUl;fspd; ,ae;jputpay; gz;Gfs; Nkk;gLj;jg;
gLfpd;wd.
2) mjpf surface finish nfhz;l kpf Neh;j;jpahd
nghUl;fis vspjpy; cUthf;fyhk;.
3) rpwg;ghd dimensional accuracyIg; ngwyhk;.
4) nghUspd; strength kw;Wk; hardness mjpfhpf;Fk;.
5) Nkw;gug;gpy; oxide cUthfhJ.
6) Nkw;gug;gpy; decarburization Vw;glhJ.
7) ,jd; %yk; cUthf;fg;gl;l nghUl;fis ifahs;tJ
vspJ.

Q&A.19
5. Mention the limitations of cold working.
1) nghUl;fspd; ductility FiwfpwJ.
2) Grain structure rpije;J tpLfpwJ.
3) nghUl;fspy; residual stress cUthfpwJ.
4) Strain hardening Vw;gLfpwJ.
5) mjpfkhd force Njitg;gLk;.
6) rpwpa mstpyhd nghUl;fis kl;LNk jahhpf;f ,aYk;.
6. List out the various hot working operations.
1) Rolling 2) Forging 3) Swaging
4) Extrusion 5) Drawing 6) Hot spinning
7. What is rolling? Give its applications.
 MetalI RoYk; rollfSf;F ,ilapy; nrYj;jp
Njitahd tbtk; ngWtJ rolling vdg;gLk;.
 Hot rolling %yk; sheets, plates, rounds, I - section,
T - section, channels, angles kw;Wk; gy tbtq;fspy;
metalI rolling nra;ayhk;.
8. What is forging? Mention its applications.
 Compressive my;yJ impact force %yk; metalI
Njitahd tbtj;jpw;F cUthf;FtJ forging
vdg;gLk;.
 ,k;Kiwapy; connecting rod, crankshaft Nghd;wit
cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpd;wd.
9. Write down the classification of forging.
1) Smith forging : a) Hand forging b) Power forging
2) Impression die forging : a) Drop forging b) Upset forging
3) Roll forging
4) Swaging
10. List out the smith forging operations.
1) Upsetting 2) Drawing down 3) Setting down 4) Swaging
5) Bending 6) Punching 7) Welding
11. What is the difference between upsetting and drawing down.
 ntg;gg;gLj;jpaworkpieced; ePsk; Fiwf;fg;gl;L
FWf;fsT mjpfhpf;fg;gLtJ upsetting vdg;gLk;.
Q&A.20
  ntg;gg;gLj;jpa workpieced; FWf;fsT Fiwf;fg;
gl;L ePsj;ij mjpfhpg;gJ drawing down vdg;gLk;.
12. Define : Swaging and Bending
 ntg;gg;gLj;jpa workpiced;
ePsj;ij mjpfhpj;J
mjd; FWf;fsit Njitahd tbtj;jpw;F
khw;WtJ swaging vdg;gLk;.
 ntg;gg;gLj;jpa workpieceI Njitahd
Nfhzj;jpy; my;yJ tl;l tbtpy; tisg;gJ
bending vdg;gLk;.
13. What is drop forging? Give its applications.
 ntg;gg;gLj;jpa metalI ,uz;L closed
diefSf;fpilapy; itj;J power hammer My;
mbf;fg;gl;L Njitahd tbtk; ngWtJ drop
forging vdg;gLk;.
 Crank, crank shaft, connecting rod, levers, camshaft
Nghd;wit drop forgingy; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
14. What are the applications and advantages of press forging.
Application
Coins, bolts, rivets, nuts Nghd;w rkr;rPh; tbtk;
nfhz;l nghUl;fs; press forgingy; cw;gj;jp
nra;ag;gLfpwJ.
Advantages
1) nghJthf nghUl;fis xU working strokey;
nra;ayhk;.
2) cw;gj;jp Neuk; FiwT.
3) ey;y surface finish fpilf;fpwJ.
4) Vibrations kw;Wk; noise Fiwthf ,Uf;Fk;.
5) nghUl;fspd; mlh;j;jp rPuhf ,Uf;Fk;.
15. What is the difference between rolling and roll forging?
 Plain rollingy;
xNu rPuhd FWf;fsT cila
nghUl;fis kl;LNk cw;gj;jp nra;a KbAk;.
 Roll forgingy; RoYk; ,U rollfSf;F ,ilapy;
ntg;gg;gLj;jpa workpieceI nrYj;jp ntt;NtW
FWf;fsT cila nghUl;fis cw;gj;jp nra;ayhk;.
Q&A.21
16. Which are called press tools?
Die kw;Wk; punch mlq;fpa mikg;G press tools vdg;gLk;.
17. Write the specifications of a press.
1) Capacity of press in tons 2) Maximum stroke length of ram
3) Die space 4) Type of frame
5) Type of drive 6) Number of slides
18. Classify the presses based on the frames.
1) Open back inclinable press 2) Adjustable press
3) Horn press 4) Straight side press 5) Pillar type press
19. Mention the advantages of hydraulic press.
1) mjpf mOj;jk; kw;Wk; force fpilf;fpwJ.
2) Ramf;F Njitahd pressureI vspjpy; khw;wyhk;.
3) Pressure rPuhf ,Uf;Fk;.
4) Ramd; ,af;fk; rPuhf ,Uf;Fk;.
5) rj;jkpy;yhj kw;Wk; smooth operation eilngWk;.
20. Mention the types of drives used in press.
1) Eccentric drive 2) Cam drive 3) Rack and pinion drive
21. Name the various press accessories.
1) Stops 2) Pilots 3) Strippers
4) Knock outs 5) Pressure pads.
22. What is the use of stops and pilots?
 Sheet metalI rhpahd ePsj;jpy; epWj;Jtjw;F stops
gd;gLfpwJ.
 Blanky; piercing nra;ag;gl;l holeI rhpahf locate
nra;a pilot gad;gLfpwJ.
23. What is the application of strippers and knock out?
 Blanking my;yJ punching operation Kbe;jTld;
punch my;yJ dieapy; ,Ue;J work pieceI
ePf;Ftjw;F stripper gad; gLfpwJ.
 Drawing operation Kbe;jTld; die opening topahf fPNo
tpo ,ayhj nghUis ntspNa js;Stjw;F knock
out gad; gLfpwJ.

Q&A.22
24. What is the purpose of providing pressure pads?
Sheet metalI mOj;jp rhpahd positiony; gpbf;f pressure
pad gad;gLfpwJ.
25. Classify the dies based on construction.
1) Simple dies 2) Progressive dies 3) Compound dies
4) Combination dies 5) Inverted dies
26. What is progressive die?
,e;j dieapy; ram fPo; Nehf;fp efUk; NghJ ,uz;L
my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;l operationfs; xd;wd; gpd;
xd;whf eilngWk;.
27. State the difference between compound and combination
dies.
 Compound dieapy; ram fPo;Nehf;fp efUk; NghJ
,uz;L my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;l operationfs; xNu
workstationy; eilngWk;. nghJthf ,e;j dieapy;
cutting operationfs; nra;ag;gLfpd;wd.
 Combination diey; ram fPo; Nehf;fp efUk; NghJ
cutting kw;Wk; non cutting operationfs; xNu
workstationy; eilngWk;.
28. What is inverted die?
Inverted dieapd; die holdery; punchk;> punch holdery; dieAk;
khw;wp nghUj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;.
29. List out the various bending operations performed in press.
1) Angle bending 2) Channel bending 3) Curling
4) Drawing 5) Seaming
30. Differentiate between channel bending and drawing.
 xU sheet metalI channel tbtpy; tisg;gJ channel
bending MFk;.
 xU sheet metalI cup Nghd;w hollow tbt
nghUl;fshf tisg;gjw;F drawing vd;W ngah;.
31. Define curling and seaming?
 Sheet metald; tpspk;ig tl;l tbtpy; tisg;gJ curling
vdg;gLk;.
Q&A.23
  Sheet metald; tpspk;Gfis xd;W Nrh;j;J ,izg;gJ
(interlock) seaming vdg;gLk;.
32. List out the various shearing operations.
1) Blanking 2) Piercing 3) Cutting off 4) Trimming
5) Notching 6) Slitting 7) Lancing 8) Shaving
33. Define : i) Blanking ii) Piercing.
 Die kw;Wk; punchf;F ,ilapy; sheet metalI
Njitahd tbtj;jpw;F ntl;b vLg;gJ blanking
vdg;gLk;.
 Punch kw;Wk; died; %yk; sheet metaly; Jisia
ntl;LtJ punching vdg;gLk;.
34. Differentiate : i) Notching ii) Slitting
 Sheet metald; Xuq;fis rpwpa mstpy; Njitahd
tbtj;jpw;F ntl;LtJ notching vdg;gLk;.
 Sheet metalI Njitahd ePsj;jpw;F Neh;f; Nfhl;by;
ntl;LtJ slitting vdg;gLk;.
35. Define : a) Lancing b) Shaving
 Sheet mtalI Fiwe;j ePsj;jpw;F ntl;b tisg;gJ
lancing vdg;gLk;.
 Sheet metal operationy; nra;ag;gl;l nghUspy; cs;s
gprpW kw;Wk; xOq;fw;w Kidfis ePf;fp finishing
nra;tJ shaving vdg;gLk;.
36. What is powder metallurgy?
Metal kw;Wk; non-metal powderfis jahhpj;J>
mtw;wpypUe;J Njitahd gz;Gfs; kw;Wk; tbtk;
cila nghUl;fis cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; Kiw powder
metallurgy vdg;gLk;.
37. List out the step by step procedure of making products in
powder metallurgy.
1) Manufacturing of metal powder 2) Blending or mixing
1. 3) Pressing or compacting 4) Sintering
2. 5) Finishing and sizing

Q&A.24
38. What are the methods used for manufacturing metal powders?
1) Atomization 2) Electrolytic deposition
3) Chemical reduction 4) Machining
5) Shotting 6) Milling 7) Grinding
39. What are the applications of atomization and electrolytic
deposition?
 Atomization Kiwapy; Fiwe;j cUF epiy nfhz;l
metalfspd; (mYkpdpak;> <ak;> Jj;jehfk;) powder
jahhpf;fyhk;.
 Electrolytic deposition
Kiwapy; nrk;G> ,Uk;G>
nts;sp> Jj;jehfk; Nghd;w metal fspd; powder
jahhpf;fyhk;.
40. Define : i) Blending ii) Sintering
 Njitahd gz;Gfisg; ngWtjw;F rhpahd
tpfpjj;jpy; metal kw;Wk; non-metal powderfis
fyg;gJ mixing my;yJ blending vdg;gLk;.
 fhw;iw fl;Lg;gLj;jpa R+o;epiyapy; green compactI
mjd; basic metald; cUF epiyf;F rw;W Fiwthf
ntg;gg;gLj;JtJ sintering vdg;gLk;.
41. What is compacting? List out the types of pressing.
 Mixing nra;j metal powderI diey; Njitahd msT
kw;Wk; tbtj;jpw;F mOj;JtJ pressing vdg;gLk;.
,J briquetting vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLk;.
 Peressingy; fPo;f;fz;l ,uz;L tiffs; cs;sJ.
1) Cold pressing 2) Hot pressing
42. List out the finishing operations in powder metallurgy.
1) Sizing or coining 2) Infiltration 3) Impregnation
4) Machining 5) Heat treatment 6) Metal coating.
43. What is infiltration? Give its advantages.
 Sintering nra;ag;gl;l nghUspy; cs;s Ez;
Jisfis (pores) Fiwe;j cUFepiy nfhz;l
NtnwhU cUfpa metalMy; epug;GtJ infiltration
vdg;gLk;.

Q&A.25
  Infiltration nra;tjhy; nghUspd; strength, hardness
kw;Wk; density mjpfhpf;fpwJ.
44. List out the advantages of powder metallurgy.
1) Jy;ypakhd msT kw;Wk; surface finish fpilf;fpwJ.
2) Material wastege ,y;iy.
3) Njitahd density kw;Wk; porosity cs;s product
fpilf;fpwJ.
4) Metal kw;Wk; non-metalfis Nrh;j;J Njitahd
properties cila nghUl;fis jahhpf;fyk;.
5) rpf;fyhd cUtikg;Gs;s nghUl;fis cw;gj;jp
nra;ayhk;.
6) mjpf hardness cila nghUl;fis vspjpy;
cw;gj;jp nra;ayhk;.
45. List out the applications of powder metallurgy.
1) mjpf hardnesscila nghUl;fis vspjpy;
cw;gj;jp nra;ayhk;.
2) Self lubricating bearing, filters kw;Wk; oil pump gears.
3) fbdkhd carbide tips kw;wk; wire drawing dies.
4) Elecric bulb, radio valves, x-ray tubefspy; gad;gLk;
tungsten filament wire.
5) Cathode, anode kw;Wk; control grids.
6) Automobile clutch plate, brake lining kw;Wk; motor
brushes.
7) rpwpa gearfs;, cam, lever, piston ring kw;Wk; rpwpa
magnets.
46. What are the design rules in powder metallurgy?
1) nghUspy; kpf rpwpa Jisfs; (2 mmf;F Fiwthf)
,Uf;ff; $lhJ.
2) Thickness mjpf mstpy; khWtij jtph;f;f Ntz;Lk;.
3) FWfpa kw;Wk; Mokhd gFjpfis jtph;f;f Ntz;Lk;.
4) Pressing nra;Ak; directiony; Jisfs; ,Uf;ff; RlhJ.
5) Threads, knurling, under cut Mfpait compactingy;
nra;a KbahJ.

Q&A.26
 Unit – IV: THEORY OR METAL CUTTING,
CENTRE LATHE &
SEMI-AUTOMATIC LATHE

1. Differentiate between orthogonal and oblique cutting.

Orthogonal cutting Oblique Cutting

1) Toold; efh;Tf;F Toold; efh;Tf;F Fwpg;gpl;l
nrq;Fj;jhf cutting Nfhzj;jpy; rha;thf
edge ,Uf;Fk;. cutting edge ,Uf;Fk;.
2) Cutting edgey; cutting Cutting edgey; cutting force,
force kw;Wk; thrust force radial force kw;Wk; thrust force
Mfpait nray;gLk;. Mfpait nray;gLk;.
3) Cutting widthI tpl cutting Cutting widthI tpl cutting
edge nghpjhf ,Uf;Fk;. edge nghpjhfNth my;yJ
rpwpjhfNth ,Uf;fyhk;.
4) Tool life FiwT. Tool life mjpfk;.

2. Give examples for orthogonal and oblique cutting

processes.
Orthogona clutting : Parting, slotting, pipe cutting, etc.
Oblique cutting : Drilling, grinding, milling, turning in lathe, etc.
3. Define : i) Top rake angle ii) Side rake angle
 Top rake angle MdJ cutting edgey; ,Ue;J shankI
Nehf;fp facey; cs;s rhpthd Nfhzk; MFk;.
 Side rake angle MdJ cutting edgey; ,Ue;J faced;
gf;fthl;by; (width) cs;s rhpthd Nfhzk; MFk;.
4. What is clearance angle and lip angle?
 Clearance angle MdJ cutting edgey; ,Ue;J
fPo;Nehf;fp cs;s rhpthd Nfhzk; MFk;.
 Lip angle MdJ face kw;Wk; end surfacef;F ,ilg;gl;l
Nfhzk; MFk;.
5. What are the cutting edge angles?
1) Side cutting edge angle 2) End cutting edge angle
Q&A.27
6. What is nose angle?
,J side cutting edge kw;Wk; end cutting edgef;F
,ilg;gl;l Nfhzk; MFk;.
7. What are the types of chips?
1) Continuous chips 2) Discontinuous chips
3) Chip with built-up edge.
8. What is the use of chip breaker?
Machining nra;Ak; NghJ cz;lhFk; njhlh;r;rpahd
ePskhd chipfis rpW Jz;Lfshf ntl;Ltjw;F
gad;gLtNj chip breaker vdg;gLk;.
9. What are the three types of chip breakers?
1) Step type 2) Groove type 3) Clamp type
10. What are the materials used for producing cutting tools?
1) Carbon steel 2) Alloy carbon steel
3) High Speed Steel (H.S.S) 4) Stellites
5) Carbides 6) Ceramics
7) Diamond
11. State the composition of HSS and stellite
 HSSy; 0.8% tiu carbon ,Uf;Fk;. ,jpy; tungsten,
molybdenum, cobalt, chromium kw;Wk; vanadium Mfpa
cNyhfq;fs; fye;jpUf;Fk;.
 Stellitey; 45% chromium, 15% tungsten kw;Wk; 2% carbon
Mfpait mlq;fpAs;sd.
12. State the applications of HSS and stellite.
 HSSIg; gad;gLj;jp drills, turning tools, broaches, taps,
dies kw;Wk; milling cutter Nghd;w toolfs;
nra;ag;gLfpd;wd.
 Rubber kw;Wk; plastic Nghd;wtw;iw ntl;Ltjw;F
cjTk; toolfs; nra;tjw;F stellite gad;gLfpwJ.
13. Menton the tool material used for making drill bits.
1) High carbon steel 2) High Speed Steel.

Q&A.28
14. What is the use of ceramics and diamond as cutting tool
material?
 Plastic kw;Wk; cast iron Nghd;wtw;iw machining
nra;af;$ba single point toolfis jahhpf;f ceramics
gad;gLfpwJ.
 Abrasive wheels, glass, plastics kw;Wk; ceramics Nghd;w
fbdkhd nghUl;fis machining nra;a Kidapy;
diamond nghUj;jg;gl;l toolfs; gad;gLfpd;wd.
15. What is tool life?
Tool life vd;gJ njhlh;e;J ,uz;L Kiw tool MdJ grinding
nra;ag;gl;l ,ilg;nghOjpy; cgNahfpf;Fk; Neuk; MFk;.
16. List out the properties of cutting tool material.
1) mjpf hardness 2) mjpf Nja;khd vjph;g;Gj; jpwd;
3) mjpf toughness 4) Fiwe;j tpiy
17. What the various tool wear?
1) Face wear or crater wear
2) Flank wear or edge wear
3) Nose wear
18. What are the factors influencing tool life?
1) Cutting speed 2) Feed 3) Depth of cut
4) Tool geometry 5) Tool material 6) Cutting fluid
7) Work material 8) Rigidity of work, tool and machine.
19. Give the relationship between cutting speed and tool life.
Cutting speed kw;Wk; tool lifef;F cs;s njhlh;G Taylor’s
formula %yk; tpsf;fg;gLfpwJ.
𝑽 𝑻𝒏 = 𝑪
,q;F, 𝑉 – Cutting speed ( m / min)
𝑇 – Tool life (min)
𝑛 – Tool kw;Wk; workpieceI nghWj;j kjpg;G
𝐶 – xU constant
20. Name the cutting fluids commonly used.
Soluble oils, kerosene base oil, mineral oil, synthetic coolants,
sulphonated oils, water base emulsion Nghd;wit
nghJthfg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; cutting fluid MFk;.

Q&A.29
21. List out the functions of cutting fluids.
1) Tool kw;Wk work pieceI Fsph;tpg;gJ
2) Tool kw;Wk; chip xl;bf;nfhs;tijf; Fiwg;gJ
3) cuha;T kw;Wk; Nja;khdj;ijf; Fiwg;gJ
4) Chipfis clDf;Fld; ntspNaw;wp ntl;Lk;
gFjpapid free Mf itg;gJ
5) ,ae;jpu ghfq;fs;> workpiece kw;Wk; tool Mfpait
JUg; gpbg;gijj; jLg;gJ
6) Toold; kPJ fPuy;fs; kw;Wk; Nja;khdj;ijf; Fiwj;J
tool lifeI mjpfg;gLj;JtJ
22. What are the desirable properties of cutting fluid?
1) vspjpy; Fsph;tpg;gjw;F mjpf ntg;gf; flj;Jj; jpwd;
2) vspjhf gha;e;J nry;y Fiwthd viscosity
3) rpwe;j caTg; gz;Gfs;
4) vspjpy; jPg;gpbf;fhky; ,Uf;f mjpf flash point
5) rhjhuz ntg;gepiyapy; gpRgpRg;ghfNth jplg;
nghUshfNth khwhky; ,Uf;Fk; jd;ik
6) Njhy; mhpg;G kw;Wk; J}a;ikf; Nfl;bid
cUthf;fhj gz;G
23. List out the types of lathe.
1) Speed lathe 2) Engine lathe or Centre lathe
3) Bench lathe 4) Tool room lathe
5) Semi automatic lathe 6) Automatic lathe
7) Special purpose lathe
24. Write the important specifications of lathe.
1) Bedd; ePsk;
2) Bedd; mfyk;
3) Bedy; ,Ue;J centrefs; mike;Js;s cauk;
4) CentrefSf;F ,ilg;gl;l J}uk;
5) Bedd; kPJs;s swing diameter
6) Carriaged; kPJs;s swing diameter
7) Spindle Jisapd; mjpfgl;r diameter
8) Motord; ,af;Fjpwd;
9) Spindle speedfspd; vz;zpf;if

Q&A.30
25. List out principal parts of lathe.
1) Bed 2) Head stock 3) Carriage 4) Tail stock
26. What are the types of head stocks?
1) Back geared head stock 2) All geared head stock
27. Name the parts mounted on the carriage.
1) Saddle 2) Cross slide 3) Compound rest
4) Tool post 5) Apron
28. What is the use of compound rest?
Compound restd; swivel basey;
degrees
Fwpf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk;. ,ij Row;wp Njitahd angley;
nghUj;jyhk.; Taper turning nra;a ,J gad;;gLfpwJ.
29. List out the types of tool posts.
1) Single screw tool post 2) Open side tool post
3) Four bolt tool post 4) Four way tool post
30. What are the various feed given to lathe tool?
i) Longitudinal feed: Lathe mr;Rf;F ,izahf
ii) Cross feed: Lathe mr;Rf;F nrq;Fj;jhf
iii) Angular feed: Lathe mr;Rf;F Fwpg;gpl; Nfhzj;jpy;
rha;thf
31. List out the functions of tail stock.
1) Workpieced; tyJ Kidia support nra;fpwJ.
2) Drill bit, reamer kw;Wk; tap Nghd;w tool fis tail stock
spindley; nghUj;jp drilling, reaming kw;Wk; tapping
Nghd;w operationfs; nra;ayhk;.
3) Set over methody; tail stockI FWf;F trj;jpy; efh;j;jp
taper turning nra;ag; gad;gLfpwJ.
32. Name the types of feed given to lathe tool.
1) Longitudinal feed 2) Cross feed 3) Angular feed
33. Name the feed mechanisms in lathe.
1) Tumbler gear mechanism
2) Quick change gear box
3) Apron mechanism

Q&A.31
34. What is the use of tumbler gear mechanism.
Tumbler gear mechanism MdJ lead screw kw;Wk; feed
rodd; directionI khw;wg; gad;gLfpwJ.
35. List out the various work holding devices used in lathe.
1) Chucks 2) Centres 3) Face plate
4) Mandrel 5) Steady rest 6) Follower rest
7) Angle plate 8) Carrier or dog 9) Catch plate
36. What are the types of chucks used in lathe.
1) Three jaw self centering chuck
2) Four jaw independent chuck
3) Magnetic chuck
37. What is live centre and dead centre. Give its uses.
 Main spindley; cs;s centre MdJ live centre vdTk;>
tail stocky; cs;s centre MdJ dead centre vdTk;
miof;fg;gLk;.
 ,J workpieceI support nra;aTk; machining
nra;Ak; NghJ Vw;gLk; forceI jhq;fTk;
gad;gLfpwJ.
38. List out the various lathe centres.
1) Ordinary centre 2) Ball centre 3) Tipped centre
4) Half centre 5) Pipe centre 6) Inserted centre
7) Rotating centre
39. What is face plate? Give its applications.
 ,J threaded bore cld; $ba circular plate MFk;.
 Chucky; gpbf;f ,ayhj xOq;fw;w tbtKs;s
workpieceI vspjpy; face platey; nghUj;j KbAk;.
40. What is mandrel? List out its types.
 ,U centrefSf;fpilNa hallow workpieceI gpbf;fg;
gad; gLtNj mandrell MFk;.
 Lathey; fPo;f;fz;l mandrellfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
1) Plain mandrel 2) Step mandrel 3) Collar mandrel
4) Screwed mandrel 5) Cone mandrel 6) Gang mandrel

Q&A.32
41. Compare steady rest and follower rest.
Steady rest Follower rest
1) Steady rest MdJ lathe Follower rest MdJ lathe
bedy; nghUj;jg;gl;;L carriery; cs;s saddley;
,Uf;Fk;. nghUj;jg; gl;bUf;Fk;.
2) ,J efuhky; epiyahf ,J tool cld; Nrh;e;J
,Uf;Fk;. efUk;.
3) WorkpieceI jhq;F WorkpieceI jhq;Ftjw;F
tjw;F %d;W adjustable ,uz;L adjustable jawf;fs;
jawf;fs; cs;sd. cs;sd.
4) Jawf;fSf;fhf work Bearing surface Njit
piecey; bearing surface apy;iy.
Vw;gLj;j Ntz;Lk;.
42. Mention the uses of carrier and catch plate.
 Catch platey; ,Ue;J ,af;fj;ij ,U centrefSf;F
,ilapy; cs;s workpiecef;F khw;WtJ dog my;yJ
carrier MFk;.
 Catch plate MdJ dog %yk; ,uz;L centrefSf;F
,ilNa cs;s workpieceI Rw;WfpwJ.
43. List out the various machining operations done on lathe.
1) Straight turning 2) Step turning 3) Facing
4) Chamfering 5) Grooving 6) Parting off
7) Knurling 8) Forming 9) Eccentric turning
10) Drilling 11) Reaming 12) Boring
13) Taper turning 14) Thread cutting
44. What is the basic difference between turning and facing?
 Turning nra;Ak;NghJ> lathe mr;Rf;F ,izahf
carriageI efh;j;jp toolf;F feed nfhLf;fg; gLfpwJ.
 Facing nra;Ak;NghJ> workpieced; ikaj;ij Nehf;fp
cross slideI lathe mr;Rf;F nrq;Fj;jhf efh;j;jp
toolf;F feed nfhLf;fg; gLfpwJ.
45. What is chamfering and parting off?
 Workpieced; Kidapy; cs;s sharp edgeI chamfering
tool %yk; ePf;FtJ chamfering vdg;gLk;.
Q&A.33
  Njitahd msT kw;Wk; tbtj;jpw;F turning nra;j
gpwF workpieceI ntl;b gphpg;gJ parting off MFk;.
46. What is the purpose of knurling?
Workpieced; Nky; gripMd gug;ig Vw;gLj;j knurling
nra;ag; gLfpwJ. ,e;j gug;ghdJ nghJthf diamond
tbtpy; ,Uf;Fk;.
47. What is eccentric turning? Give its uses.
 ntt;NtW ikak; nfhz;l workpiecey; Njitahd
ikaj;ij mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L turning nra;tJ
eccentric turning vdg;gLk;.
 Crank shaft kw;Wk; eccentric cUthf;f ,k;Kiw
gad;gLfpwJ.
48. List out the methods of tape turning.
a) Form tool method
b) Compound rest method
c) Tail stock set over method
d) Taper turning attachment method
e) By combining longitudinal and cross feed
49. Give the formula for calculating half taper angle.
𝑫−𝒅
Half taper angle, 𝜶 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 ( )
𝟐𝒍
𝐷 – Large diameter of taper
𝑑 – Small diameter of taper
𝑙 – Length of taper
50. Write down the formula for tail stock set over distance.
𝑫−𝒅
Set over, 𝑺 = 𝑳 × ( )
𝟐𝒍
𝐷 – Large diameter of taper
𝑑 – Small diameter of taper
𝐿 – Length of work piece
𝑙 – Length of taper
51. How do you find the gear ratio for thread cutting in lathe.
Pitch of the work
Gear ratio =
Pitch of the lead screw

Q&A.34
52. What are the rules for cutting LH and RH threads in lathe.
 Right hand thread cutting nra;Ak; NghJ lead screw
kw;Wk; spindle xNu directiony; Rw;Wk;. Tool (carriage)
MdJ head stockI Nehf;fp efUk;.
 Left hand thread cutting nra;Ak; NghJ lead screw
MdJ spindlef;F vjph; jpirapy; Rw;Wk;. Tool
(carriage) MdJ tail stockI Nehf;fp efUk;.
53. Define cutting speed. Write the formula for cutting speed.
RoYk; workpiecey; ,Ue;J tool xU epkplj;jpy; ntl;b
vLf;Fk; chipd; ePsk; cutting speed vdg;gLk;.

πDN
Cutting speed, Vc = (m / min)
1000
,q;F, D – Worrkpieced; diameter (mm),
N – Workpiece RoYk; Ntfk; (rpm)
54. Define : i) Feed ii) Depth of cut.
 Workpieced; xU KOr; Rw;Wf;F tool efUk; J}uk;
feed vdg;gLk;.
L
Feed , f =
N × Tm
,q;F, L – Length of cut (mm)
N – Workpiece RoYk; Ntfk; (rpm)
Tm – Machining time / Cutting (min)

 Cutting toolI xU Kiw efh;j;Jk; NghJ workpiecey;

,Ue;J ePf;fg;gLk; materiald; jbkd; MdJ depth of
cut vdg;gLk;.
Di  Df
Depth of cut , t 
2
,q;F, Di – Workpieced; initial diameter
Df – Workpieced; final diameter
55. What is MRR?
XuyF Neuj;jpy; ntl;b ePf;fg;gLk; metald; fd
msthdJ Metal Removal Rate (MRR) vdg;gLk;.

Q&A.35
 MRR  Cutting speed  Feed  Depth of cut
πDN
MRR  Vc  f  t   f  t (mm3/min)
1000
,q;F, D – Workpieced; diameter (mm),
N – Workpiece RoYk; Ntfk; (rpm)
f – feed (mm/rev)
t – Depth of cut (mm)
56. What is semi-automatic lathe. Give its types.
 Semi automatic lathe vd;gJ loading, unloading kw;Wk;
toolI machining positionf;F nfhz;L tUtJ
Mfpait manualMfTk; kw;w vy;yh operationfSk;
automatic MfTk; nra;af; $ba xU machine MFk;.
 Semi automatic lathey; fPo;fz;l ,uz;L tiffs;
cs;sd.
1) Capstan lathe my;yJ Ram type lathe
2) Turret lathe my;yJ Saddle type lathe
57. List out the principal parts in capston lathe.
1) Bed 2) Head Stock 3) Cross slide
4) Turret head and saddle 5) Preset stops
58. What is turret head?
Turret head vd;gJ 6 ntt;NtW toolfis nghUj;jf;
$ba hexagonal tbt mikg;G MFk;. ,J nrq;Fj;J
mr;rpy; indexing (xU Fwpg;gpl;l anglef;F Rw;wtJ)MfpwJ.
59. What is preset stops in turret lathe?
 Turret heady; cs;s 6 toolfspd; mjpfgl;r efh;tpid
fl;Lg;gLj;j 6 adjustable stopfs; cs;sd.
 xU Fwpg;gpl;l toolf;fhd turretd; efh;tpid adjustable stop
%yk; preset nra;ayhk;.
60. What is the use of Geneva mechanism?
xt;nthU operationd; KbtpYk; index plate kw;Wk; turrret
headI 60o f;F Row;wp indexing nra;tjw;F Geneva
mechanism gad;gLfpwJ.

Q&A.36
61. What is collet? List out its types.
 Collet vd;gJ taper nose cld; $ba cUis
tbtpyhd steel bush MFk;. ,J capstan kw;Wk; turret
lathefspy; bar stockI ,Wf;fpg; gpbg;gjw;F
gad;gLfpwJ.
 fPo;f;fz;l %d;W tif colletfs; cs;sd.
i) Draw back collet ii) Push out collet iii) Dead length collet
62. State the difference between draw back and push out collet.
 Draw back colletI Kd;Ndhf;fp efh;j;Jk; NghJ collet
jaws jpwf;fpwJ.
 Push out colletI Kd;Ndhf;fp efh;j;Jk; NghJ colletd;
taper nose MdJ spindled; taper nosef;Fs; efh;e;J
bar stockI ,Wf;fpg; gpbf;fpwJ.
63. List out the various tool holding devices used in capstan
and turret lathe.
1) Straight cutter tool holder 2) Adjustable angle cutter tool holder
3) Multiple cutter tool holder 4) Offset cutter tool holder
5) Sliding tool holder 6) Knee tool holder
7) Flange tool holder 8) Roller steady box tool holder
9) Combination tool holder 10) Self opening die holder
11) Collapsible tap.
64. What is self opening die head and collapsible tap?
 Self opening die holderMdJ work pieced; Fwpg;gpl;l
ePsj;jpw;F external threadI accurate Mf cut nra;a
gad;gLfpwJ.
 Collapsible tap MdJ work pieced; Fwpg;gpl;l
ePsj;jpw;F internal threadI accurate Mf cut nra;a
gad;gLfpwJ.

Q&A.37
 Unit – V: DRILLING & METROLOGY

1. What are the types of drills?

1) Flat drill or spade drill 2) Straight fluted drill
3) Twist drill 4) Oil tube drill
2. What is the purpose of oil hole in oil tube drill?
Drilling eilngWk;NghJ> ,j;Jisfs; topahf coolant
oil nrYj;jg;gl;L cutting edge Fspu;tpf;fg;gLk;. NkYk;
mOj;jg;gl;l fhw;iw nrYj;Jk;NghJ chips vspjpy;
ntspNaw;wg;gLk;.
3. State the functions of flutes in drill.
1) Cutting edgeI cUthf;FfpwJ.
2) ChipsI RUs; tbtpy; Vw;gLj;JfpwJ.
3) Chips ntspNaw top mikf;fpwJ.
4) Cutting edgef;F coolantI nfhz;L nry;y topahf
cjTfpwJ.
4. Name the parts involved in point of a drill bit.
1) Flank 2) Lip or cutting edge
3) Face 4) Chisel edge or dead centre
5. What are the values of important drill angles?
i) Point angle =118O ii) Rake angle =30O to 45O
iii) Chisel edge angle = 120O to 135O.
6. What are the types of radial drilling machine?
(i) Plain type (ii) Semi universal type (iii) Universal type
7. What are the principal movements in universal drilling
machine?
1) Radial arm I NkYk; fPOk; efh;j;jyhk;.
2) Radial armI columnj;jpd; mr;irg; nghWj;J
Row;wyhk;.
3) Spindle headI Muthf;fpy efh;j;jyhk;.
4) Radial armf;F nrq;Fj;jhd xU mr;irg; nghWj;J
spindle headI Njitahd Nfhzj;jpw;F jpUg;gp
mikf;fyhk;.
Q&A.38
 5) Columnj;jpw;F nrq;Fj;jhd xU mr;irg; nghWj;J
radial armI Njitahd msT Row;wp mikf;fyhk;.
8. What is the difference between gang drilling and multi-
spindle drilling machine?
xU workpiecey; gy operationfis xd;wd; gpd; xd;whf
njhlh;e;J nra;tJ gang drilling vdg;gLk;.
Work pieced; gy ,lq;fspy; xNu Neuj;jpy; xU
Fwpg;gpl;l operationI nra;tJ multi spindle drilling
vdg;gLk;.
9. Write the specifications of drilling machine.
1) Spindley; nghUj;jf; $ba drilld; mjpfgl;r tpl;lk;.
2) Machiney; nghUj;jf; $ba workpieced; mjpfgl;r msT
3) Tabled; msT
4) Spindle efUk; mjpf gl;r J}uk;
5) Spindle speed kw;Wk; feedfspd; vz;zpf;if
6) Drilling machined; epfu vil
10. What is cutting speed in drilling?
Drilld; tl;lg; gupjp (periphery) efUk; tPjNk cutting speed
vdg;gLk;. ,J m/min. vd;w myfhy; Fwpf;fg;gLfpwJ.
11. What are the methods of holding drill bits?
1) Neubahf spindley; nghUj;Jjy;
2) SleeveIg; gad;gLj;jp nghUj;Jjy;
3) SocketIg; gad;gLj;jp nghUj;Jjy;
4) Drill chuckIg; gad;gLj;jp nghUj;Jjy;
12. What is the use of sleeve in drilling?
Spindle taperd; msit tpl drilld; taper shank msT
rpwpajhf ,Uf;Fk; NghJ sleeve gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.
13. What is the use of socket in drilling?
Spindle taperd;
msit tpl drilld; taper shank msT
nghpajhf ,Uf;Fk;NghJ socket gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.
14. What are the operations performed in drilling machine?
1) Drilling 2) Reming 3) Boring
4) Counter boring 5) Counter sinking 6) Spot facing
7) Tapping
Q&A.39
15. What is counter sinking?
xU Jisapd; Kfg;ig kl;Lk; $k;G tbtpy;
nghpjhf;Fk; Kiwf;F counter sinking vd;W ngah;.
16. Define counter boring.
xU Jisapd; Kfg;ig kl;Lk; nghpjhf;Fk; Kiw
counter boring vdg;gLk;.
17. What is spot facing?
xU Jisapd; Kfg;gpy; Nklhf cs;s ghfj;ij rkjskhf
machining nra;Ak; Kiwf;F spot facing vd;W ngah;.
18. What is the use of deep hole drilling?
Crank shaft, cam shaft, rifle barrel Nghd;w ePskhd shaft
fspy; Mokhd Jisfis Vw;gLj;j deep hole drilling
gad;gLfpwJ.
19. What is miniature drills?
kpfr;rpwa msTs;s Jisia Vw;gLj;j cjTk;
drillf;F micro drill my;yJ miniature drill vd;W ngah;.
20. What are the needs for inspection?
1) eph;zapf;fg;gl;l ju msTfSld; nghUl;fs; kw;Wk;
ghfq;fis xg;gpl;L mtw;wpd; rhpahd msTfis
cWjpnra;tjw;F
2) cw;gj;jp nray;Kiwapy; interchangeabilityI
cUthf;Ftjw;F
3) Vw;Wf;nfhs;sf; $ba juepiyapy; nghUl;fis
cUthf;Ftjw;F
4) Scrap kw;Wk; wastagefisf; Fiwg;gjw;F
5) rpwe;j juKs;s nghUl;fs;> fUtpfs; kw;Wk;
,aj;jpuq;fis thq;Ftjw;F
6) nghUl;fspd; epuhfhpg;gLk; rjtPjj;ij Fiwg;gjw;F
7) FiwghLs;s nghUl;fis rhpnra;tjw;fhd
rhj;jpaf; $Wfis jPh;khdpg;gjw;F
21. Define : i) Accuracy ii) Precision
 xU nghUspy; mse;jwpag;gl;l kjpg;ghdJ mjd;
cz;ikahd kjpg;Gf;F mUfpy; ,Ug;gNj accuracy
vdg;gLk;.
Q&A.40
  Fwpg;gpl;lkhwhj #o;epiyfspy;> xU mstpid
gyKiw mstpLk;NghJ> me;j msTfspd; kjpg;G
xd;Wf; nfhd;W mUfpy; ,Ug;gNj precision vdg;gLk;.
22. What is the need of magnification?
msTfspd; kpfr;rpwpa tpj;jpahrq;fis mse;jwp
tjw;F> workpieceI njhl;Lf; nfhz;bUf;Fk; mstpLk;
Kidapd; efh;thdJ nghpjhf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;.
23. What is repeatability?
khwhj #o;epiyfspy;> xNu khjphpahd mstpLk;
Kiwapy; xU nghUspd; mstpid xUtNu gyKiw
mstpLk;NghJ khwhj xNu kjpg;gpidf; fhl;Lk;
mstpLk; fUtpapd; xU rpwe;j gz;G repeatability
vdg;gLk;.
24. Define : i) Resolution ii) Sensitivity
 mstpLk; fUtpapd; msTfhl;bapy; khw;wj;ij
Njhw;Wtpf;f;$ba> mse;jwpAk; kjpg;gpd; kpfr;rpwpa
khw;wk; rosolution vdg;gLk;.
 mstpLk; fUtpapy; khw;wj;ij J}z;Lk; tifapy;>
mse;jwpAk; kjpg;gpy; Vw;gLj;jg;gLk; kpfr;rpwpa
khw;wk; sensitivity vdg;gLk;.
25. What is calibration?
mjpf accuracy nfhz;l epu;zapf;fg;gl;l juj;Jld;>
mstpLk; fUtpfis xg;gpl;L Fwpg;gpl;l fhy
,ilntspapy; NrhjidapLk; KiwNa calibration
vdg;gLk;.
26. List out the requirements of a good comparator.
1) fUtpapy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; msTNfhyhdJ linear
MfTk; mstpLk; tuk;G (range) mjpfk; nfhz;l
jhfTk ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
2) ghfq;fspd; efh;TfSf;F ,ilNa backlash kw;Wk;
lag ,Uf;ff; $lhJ.
3) fUtpahdJ mjpf precision kw;Wk; accuracy
nfhz;ljhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.

Q&A.41
 4) mstpidf; fhz;gpf;Fk; Kiw njspthf ,Uf;f
Ntz;Lk;.
5) kpfr;rhpahf zero mstpw;F jpUk;g Ntz;Lk;.
27. Classify the comparators.
1) Mechanical comparator 2) Electrical comparator
3) Pneumatic comparator 4) Optical comparator
28. What are the advantages of mechanical comparator?
 kw;w comparatorfistpl kypthdJ.
 vspjpy; gbj;jwpaf; $ba linear scaleI cilaJ.
 fr;rpjkhd kw;Wk; cWjpahd fl;likg;ig cilaJ.
 ,jid ifahs;tJ kpf vspJ.
29. Write down the advantages of electrical comparator.
 Fiwthd vz;zpf;ifapy; efUk; ghfq;fis cilaJ.
 mjpf msT magnification nra;Ak; mikg;G nfhz;lJ.
 gy;NtW tuk;G epiyfspy; gad;gLj;jyhk;.
 fr;rpjkhd fl;likg;G cilaJ.
30. What are the limitations of pneumatic comparators?
 msTNfhy; rkr;rPuhf ,Uf;fhJ.
 kpf mjpf msT magnification Njitg;gLk;.
 ntt;NtW mstPLfSf;F ntt;NtW mstpLk;
Kidfs; Njitg;gLk;.
 mjpf vz;zpf;ifapy; Jizf; fUtpfs; Njitg;gLk;.
 fUtpia ifahs;tJ rpukk;.
31. What are the uses of optical comparator?
Optical comparatorIg; gad;gLj;jp gear teeth, screw thread,
cutting tools, Crpfs; Nghd;w tw;iw Nrhjidaplyhk;.
32. List out the important measuring instruments.
1) Steel rule 2) Calipers 3) Combination set
4) Feeler gauge 5) Pitch screw gauge 6) Vernier caliper
7) Vernier height gauge 8) Micrometer 9) Thread micrometer
33. Mention the types of calipers.
1) Outside caliper 2) Inside caliper 3) Outside spring caliper
4) Inside spring caliper 5) Jenny or Odd leg caliper

Q&A.42
34. What is combination set?
Combination set MdJ layout kw;Wk; inspection Ntiy
fspy; ngUk;ghYk; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; xU precision
Fiwthd mstpLk; cgfuzk; MFk;. ,jpy; scale,
squaring head, protractor kw;Wk; centre head Mfpait
mlq;fp ,Uf;Fk;.
35. List out the applications of feeler gauges.
1) ,ae;jpuq;fspy; tool kw;Wk; workpiecef;F ,ilNaAs;s
,ilntspiaf; fhz cjTfpwJ.
2) Automobiley; spark plug ,ilntspia rhpahd
msTf;F mikf;f cjTfpwJ.
3) Piston kw;Wk; cylinderf;F ,ilNaAs;s clearanceI
msf;f cjTfpwJ.
4) ,ae;jpuq;fspy; guide kw;Wk; guidewaysf;F
,ilapYs;s clearanceI msf;fg; gad;gLfpwJ.
36. Mention the applications of radius gauges and pitch screw
gauges.
 Fillet kw;Wk;
,ju tisthd gug;Gfspd; cl;Gw
kw;Wk; ntspg;Gw Mu msTfis fz;lwptjw;F
ngUk;ghYk; ,it gad;gLfpd;wd.
 gy;NtW threadfspd; pitch msit Jy;ypakhf
mse;jwpaTk; rhpghh;f;fTk; gad;gLk; xU rpwe;j
cgfuzk; pitch screw gauge MFk;.
37. What is least count? How it is calculated in vernier caliper?
 xU mstpLk; fUtpiaf; nfhz;L mstplf; $ba
kpfr;rpwpa msNt least count vdg;gLk;.
 Least count = Length of one main scale division –
Length of one vernier scale division
38. What are the uses of vernier height gauge and gear tooth
vernier?
 nghUspd; cauj;ij mstplTk;> xU Fwpg;gpl;l
msit work piecey; kpfr; rhpahf Fwpf;fTk; vernier
height gauge gad;gLfpwJ.
 xU gear gy;ypd; chordal thicknessI msg;gjw;F gear
tooth vernier gad;gLfpwJ.
Q&A.43
39. What is chordal thickness? Write down the formula for
addendum.
Chordal thickness vd;gJ pitch ircle nry;Yk; Gs;spapy;
xU gy;ypd; jbkidf; Fwpg;gjhFk;.
𝒛 𝟗𝟎
𝑨𝒅𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒎 = 𝒎 [ (𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( ) + 𝟏 )]
𝟐 𝒛

,q;F, 𝑚 = Module of the gear

𝑧 = Number of teeth
40. List out the types of micrometers.
1) Outside micrometer 2) Inside micrometer
3) Depth micrometer 4) Thread micrometer
41. What are the uses of inside micrometer and depth
micrometer?
 Inside micrometer xU Jisapd; tpl;lj;ij msf;fg;
gad;gLfpwJ.
 Blind holes, slots grooves Nghd;wtw;wpd;
kw;Wk;
Moj;ij fz;lwpa depth micrometer gad;gLfpwJ.
42. What is the use of thread micrometer? Give the formula
use in three wire method for pitch diameter.
xU threadd; pitch diameterI Jy;ypakhf mstpLtjw;F
thread micrometer gad;gLfpwJ.
𝜶
𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝑫 − 𝒅 [𝟏 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( )]
𝟐
,q;F, 𝐷 = Distance between the wires
𝑑 = Diameter of wire
𝛼 = Included angle of thread
43. What is slip gauges? Define wringing.
 ePs msit msf;fg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;
kpfj;Jy;ypakhd gauge blockfs; slip gauges vdg;gLk;.
 xU gauged; mstpLk; gug;ig kw;nwhU gauged;
mstpLk; gug;Gld; Nja;j;J xl;l itg;gNj wringing
vdg;gLk;. kpfj;Jy;ypakhd gug;Gfisf; nfhz;l
blockfSf;F ,ilNa adhesion ,Ug;gjhy; mit
xl;bf; nfhs;fpd;wd.

Q&A.44
44. What are the requirements of slip gauges?
1) Slip gaguefspd; ,Wjp Kidfs; jl;ilahfTk;
xd;Wf;nfhd;W ,izahfTk; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
2) mLj;jLj;J cs;s gf;fq;fs; xd;Wf;nfhd;W
nrq;Fj;jhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
3) gug;Gfs; kpf mjpf surface finish nfhz;ljhf ,Uf;f
Ntz;Lk;.
4) Gauged; msT Fwpg;gpl;l tolerance vy;iyf;Fs;
,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;.
5) tpspk;Gfspy; gprpW vJTk; ,Uf;ff; $lhJ.
45. Classify the slip gauges.
 Grade II : nghUl;fs;> tools kw;Wk; gagues Nghd;wtw;iw
cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; workshopfspy; ,e;j tif slip
gaguefs; gad;gLfpd;wd.
 Grade I : mjpf accuracy nfhz;l ,e;j tif slip
gaguefs; NrhjiapLk; nray;fspy; gad;gLfpd;wd.
 Grade 0 : Grade I kw;Wk; Grade II tif slip gaguefis
calibration nra;tjw;F Ma;Tf; $lq;fspy; ,e;j tif
slip gaguefs; gad;gLfpd;wd.
46. List out the uses of slip gauges.
1) Metrology Ma;tfq;fs;> tool room kw;Wk; machine shop
Nghd;wtw;wpy; gad;gLk; mjpf precision nfhz;l
mstpLk; fUtpfis calibration nra;tjw;F slip
gaguefs; gad;gLfpd;wd.
2) Sine barIf; nfhz;L Nfhzj;ij mstpLk;NghJ>
kpfr; rhpahd cauj;ij mikg;gjw;F slip gaugefs;
cjTfpd;wd.
3) Comparator kw;Wk; optical Kiwapy; NrhjidapLk;
fUtpfis rhpghh;f;f slip gaugefs; gad;gLfpd;wd.
4) Milling machinefspy; Jiz mstpLk; mikg;ghf
,it gad;gLfpd;wd.
47. What are the types of sine bar?
1) Sine centre 2) Sine table 3) Compound sine table

Q&A.45
48. Mention the uses of sine centre and compound sine table.
 rhjhuz sine bary; nghUj;j ,ayhj $k;G tbt
workpiecefis nghUj;Jtjw;F sine centre gad;gLfpwJ.
 kpfg; nghpa workpiecefspy; $l;Lf; Nfhzq;fis
mstpLtjw;F compound sine table cjTfpwJ.
49. What are the uses of sine bar?
 njhpahj Nfhzj;ij mstpLtjw;F
 njhpe;j Nfhz mstpw;F workpieceI nghUj;Jtjw;F
 gSthd nghUl;fspy; njhpahj Nfhzj;ij
mstpLtjw;F
50. Write the limitations of sine bar.
1) ,uz;L rollerfspd; ikaq;fSf;F ,ilNaAs;s
J}uj;jpid mstpLk; Jy;ypaj;ijg; nghWj;Nj sine
bard; Jy;ypak; mikAk;.
2) Nfhz mstPLfSf;fhd Kjd;ikahd jukhf
,jid gad;gLj;j KbahJ.
3) 15°f;F Fiwthd Nfhz msTfSf;Nf sine
jj;Jtk; Vw;wjhf mikfpwJ. mjw;F Nkw;gl;l
Nfhz msTfs; Jy;ypakhf mikahJ.
4) 45°f;F mjpfkhd Nfhz msTfis mstpLtjw;F
sine bar Vw;wJ my;y.
51. What is clinometer? Give its uses.
Clinometer vd;gJ> fpilkl;lj; jsj;jpid nghWj;J xU
nrq;Fj;Jj; jsj;jpd; rha;tpid fz;lwpag; gad;gLk;
xU rpwg;G tif spirit level MFk;.
Uses :
1) fpilkl;lj; jsj;jpidg; nghWj;J xU rha;thd
jsj;jpd; Nfhzj;ij mstpl gad;gLfpwJ.
2) xd;Wf;nfhd;W rha;thf cs;s ,uz;L gug;GfSf;F
,ilNaAs;;s Nfhzj;ij mstpl gad;gLfpwJ.
52. What is vial?
Vial vd;gJ spirit levelf;Fs; cs;s kpf Jy;ypkhd msT
nfhz;l %ba fz;zhb Foha; MFk;. ,jDs; jputk;
epug;gg; gl;bUf;Fk;.

Q&A.46
53. What is the principle involved in autocollimator?
 gpujpgypf;Fk; jsj;ij 𝜃°vd;w rpwpa Nfhz mstpw;F
jpUg;gp mikf;Fk;NghJ> gpujpgypf;fg;gLk; xspf;
fjph;fs; xsp mr;Rf;F 2𝜃° Nfhz msT rha;thf
jpUg;gp mDg;gg; gLfpwJ.
 ,e;j xspf;fjph;fs;> Ftp jsj;jpd; kPJ njhlf;fg;
Gs;spapy; ,Ue;J 𝑥 = 2𝜃𝑓 J}uj;jpy; cs;s xU
Gs;spapy; Ftpf;fg; gLfpwJ. ,q;F 𝑓 vd;gJ nyd;rpd;
Ftpaj; J}uk; MFk;.
54. How angles are measured in angle dekkor?
,e;j fUtpapy;> angle gauges Nghd;w tiuaWf;fg;gl;l
juj;jpidf; nfhz;L mse;jwpag;gLk; Nfhz
kjpg;igAk;> workpiecef; nfhz;L mse;jwpag;gLk;
Nfhz kjpg;igAk; xg;gpl;Lg; ghh;j;J work pieced;
Nfhz msT fz;lwpag; gLfpwJ. vdNt ,J xU
comparatorIg; Nghd;W nray;gLk;.



Q&A.47
 3 2 0 3 2 M AN U FA CT U R ING PR O CE S SE S
MODEL QUESTION PAPER
Time: 3 Hrs Max Marks : 75
[N.B: (1) Answer any five questions in each PART – A and PART – B
Q.No.8 in PART – A and 16 in PART – B are compulsory.
(2) Answer division (a) or division (b) of each question in PART – C.
(3) Each question carries 2 marks in PART – A, 3 marks in PART – B
and 10 marks in PART – C.]

PART - A
1. State any four types of pattern.
2. List out the various shearing operations in press working.
3. What is infiltration?
4. Give the composition of 18-4-1 HSS and Stellite.
5. What is eccentric turning?
6. What are the methods of holding drill bit?
7. Define precision and accuracy.
8. Name the two basic types of electrodes.

PART - B
9. What are the essential qualities of core?
10. State the three types of flames in gas welding and list out its uses.
11. Write down the differences between hot working and cold working.
12. Define : i) Blanking ii) Piercing
13. List out the principal parts of centre lathe.
14. List out the difference between turret and capstan lathe.
15. What are the principal movements in universal drilling machine?
16. What are the advantages and disadvantages of electrical
comparator?
PART – C
17.(a) (i) What are the properties of good moulding sand?
(ii) Explain with a neat sketch CO2 process of core making.
(Or)
(b) Describe the step by step procedure of making green sand
mould with a neat sketch.
QP.1
18.(a) (i) State the differences between gas welding and arc welding
process.
(ii) Describe briefly X-ray test of welded joint.
(Or)
(b) (i) Explain the working of atomic hydrogen welding with a neat
sketch.
(ii) Explain the laser beam welding process with a neat sketch.

19.(a) (i) Explain : a) Upset forging b) Swaging

(ii) Enumerate the advantages and disadvantages of powder
metallurgy.
(Or)
(b) (i) With a neat sketch explain any two bending operations in
press working.
(ii) Explain the atomisation process of metal powder
manufacture with a neat sketch.

20.(a) With a neat sketch, explain the nomenclature of a single

point cutting tool.
(Or)
(b) (i) List out the work holding devices used in lathe and explain
any one device with a neat sketch.
(ii) Explain the turret indexing mechanism with a neat sketch.

21.(a) (i) Explain : a) Counter sinking b) Spot facing

(ii) Explain three wire method of measuring pitch diameter of a
screw thread.
(Or)
(b) (i) Explain the working principle of pneumatic comparator with a
neat sketch.
(ii) Explain the method of measuring angle using angle dekkor.

QP.2
 BOARD EXAMINATION QUESTION PAPER
OCTOBER – 2016
Time: 3 Hrs Max Marks : 75
[N.B: (1) Answer any five questions in each PART – A and PART – B
Q.No.8 in PART – A and 16 in PART – B are compulsory.
(2) Answer division (a) or division (b) of each question in PART – C.
(3) Each question carries 2 marks in PART – A, 3 marks in PART – B
and 10 marks in PART – C.]

PART - A
1. Define pattern.
2. What is the use of core?
3. Name the two basic types of electrode.
4. Name any two non-destructive tests used in welding inspection.
5. Name the straight shank drill bit holding devices.
6. Name any two methods of metal powder manufacturing.
7. What is the use of mandrel in lathes?
8. What is cold working?

PART – B

9. Explain the draft allowance.

10. Explain the balanced core with a sketch.
11. State any three functions of flux coating on a metal electrode.
12. Describe the function of a pressure regulator fixed on a gas
cylinder.
13. State any three advantages of cold working.
14. What is infiltration in powder metallurgy?
15. Compare the steady rest with follower rest.
16. Define the term precision and accuracy.
17. What are the advantages and disadvantages of electrical
comparator?

QP.3
 PART – C

17.(a) With sketches explain the green sand moulding process.

(Or)
(b) Sketch and explain any three defects in castings.

18.(a) Sketch and explain any two types of resistance welding.

(Or)
(b) Sketch and explain the three types of gas flames.

19.(a) Explain any three press working operations with sketches.

(Or)
(b) Explain the various steps involved in powder metallurgy
process.

20.(a) Sketch and explain the three types of chip breakers.

(Or)
(b) Sketch and explain the Geneva indexing mechanism.

21.(a) Explain any three drilling machine operations with sketches.

(Or)
(b) What is comparator? Sketch and explain the pneumatic
comparator.

QP.4