LT Electromec Hydraulic Circuits

Hydraulic & Pneumatic circuits
Prepared by Dr. Mussaui Hussein 1

HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
I. HYDRAULIC CIRCUIT
Chapter Description Page

I Hydraulic & Pneumatics Basics 3
II Hydraulic Systems 5
III Hydraulic Pumps 8
IV Accumulators 20
V Actuators 25
VI Directional Control Valve 38
VII Pressure Valves 44
VIII Flow Control Valves 48

Chapter I
Hydraulic & Pneumatics Basics
1. Introduction:
Hydraulics is the science of transmitting force and/or motion through the medium of a confined
liquid. In a hydraulic device, power is transmitted by pushing on a confined liquid.
This chapter covers the properties of liquids and how they act under different conditions.
1.1 Quantities, symbols, units
Quantity Symbol SI unit Dimension Conversion Relation

Length L Meter M 1 m = 100 cm = 1000mm
Distance s, d
Area A, S Meter square m2 1 m2= 103cm2=105 mm2 A = l .l
Volume V Meter cubed m3 1 m3= 10 dm3 V = A .h
Time T Second S 1 s = 1/60 min
Velocity V Meter per second m/s v = s/t
Acceleration A Meter per second m/s2 Acceleration due to gravity a = s/t2
squared (9.81 m/s2)
Flow Q, qv Meter cubic per m3/s Liter per minute Q=V/t
second 1 m3/s = 60000 l/min Q = v .A
Speed N Revolution per 1/s 1/s = 60 /min n = 1/ t
second 1/min (rpm)
Revolution per
minute
Mass M Kilogram Kg 1 kg = 1000 g m = V.𝜌
Density 𝜌 Kilogram per kg/m3 𝜌=m/V
meter cubic
Force F Newton N 1 N = kg.m/s2 F=m.a
FG = m . g
Pressure P Newton per meter N/m2 1 N/m2 = 1 Pa = 10-5 bar p = F/A
square
Pascal Pa
Work W Joule J 1 J = Ws = 1 Nm
Power P Watt W 1W = 1 J/s = 1 Nm/s P = Q .p
0
Temperature T, 𝜃 Kelvin K C = 273 K
Temperature
0
in Celsius t, 𝜗 Celsius C
1.2 Pressure
Pressure is force exerted against a specific area (force per unit area) expressed in bar, Pa, or kg/cm2.
Pressure can cause an expansion, or resistance to compression, of a fluid that is being squeezed. A fluid is
any liquid or gas (vapor).
𝐹
𝑝=
𝑆
p – Pressure; in Pa, bar
F – Force; in N, Kg, daN
S – Area; in m2, cm2
1.3 Force.
According to Newton laws:

F = ma
If the general acceleration a is replaced by the acceleration due to gravity g the following is obtained:
F = mg
The relationship of force, pressure, and area is as follows:
F = PS

Flow is the movement of a hydraulic fluid caused by a difference in the pressure at two points. In a
hydraulic system, flow is usually produced by the action of a hydraulic pump. The two ways of measuring
flow are velocity and flow rate.
a. Velocity : Velocity is the average speed at which a fluid's particles move past a given point,
measured in meter per second (m/s). Velocity is an important consideration in sizing the hydraulic
lines that carry a fluid between the components.
b. Flow Rate: Flow rate is the measure of how much volume of a liquid passes a point in a given time,
measured liter per minute (l/min). Flow rate determines the speed at which a load moves and,
therefore, is important when considering power.
Q = V/t
Liquid volume V is itself given by area S by time length d
V = S.d
⇒ Q = S.d/t
⟹Q = v.S
1.4 Energy, Work, and Power.
Energy is the ability to do work. The three forms of energy are potential, kinetic, and heat. Work
measures accomplishments; it requires motion to make a force do work. Power is the rate of doing work or
the rate of energy transfer.
a. Potential Energy: Potential energy is energy due to position. An object has potential energy in
proportion to its vertical distance above the earth's surface.
Ep = mgh
b. Kinetic Energy: Kinetic energy is the energy a body possesses because of its motion. The greater
the speed, the greater the kinetic energy. When water is released from a dam, it rushes out at a high
velocity jet, representing energy of motion—kinetic energy. The amount of kinetic energy in a
moving liquid is directly proportional to the square of its velocity. Pressure caused by kinetic
energy may be called velocity pressure.
Ek = 1/2 mv2
c. Heat Energy and Friction. Heat energy is the energy a body possesses because of its heat. Kinetic
energy and heat energy are dynamic factors. Pascal's Law dealt with static pressure and did not
include the friction factor. Friction is the resistance to relative motion between two bodies. When
liquid flows in a hydraulic circuit, friction produces heat. This causes some of the kinetic energy to
be lost in the form of heat energy.
Although friction cannot be eliminated entirely, it can be controlled to some extent. The three main
causes of excessive friction in hydraulic systems are:
 Extremely long lines.
 Numerous bends and fittings or improper bends.
 Excessive velocity from using undersized lines.
d. Work: To do work in a hydraulic system, flow must be present. Work, therefore, exerts a force
over a definite distance. It is a measure of force multiplied by distance.
W = F.d
W – Work in Joule (J)
F – Force in N, Kg, daN
d – Distance; in m, cm, mm
e. Power: The standard unit of power is Watt (W).Use the following equation to find power:
P = F. d/t

Chapter II
Hydraulic systems
2.1 Introduction:
A hydraulic system contains and confines a liquid in such a way that it uses the laws governing
liquids to transmit power and do work.
2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of hydraulic circuits:
 The advantages of hydraulic systems over other methods of power transmission are:
- Large load capacity with almost high accuracy and precision.
- Smooth movement.
- Automatic lubricating provision to reduce to wear.
- Division and distribution of hydraulic force are easily performed.
- Limiting and balancing of hydraulic forces are easily performed
 The disadvantage of a hydraulic system are:

- A hydraulic element needs to be machined to a high degree of precision.
- Leakage of hydraulic oil poses a problem to hydraulic operators.
- Special treatment is needed to protect them from rust, corrosion, dirt etc.,
- Hydraulic oil may pose problems if it disintegrates due to aging and chemical deterioration.
- Hydraulic oils are messy and almost highly flammable.
2.3 Components of hydraulic circuit:
The hydraulic systems consists a number of parts for its proper functioning. These include storage
tank, filter, hydraulic pump, pressure regulator, control valve, hydraulic cylinder, piston and leak proof
fluid flow pipelines. The schematic of a simple hydraulic system is shown in figure 2.1. It consists of:
Figure 2.1
①Hydraulic pump; ②Reservoir; ③Check valve; ④Pressure relief valve; ⑤Hydraulic cylinder;⑥
Directional control valve
2.4 Applications of hydraulic systems
The hydraulic systems are mainly used for precise control of larger forces. The main applications of
hydraulic system can be classified in five categories:
- Industrial: Plastic processing machineries, steel making and primary metal extraction
applications, automated production lines, machine tool industries, paper industries, loaders,
crushes, textile machineries, R & D equipment and robotic systems etc.

- Mobile hydraulics: Tractors, irrigation system, earthmoving equipment, material handling
equipment, commercial vehicles, tunnel boring equipment, rail equipment, building and
construction machineries and drilling rigs etc.
- Automobiles: It is used in the systems like breaks, shock absorbers, steering system, wind
shield, lift and cleaning etc.
- Marine applications: It mostly covers ocean going vessels, fishing boats and navel equipment.
- Aerospace equipment: There are equipment and systems used for rudder control, landing gear,
breaks, flight control and transmission etc. which are used in airplanes, rockets and spaceships.
2.5 Basic hydraulic systems
Regardless of its function and design, every hydraulic system has a minimum number of basic
components in addition to a means through which the fluid is transmitted. A basic system consists of a
pump, reservoir, directional valve, check valve, pressure relieve valve, selector valve, actuator, and filter.
(Figure 2.2)
Figure 2.2
2.5.1 Open Center Hydraulic Systems
An open center system is one having fluid flow, but no pressure in the system when the actuating
mechanisms are idle. The pump circulates the fluid from the reservoir, through the selector valves, and
back to the reservoir. (Figure 2.3)
The open center system may employ any number of subsystems, with a selector valve for each
subsystem. Unlike the closed center system, the selector valves of the open center system are always
connected in series with each other. In this arrangement, the system pressure line goes through each
selector valve. Fluid is always allowed free passage through each selector valve and back to the reservoir
until one of the selector valves is positioned to operate a mechanism.
When one of the selector valves is positioned to operate an actuating device, fluid is directed from
the pump through one of the working lines to the actuator. Figure2.3B. With the selector valve in this
position, the flow of fluid through the valve to the reservoir is blocked. The pressure builds up in the
system to overcome the resistance and moves the piston of the actuating cylinder; fluid from the opposite
end of the actuator returns to the selector valve and flows back to the reservoir. Operation of the system
following actuation of the component depends on the type of selector valve being used. Several types of
selector valves are used in conjunction with the open center system. One type is both manually engaged
and manually disengaged. First, the valve is manually moved to an operating position. Then, the actuating
mechanism reaches the end of its operating cycle, and the pump output continues until the system relief
valve relieves the pressure. The relief valve unseats and allows the fluid to flow back to the reservoir. The
system pressure remains at the relief valve set pressure until the selector valve is manually returned to the
neutral position. This action reopens the open center flow and allows the system pressure to drop to line
resistance pressure.
The manually engaged and pressure disengaged type of selector valve is similar to the valve
previously discussed. When the actuating mechanism reaches the end of its cycle, the pressure continues to

rise to a predetermined pressure. The valve automatically returns to the neutral position and to open center
flow.
Figure 2.3 Open center hydraulic systems
2.5.2 Closed-Center Hydraulic Systems
In the closed-center system, the fluid is under pressure whenever the power pump is operating.
The three actuators are arranged in parallel and actuating units B and C are operating at the same time,
while actuating unit A is not operating. This system differs from the open-center system in that the selector
or directional control valves are arranged in parallel and not in series. The means of controlling pump
pressure varies in the closed-center system. If a constant delivery pump is used, the system pressure is
regulated by a pressure regulator. A relief valve acts as a backup safety device in case the regulator fails.
If a variable displacement pump is used, system pressure is controlled by the pump’s integral
pressure mechanism compensator. The compensator automatically varies the volume output. When
pressure approaches normal system pressure, the compensator begins to reduce the flow output of the
pump. The pump is fully compensated (near zero flow) when normal system pressure is attained. When
the pump is in this fully compensated condition, its internal bypass mechanism provides fluid circulation
through the pump for cooling and lubrication. A relief valve is installed in the system as a safety backup.
(Figure 2-4) An advantage of the open-center system over the closed-center system is that the
continuous pressurization of the system is eliminated. Since the pressure is built up gradually after the
selector valve is moved to an operating position, there is very little shock from pressure surges. This action
provides a smoother operation of the actuating mechanisms. The operation is slower than the closed-
center system, in which the pressure is available the moment the selector valve is positioned. Since most
aircraft applications require instantaneous operation, closed-center systems are the most widely used.
Figure 2.4 Basic closed-center hydraulic systems.

Chapter III
Hydraulic pumps
3.1 Introduction
Hydraulic pumps convert mechanical energy, such as the rotations of motors or engines, to fluid
energy.
3.2 Classifications of Pumps.
All pumps create flow. They operate on the displacement principle. Fluid is taken in and displaced to
another point. Pumps that discharge liquid in a continuous flow are non-positive displacement type. Pumps
that discharge volumes of liquid separated by periods of no discharge are positive-displacement type
(figure 3.1).
PUMPS
POSITIVE NON POSITIVE

DISPLACEMENT PUMP DISPLACEMENT PUMP
GEARS VANE PISTON CENTRIFUGAL PROPELLER
EXTERNAL AXIAL
INTERNAL RADIAL
LOBE
GEROTOR
Figure 3.1
A. Non-positive displacement pumps.
With this pump, the volume of liquid delivered for each cycle depends on the resistance offered to
flow. A pump produces a force on the liquid that is constant for each particular speed of the pump.
Resistance in a discharge line produces a force in the opposite direction. When these forces are equal, a
liquid is in a state of equilibrium and does not flow.
If the outlet of a non-positive displacement pump is completely closed, the discharge pressure will
rise to the maximum for a pump operating at a maximum speed. A pump will churn a liquid and produce
heat.
The important advantages of non-positive displacement pumps are lower initial cost, less operating
maintenance because of less moving parts, simplicity of operation, higher reliability and suitability with
wide range of fluid etc. These pumps are primarily used for transporting fluids and find little use in the
hydraulic or fluid power industries. Centrifugal pump is the common example of non-positive displacement
pumps.
B. Positive-Displacement Pumps.
With this pump, a definite volume of liquid is delivered for each cycle of pump operation, regardless
of resistance, as long as the capacity of the power unit driving a pump is not exceeded. If an outlet is
completely closed, either the unit driving a pump will stall or something will break. Therefore, a positive-
displacement-type pump requires a pressure regulator or pressure-relief valve in the system.
The important advantage associated with these pumps is that the high-pressure and low-pressure
areas (means input and output region) are separated and hence the fluid cannot leak back due to higher
pressure at the outlets. These features make the positive displacement pump most suited and universally
accepted for hydraulic systems. The important advantages of positive displacement pumps over non-
positive displacement pumps include capability to generate high pressures, high volumetric efficiency, high
power to weight ratio, change in efficiency throughout the pressure range is small and wider operating
range pressure and speed.

C. Characteristics.
The three contrasting characteristics in the operation of positive- and nonpositive-displacement

pumps are as follows:
- Nonpositive-displacement pumps provide a smooth, continuous flow; positive-displacement pumps
have a pulse with each stroke or each time a pumping chamber opens to an outlet port.
- Pressure can reduce a nonpositive pump’s delivery. High outlet pressure can stop any output; the
liquid simply recirculates inside the pump. In a positive displacement pump, pressure affects the
output only to the extent that it increases internal leakage.
- Nonpositive-displacement pumps, with the inlets and outlets connected hydraulically, cannot create
a vacuum sufficient for self-priming; they must be started with the inlet line full of liquid and free
of air. Positive-displacement pumps often are self-priming when started properly.
3.3 Displacement.
Displacement is the amount of liquid transferred from a pump’s inlet to its outlet in one revolution or
cycle. In a rotary pump, displacement is expressed in cubic meter per revolution and in a reciprocating
pump in cubic meter per cycle. If a pump has more than one pumping chamber, its displacement is equal to
the displacement of one chamber multiplied by the number of chambers. Displacement is either fixed or
variable.
a. Fixed-Displacement Pump. In this pump, the L/min output can be changed only by varying the
drive speed. The pump can be used in an open-center system—a pump’s output has a free-flow
path back to a reservoir in the neutral condition of a circuit.
b. Variable-Displacement Pump. In this pump, pumping-chamber sizes can be changed. The L/min
delivery can be changed by moving the displacement control, changing the drive speed, or doing
both. The pump can be used in a closed-center system—a pump continues to operate against a load
in the neutral condition.
3.4 Positive displacement pump
They are two types of positive displacement pumps figure 3.2

- Fixed displacement
- Variable displacement
Positive Displacement Pumps
Fixed Displacemnt Variable Displacecemt
Balanced
Gears PISTON Vane Piston
Vane
Axial Direct Radial

External Operated Piston
Radial Pilot
Internal Bent Axis
Operated
Bent Axial Axial

Piston
Figure 3.2
3.4.1 Gear Pumps:
Gear pump is a robust and simple positive displacement pump. It has two meshed gears revolving
about their respective axes. These gears are the only moving parts in the pump. They are compact,
relatively inexpensive and have few moving parts. The rigid design of the gears and houses allow for very
high pressures and the ability to pump highly viscous fluids. They are suitable for a wide range of fluids
and offer self-priming performance. Sometimes gear pumps are designed to function as either a motor or a
pump. These pump includes helical and herringbone gear sets (instead of spur gears), lobe shaped rotors
similar to Roots blowers (commonly used as superchargers), and mechanical designs that allow the
stacking of pumps. Based upon the design, the gear pumps are classified as:
 External gear pumps
 Internal gear pumps
 Lobe pumps
 Gerotor pumps
3.4.1.1 External gear pumps
External gear pumps are a popular pumping principle and are often used as lubrication pumps in
machine tools, in fluid power transfer units, and as oil pumps in engines.
External gear pumps can come in single or double (two sets of gears) pump configurations with spur,
helical, and herringbone gears. Helical and herringbone gears typically offer a smoother flow than spur
gears, although all gear types are relatively smooth. External gear pumps have close tolerances and shaft
support on both sides of the gears. (Figure 3.3)
Figure 3.3 External gear
External gear pumps are similar in pumping action to internal gear pumps in that two gears come
into and out of mesh to produce flow. However, the external gear pump uses two identical gears rotating
against each other -- one gear is driven by a motor and it in turn drives the other gear. Each gear is
supported by a shaft with bearings on both sides of the gear.
Operation of external gear pumps:
- As the gears come out of mesh, they create expanding volume on the inlet side of the pump. Liquid
flows into the cavity and is trapped by the gear teeth as they rotate. (figure 3.4)
- Liquid travels around the interior of the casing in the pockets between the teeth and the casing it
does not pass between the gears.
- Finally, the meshing of the gears forces liquid through the outlet port under pressure.
Figure 3.4 Operation of external gear pump
Because the gears are supported on both sides, external gear pumps are quiet-running and are
routinely used for high-pressure applications such as hydraulic applications. With no overhung bearing
loads, the rotor shaft can't deflect and cause premature wear.
Advantages Disadvantages
 High speed  Four bushings in liquid area
 High pressure  No solids allowed
 No overhung bearing loads  Fixed End Clearances
 Relatively quiet operation
 Design accommodates wide variety of
materials
Applications
Common external gear pump applications include, but are not limited to:

 Various fuel oils and lube oils
 Chemical additive and polymer metering
 Chemical mixing and blending (double pump)
 Industrial and mobile hydraulic applications (log splitters, lifts, etc.)
 Acids and caustic (stainless steel or composite construction)
 Low volume transfer or application
3.4.1.2 Internal Gear Pumps (figure 3.5)
Internal gear pumps are exceptionally versatile. While they are often used on thin liquids such as
solvents and fuel oil, they excel at efficiently pumping thick liquids such as asphalt, chocolate, and
adhesives.
Figure 3.5 Internal gear pump
The internal gear pump is non-pulsing, self-priming, and can run dry for short periods. They're also
bi-rotational, meaning that the same pump can be used to load and unload vessels. Because internal gear
pumps have only two moving parts, they are reliable, simple to operate, and easy to maintain.
Operation of internal gear pumps (figure 3.6):
- Liquid enters the suction port between the rotor (large exterior gear) and idler (small interior gear)
teeth. The arrows indicate the direction of the pump and liquid.
- Liquid travels through the pump between the teeth of the "gear-within-a-gear" principle. The
crescent shape divides the liquid and acts as a seal between the suction and discharge ports.
- The pump head is now nearly flooded, just prior to forcing the liquid out of the discharge port.
Intermeshing gears of the idler and rotor form locked pockets for the liquid which assures volume
control.
- Rotor and idler teeth mesh completely to form a seal equidistant from the discharge and suction
ports. This seal forces the liquid out of the discharge port.
Figure 3.6 Operation of internal gear pump

 Only two moving parts  Usually requires moderate speeds
 Only one stuffing box  Medium pressure limitations
 Non-pulsating discharge  One bearing runs in the product pumped
 Excellent for high-viscosity liquids  Overhung load on shaft bearing
 Constant and even discharge regardless of
pressure conditions
 Operates well in either direction
 Can be made to operate with one
direction of flow with either rotation
 Low NPSH required
 Single adjustable end clearance

 Easy to maintain
 Flexible design offers application
customization
Applications
Common internal gear pump applications include, but are not limited to:
 All varieties of fuel oil and lube oil
 Resins and Polymers
 Alcohols and solvents
 Asphalt, Bitumen, and Tar
 Polyurethane foam (Isocyanate and polyol)
 Food products such as corn syrup, chocolate, and peanut butter
 Paint, inks, and pigments
 Soaps and surfactants
 Glycol
3.4.1.3 Lobe Pumps (figure 3.7)
Lobe pumps are used in a variety of industries including, pulp and paper, chemical, food, beverage,
pharmaceutical, and biotechnology. They are popular in these diverse industries because they offer superb
sanitary qualities, high efficiency, reliability, corrosion resistance, and good clean-in-place and sterilize-in-
place (CIP/SIP) characteristics.
Figure 3.7 Lobe pump
These pumps offer a variety of lobe options including single, bi-wing, tri-lobe, and multi-lobe.
Rotary lobe pumps are non-contacting and have large pumping chambers, allowing them to handle solids
such as cherries or olives without damage. They are also used to handle slurries, pastes, and a wide variety
of other liquids. If wetted, they offer self-priming performance. A gentle pumping action minimizes
product degradation. They also offer reversible flows and can operate dry for long periods of time.
Flow is relatively independent of changes in process pressure, so output is constant and continuous.
Operation of lobe pumps (figure 3.8):
Lobe pumps are similar to external gear pumps in operation in that fluid flows around the interior of
the casing. Unlike external gear pumps, however, the lobes do not make contact. Lobe contact is
prevented by external timing gears located in the gearbox. Pump shaft support bearings are located in the
gearbox, and since the bearings are out of the pumped liquid, pressure is limited by bearing location and
shaft deflection.
Figure 3.8 Lobe pump

- As the lobes come out of mesh, they create expanding volume on the inlet side of the pump.
Liquid flows into the cavity and is trapped by the lobes as they rotate.
- Liquid travels around the interior of the casing in the pockets between the lobes and the casing -- it
does not pass between the lobes.
- Finally, the meshing of the lobes forces liquid through the outlet port under pressure.
Lobe pumps are frequently used in food applications because they handle solids without damaging
the product. Particle size pumped can be much larger in lobe pumps than in other PD types. Since the
lobes do not make contact, and clearances are not as close as in other PD pumps, this design handles low
viscosity liquids with diminished performance. Loading characteristics are not as good as other designs,
and suction ability is low. High-viscosity liquids require reduced speeds to achieve satisfactory
performance. Reductions of 25% of rated speed and lower are common with high-viscosity liquids.
 Pass medium solids  Requires timing gears
 No metal-to-metal contact  Requires two seals
 Superior CIP/SIP capabilities  Reduced lift with thin liquids
 Long term dry run (with lubrication to
seals)
 Non-pulsating discharge
Applications
Common rotary lobe pump applications include, but are not limited to:
 Polymers
 Paper coatings
 Soaps and surfactants
 Paints and dyes
 Rubber and adhesives
 Pharmaceuticals
 Food applications (a sample of these is referenced below)
3.4.1.4 Gerotor Pumps (figure 3.9)
Gerotor pumps are internal gear pumps without the crescent. The rotor is the internal (drive) gear
shown below in gray, and the idler is the external (driven) gear, shown below in orange. They are primarily
suitable for clean, low pressure applications such as lubrication systems or hot oil filtration systems, but
can also be found in low to moderate pressure hydraulic applications.
Figure 3.9 Gerotor pump
Operation of gerotor pumps
- Liquid enters the suction port between the rotor (green gear) and idler (orange gear) teeth.
- Liquid travels through the pump between the teeth of the "gear-within-a-gear" principle. The close
tolerance between the gears acts as a seal between the suction and discharge ports.
- Rotor and idler teeth mesh completely to form a seal equidistant from the discharge and suction
ports. This seal forces the liquid out of the discharge port

 High Speed  Medium pressure limitations
 Only two moving parts  Fixed clearances
 Only one stuffing box  No solids allowed
 Constant and even discharge regardless  One bearing runs in the product pumped
of pressure conditions  Overhung load on shaft bearing
 Operates well in either direction
 Quiet operation
 Can be made to operate with one
direction of flow with either rotation
Applications
Common gerotor pump applications include, but are not limited to:
 Light fuel oils
 Lube oil
 Cooking oils
 Hydraulic fluid
3.4.2. Vane pumps
All vane pumps move oil using a rotating slotted rotor with vanes fitted into the slots.
Two types of vane pumps are most often used:
- Balanced Vane Pumps
- Unbalanced Vane Pumps
The balanced vane pump is strictly a fixed displacement type. The unbalanced vane can have a fixed
or a variable displacement.
3.4.2.1 Balanced vane pump (Figure 3.7.1)
In the balanced vane pump, the rotor is driven by the drive shaft and turns inside an oval rotor ring.
The vanes are fitted into the rotor slots and are free to move in or out.
The “balanced” part of this pump is shown by the position of the oil ports. The pump has two inlet ports,
located opposite each other. And it has two outlet ports, also on opposite sides of the pump. Both sets are
connected to a central inlet and outlet
Operation of balanced vane pumps:
As the rotor turns, the vanes are thrown out against the inside surface of the ring by centrifugal force.
As the vanes follow the contour of the oval-shaped ring, they divide the crescent-shaped areas between the
rotor and the ring into two separate chambers. These chambers are continually expanding and shrinking in
size-twice during each revolution. The inlet ports are located where each chamber begins to expand: the
outlet ports are located where each chamber begins to shrink.
As the chamber begins to expand, inlet oil rushes in to fill the partial vacuum. This oil is carried
around by the vanes. As the oil chamber begins to reduce, the confined oil is forced out at the outlet port.
In the second half of the revolution, this action is repeated at the second set of inlet and outlet ports.
Figure 3.7.1 balanced vane pump

3.4.2.2 Unbalanced vane pump (Figure 3.7.2)
The unbalanced vane pump uses the same basic principle of a turning rotor with vanes working
inside a fixed rotor ring.
Figure 3.7.2 Unbalanced vane pump
Operation of unbalanced vane pumps:

TRANSMISSIONS AND DRIVETRAIN
The operating cycle only happens once each revolution. So this pump has only one inlet and one
outlet port. Also, the slotted rotor is now set offside in a circular ring.
In operation, the oil chamber starts to expand at the inlet port, and finishes its contracting at the
outlet port.
Oil is drawn in by the partial vacuum, and forced out by the shrinking of the chamber, the same as in
the balanced vane pump.
Balanced vane pumps cannot operate as variable displacement pumps.
Unbalanced pumps can be used as a variable displacement pump. TRANSMISSIONS AND
DRIVETRAIN
HYDRAULICSAdvantages Disadvantages
 Handles thin liquids at relatively higher  Can have two stuffing boxes
pressures  Complex housing and many parts
 Compensates for wear through vane  Not suitable for high pressures
extension  Not suitable for high viscosity
 Sometimes preferred for solvents, LPG  Not good with abrasives
 Can run dry for short periods
 Can have one seal or stuffing box
 Develops good vacuum
Applications
 Aerosol and Propellants
 Aviation Service - Fuel Transfer, Deicing
 Auto Industry - Fuels, Lubes, Refrigeration Coolants
 Bulk Transfer of LPG and NH3
 LPG Cylinder Filling
 Alcohols
 Refrigeration - Freon, Ammonia
 Solvents
 Aqueous solutions
3.4.3 Piston pumps
Piston pumps are meant for the high-pressure applications. These pumps have high-efficiency and
simple design and needs lower maintenance. These pumps convert the rotary motion of the input shaft to
the reciprocating motion of the piston. These pumps work similar to the four stroke engines. They work on
the principle that a reciprocating piston draws fluid inside the cylinder when the piston retracts in a cylinder
bore and discharge the fluid when it extends. Generally, these pumps have fixed inclined plate or variable
degree of angle plate known as swash plate (shown in Figure 3.8 and Figure 3.9). When the piston barrel

assembly rotates, the swash plate in contact with the piston slippers slides along its surface. The stroke
length (axial displacement) depends on the inclination angle of the swash plate. When the swash plate is
vertical, the reciprocating motion does not occur and hence pumping of the fluid does not take place. As the
swash plate angle increases, the piston reciprocates inside the cylinder barrel. The stroke length increases
with increase in the swash plate angle and therefore volume of pumping fluid increases. During one half of
the rotation cycle, the pistons move out of the cylinder barrel and the volume of the barrel increases.
During another half of the rotation, the pistons move into the cylinder barrel and the barrel volume
decreases. This phenomenon is responsible for drawing the fluid in and pumping it out. These pumps are
positive displacement pump and can be used for both liquids and gases. Piston pumps are basically of two
types:
- Axial piston pumps
- Radial piston pumps
3.4.3.1 Axial Piston Pump
Axial piston pumps are positive displacement pumps which converts rotary motion of the input shaft
into an axial reciprocating motion of the pistons. These pumps have a number of pistons (usually an odd
number) in a circular array within a housing which is commonly referred to as a cylinder block, rotor or
barrel. These pumps are used in jet aircraft. They are also used in small earthmoving plants such as skid
loader machines. Another use is to drive the screws of torpedoes. In general, these systems have a
maximum operating temperature of about 120 °C. Therefore, the leakage between cylinder housing and
body block is used for cooling and lubrication of the rotating parts. This cylinder block rotates by an
integral shaft aligned with the pistons. These pumps have sub-types as:
a. Bent axis piston pumps
b. Swash plate axial piston pump
3.4.3.1 A. Bent-Axis Piston Pumps
Figure 3.8
Figure 3.8 shows the construction of bent axis piston pump
N0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Name Framework Front Spindle Chuck Plunger Center Rotor Flow Spring
Oil seal cover assembly pole distributor
Figure 3.9 shows the schematic of bent axis piston pump. In these pumps, the reciprocating action of
the pistons is obtained by bending the axis of the cylinder block. The cylinder block rotates at an angle
which is inclined to the drive shaft. The cylinder block is turned by the drive shaft through a universal link.
The cylinder block is set at an offset angle with the drive shaft. The cylinder block contains a number of
pistons along its periphery. These piston rods are connected with the drive shaft flange by ball-and-socket
joints. These pistons are forced in and out of their bores as the distance between the drive shaft flange and
the cylinder block changes. A universal link connects the block to the drive shaft, to provide alignment and
a positive drive.

Figure 3.9 Bent axis piston pumps
The volumetric displacement (discharge) of the pump is controlled by changing the offset angle. It
makes the system simple and inexpensive. The discharge does not occur when the cylinder block is parallel
to the drive shaft. The offset angle can vary from 0° to 40°. The fixed displacement units are usually
provided with 23° or 30° offset angles while the variable displacement units are provided with a yoke and
an external control mechanism to change the offset angle. Some designs have arrangement of moving the
yoke over the center position to reverse the fluid flow direction. The flow rate of the pump varies with the
offset angle . There is no flow when the cylinder block centerline is parallel to the drive shaft centerline
(offset angle is 0°). The total fluid flow per stroke can be given as:
Vd = nADtan𝜃
The flow rate of the pump can be given as:
Vd = nADNtan𝜃
Here
tanθ = S/D
Where, S is the piston stroke, D is piston diameter, n is the number of pistons, N is the speed of pump and A
is the area of piston.
3.4.3.1 B. Swash Plate Axial Piston Pump
Figure 3.10 shows the construction of swash plate axial piston pump
A swash plate is a device that translates the rotary motion of a shaft into the reciprocating motion. It
consists of a disk attached to a shaft as shown in Figure 3.11 If the disk is aligned perpendicular to the
shaft; the disk will turn along with the rotating shaft without any reciprocating effect. Similarly, the edge of
the inclined shaft will appear to oscillate along the shaft's length. This apparent linear motion increases
with increase in the angle between disk and the shaft (offset angle). The apparent linear motion can be
converted into an actual reciprocating motion by means of a follower that does not turn with the swash
plate.
Figure 3.10
Figure 3.11 Swash plate piston pump
In swash plate axial piston pump a series of pistons are aligned coaxially with a shaft through a
swash plate to pump a fluid. The schematic of swash plate piston pump is shown in Figure 3.11. The axial
reciprocating motion of pistons is obtained by a swash plate that is either fixed or has variable degree of
angle. As the piston barrel assembly rotates, the piston rotates around the shaft with the piston shoes in
contact with the swash plate. The piston shoes follow the angled surface of the swash plate and the
rotational motion of the shaft is converted into the reciprocating motion of the pistons. When the swash
plate is perpendicular to the shaft; the reciprocating motion to the piston does not occur. As the swash plate
angle increases, the piston follows the angle of the swash plate surface and hence it moves in and out of the
barrel. The piston moves out of the cylinder barrel during one half of the cycle of rotation thereby
generating an increasing volume, while during other half of the rotating cycle, the pistons move into the
cylinder barrel generating a decreasing volume. This reciprocating motion of the piston results in the
drawing in and pumping out of the fluid. Pump capacity can be controlled by varying the swash plate angle
with the help of a separate hydraulic cylinder. The pump capacity (discharge) increases with increase in the
swash plate angle and vice-versa. The cylinder block and the drive shaft in this pump are located on the
same centerline. The pistons are connected through shoes and a shoe plate that bears against the swash
plate. These pumps can be designed to have a variable displacement capability. It can be done by mounting
the swash plate in a movable yoke. The swash plate angle can be changed by pivoting the yoke on pint less.
3.4.3.2 Radial Piston Pump
The typical construction of radial piston pump is shown in figure 3.12. The piston pump has pistons
aligned radially in a cylindrical block. It consists of a pintle, a cylinder barrel with pistons and a rotor
containing a reaction ring. The pintle directs the fluid in and out of the cylinder. Pistons are placed in radial
bores around the rotor. The piston shoes ride on an eccentric ring which causes them to reciprocate as they
rotate. The eccentricity determines the stroke of the pumping piston. Each piston is connected to inlet port
when it starts extending while it is connected to the outlet port when start retracting. This connection to the
inlet and outlet port is performed by the timed porting arrangement in the pintle. For initiating a pumping
action, the reaction ring is moved eccentrically with respect to the pintle or shaft axis. As the cylinder
barrel rotates, the pistons on one side travel outward. This draws the fluid in as the cylinder passes the
suction port of the pintle. It is continued till the maximum eccentricity is reached. When the piston passes
the maximum eccentricity, pintle is forced inwards by the reaction ring. This forces the fluid to flow out of
the cylinder and enter in the discharge (outlet) port of the pintle.
The radial piston pump works on high pressure. It is possible to use the pump with various hydraulic
fluids like mineral oil, biodegradable oil, HFA (oil in water), HFC (water-glycol), HFD (synthetic ester) or
cutting emulsion. This is because the parts are hydrostatically balanced. It makes the pump suitable for the
many applications such as machine tools (displace of cutting emulsion, supply for hydraulic equipment like
cylinders), high pressure units (overload protection of presses), test rigs, automotive sector (automatic
transmission, hydraulic suspension control in upper-class cars), plastic (powder injection molding) and
wind energy etc.

Figure 3.12 Radial piston pumps.
4. Comparison of the pumps

Chapter IV
Accumulators
4.1 Introduction:
Hydraulic accumulator stores potential power, in this case liquid under pressure for future
conversion into useful work.
Accumulators can be employed as fluid dispensers and fluid barriers and can provide a shock-
absorbing (cushioning) action.
An accumulator acts as a safety device to prevent a load from being dropped in case of an engine or
pump failure or fluid leak. On lifts and other equipment, accumulators absorb shock, which results from a
load starting, stopping, or reversal.
4.2 Basic Accumulator Terms
p0 = gas precharge pressure

V0 = effective gas volume of the accumulator (this an internal net volume)
T0 = temperature at precharging
p1 = minimum working pressure
V1 = gas volume at p1
T1 = minimum ambient temperature
p2 = maximum working pressure
V2 = gas volume at p2
T2 = maximum ambient temperature
p0 at T0 = gas precharge pressure at precharge ambient temperature
p0 atT1 = gas precharge pressure at minimum ambient temperature
p0 at T2 = gas precharge pressure at maximum ambient temperature
4.3 Different types of accumulators:
There are three basic types of accumulators

1. Weight loaded or gravity accumulators
2. Spring loaded accumulators
3. Gas loaded accumulators
4.3.1 Weight loaded accumulators
This type consists of a vertical, heavy- wall steel cylinder, which incorporates a piston with packing
to pressure leakage (figure 4.1). A dead weight is attached to the top of the piston. The force of gravity of
the dead weight provides the potential energy in the accumulator. This type of accumulator creates a
constant fluid pressure throughout the full volume output of the unit regardless of the rate and quantity of
output. The main disadvantage of this type of accumulator is extremely large size and heavy weight which
makes it unsuitable for mobile equipment.
Figure 4.1 Weight-loaded accumulators
.
4.3.2 Spring-Loaded Accumulator.
In a spring loaded accumulator (figure 4.2), pressure is applied to the fluid by a coil spring behind
the accumulator piston. The pressure is equal to the instantaneous spring force divided by the piston
area. The pressure therefore is not constant since the spring force increases as fluid enters the chamber
and decreases as it is discharged. Spring loaded accumulators can be mounted in any position. The
spring force, i.e., the pressure range is not easily adjusted, and where large quantities of fluid are spring
size has to be very large
Figure 4. Spring-loaded accumulators.
4.3.3 Gas-Loaded Accumulators
a) Bag-Type Accumulator (Bladder).
This accumulator (Figure 4.2) consists of a seamless high-pressure shell, cylindrical in shape; with
domed ends and a synthetic rubber bag that separates the liquid and gas (usually nitrogen) within the
accumulator. The bag is fully enclosed in the upper end of a shell. The gas system contains a high-pressure
gas valve. The bottom end of the shell is sealed with a special plug assembly containing a liquid port and a
safety feature that makes it impossible to disassemble the accumulator with pressure in the system. The bag
is larger at the top and tapers to a smaller diameter at the bottom. As the pump forces liquid into the
accumulator shell, the liquid presses against the bag, reduces its volume, and increases the pressure, which
is then available to do work.
Stage A Stage B Stage C Stage D Stage E Stage F
Figure 4.2 Bag-Type accumulators.

b) Piston-Type Accumulator.
This accumulator consists of a cylinder assembly, a piston assembly, and two end-cap assemblies.
The cylinder assembly houses a piston assembly and incorporates provisions for securing the end-cap
assemblies. An accumulator contains a free-floating piston with liquid on one side of the piston and
precharged air or nitrogen on the other side (Figure 4.3). An increase of liquid volume decreases the gas
volume and increases gas pressure, which provides a work potential when the liquid is allowed to discharge
Stage A Stage B Stage C Stage D Stage E Stage F
Figure 4.3 Piston-Type Accumulator.
c) Diaphragm-Type Accumulator.
In this type, the hydraulic fluid and nitrogen gas are separated by a synthetic rubber diaphragm. The
gas is filled through the gas port under predetermining pressure. The advantage of diaphragm accumulator
over piston accumulator is that they have no sliding surface that requires lubrication and can therefore be
used with fluids with poor lubricating qualities. They are less sensitive to contamination due to the lack of
any close fitting components (figure 4.4).
Figure 4.4 Diaphragm -Type Accumulator

4.4 Operating Conditions
- Stage A: The accumulator is empty and neither gas nor hydraulic sides are pressurized Po = P = 0
bar
- Stage B: The accumulator is pre-charged Po
- Stage C: The hydraulic system is pressurized. System pressure exceeds the precharge one and the
fluid flows into the accumulator Po→P1
- Stage D: System pressure peaks. The accumulator is filled with fluid according to its design
capacity. Any further increase in hydraulic pressure would be prevented by a relief valve fitted on
the system P1→P2
- Stage E: System pressure falls. Pre-charge pressure forces the fluid from the accumulator into the
system P2→P1
- Stage F: Minimum system pressure is reached. The accumulator has discharged its maximum
design volume of fluid back into the system min ∆P (P1min)
4.5 Precharge Recommendations

- For energy storage:
p0 = 0.9 x p1
p1 = minimum working pressure
- For shock absorption:

p0 = (0.6 to 0.9) x pm
pm = median working pressure at free flow
- For pulsation dampening:

p0 = (0.6 to 0.8) x pm
pm = median working pressure
4.6 Calculation formulas
Polytropic ∆𝑽
𝑽𝟎 = 𝟏/𝒏 𝟏/𝒏
𝒑𝟎 𝒑
𝒑𝟏 − 𝒑𝟎
𝟐
Isothermal (n = 1) ∆𝑽
𝑽𝟎 = 𝒑 𝒑𝟎
𝟎
𝒑𝟏 − 𝒑𝟐
Adiabatic (n = k =1.4) ∆𝑽
𝑽𝟎 = 𝟎.𝟕𝟏𝟒 𝟎.𝟕𝟏𝟒
𝒑𝟎 𝒑
𝒑𝟏 − 𝒑𝟎
𝟐
Correction factors to take into account the real gas behavior

- For isothermal change of condition:
𝑉, =𝐶 𝑥𝑉,
𝑜𝑟
∆𝑉
∆𝑉 , =
𝐶
- For adiabatic change of condition:
𝑉, =𝐶 𝑥𝑉,
𝑜𝑟
∆𝑉 ,
∆𝑉 =
𝐶
The Ci and Ca can be determined from the following Correction factor graphs.
Calculate the ratio of Max/Min pressure, p2/p1.
On the graph find the intersection of p2/p1 and the maximum working system pressure p2, which is
shown as a curve on the graphs for either an isothermal or adiabatic change of condition.

Project the intersection point to the Y-axis to determine the appropriate correction factor, Ci or Ca.
Correction factor Ci Isothermal change of condition Pressure ratio p2/p1
Correction factor Ca Adiabatic change of condition Pressure ratio p2/p1
4.7 Maintenance.
Before removing an accumulator for repairs, relieve the internal pressure: in a spring-loaded type,
relieve the spring tension; in a piston or bag type, relieve the gas or liquid pressure.

Chapter V
Actuators
5.1 Introduction
An actuator is used to convert the energy of fluid back into the mechanical power. The amount of
output power developed depends upon the flow rate, the pressure drop across the actuator and its overall
efficiency. Thus, hydraulic actuators are devices used to convert pressure energy of the fluid into
mechanical energy. Depending on the type of actuation, hydraulic actuators are classified as follows:
1. Linear actuator: For linear actuation (hydraulic cylinders).

2. Rotary actuator: For rotary actuation (hydraulic motor).
3. Semi-rotary actuator: For limited angle of actuation (semi-rotary actuator).
Hydraulic linear actuators, as their name implies, provide motion in a straight line. The total
movement is a finite amount determined by the construction of the unit. They are usually referred to as
cylinders, rams and jacks. All these items are synonymous in general use, although ram is sometimes
intended to mean a single-acting cylinder and jack often refers to a cylinder used for lifting. The function of
hydraulic cylinder is to convert hydraulic power into linear mechanical force or motion. Hydraulic
cylinders extend and retract a piston rod to provide a push or pull force to drive the external load along a
straight-line path. Continuous angular movement is achieved by rotary actuators, more generally known as
a hydraulic motor. Semi-rotary actuators are capable of limited angular movements that can be several
complete revolutions but 360o or less is more usual.
5.2 Types of Hydraulic Cylinders (linear actuator)
Hydraulic cylinders are of the following types:
- Single-acting cylinders.
- Double-acting cylinders.
- Telescopic cylinders.
- Tandem cylinders.
5.2.1 Single-Acting Cylinders
A single-acting cylinder is simplest in design and is shown schematically in figure 5.1. It consists of
a piston inside a cylindrical housing called barrel. On one end of the piston there is a rod, which can
reciprocate. At the opposite end, there is a port for the entrance and exit of oil. Single-acting cylinders
produce force in one direction by hydraulic pressure acting on the piston. (Single-acting cylinders can exert
a force in the extending direction only.) The return of the piston is not done hydraulically. In single-acting
cylinders, retraction is done either by gravity or by a spring.
Figure 5.1 Single-acting cylinders
According to the type of return, single-acting cylinders are classified as follows:

- Gravity-return single-acting cylinder.
- Spring-return single-acting cylinder.
5.2.1.1 Gravity-Return Single-Acting Cylinder
Figure5.2 shows gravity-return-type single-acting cylinders. In the push type figure 5.2(a), the
cylinder extends to lift a weight against the force of gravity by applying oil pressure at the blank end. The
oil is passed through the blank-end port or pressure port. The rod-end port or vent port is open to
atmosphere so that air can flow freely in and out of the rod end of the cylinder. To retract the cylinder, the
pressure is simply removed from the piston by connecting the pressure port to the tank. This allows the
weight of the load to push the fluid out of the cylinder back to the tank. In pull-type gravity-return-type
single-acting cylinder, the cylinder [figure 5.2(b)] lifts the weight by retracting. The blank-end port is the
pressure port and blind-end port is now the vent port. This cylinder automatically extends whenever the
pressure port is connected to the tank.
Figure 5.2 Gravity-return single-acting cylinder: (a) Push type; (b) pull type
5.2.1.2 Spring-Return Single-Acting Cylinder
A spring-return single-acting cylinder is shown in figure5.3.In push type [figure 5.3(a)], the
pressure is sent through the pressure port situated at the blank end of the cylinder. When the pressure is
released, the spring automatically returns the cylinder to the fully retracted position. The vent port is open
to atmosphere so that air can flow freely in and out of the rod end of the cylinder. Figure 5.3(b) shows a
spring-return single-acting cylinder. In this design, the cylinder retracts when the pressure port is connected
to the pump flow and extends whenever the pressure port is connected to the tank. Here the pressure port is
situated at the rod end of the cylinder
Figure 5.3 (a) Push- and (b) pull-type single-acting cylinders
5.2.2 Double-Acting Cylinder
There are two types of double-acting cylinders:

- Double-acting cylinder with a piston rod on one side.
- Double-acting cylinder with a piston rod on both sides.
5.2.2.1 Double-Acting Cylinder with a Piston Rod on One Side
Figure 5.4 shows the operation of a double-acting cylinder with a piston rod on one side. To extend
the cylinder, the pump flow is sent to the blank-end port as in figure 5.4 (a). The fluid from the rod-end port
returns to the reservoir. To retract the cylinder, the pump flow is sent to the rod-end port and the fluid from
the blank-end port returns to the tank as in figure 5.4 (b).

Figure 5.4 Double

Double-acting
ting cylinders with a piston rod on one side
5.2.2.2 Double-Acting
Acting Cylinder with a Piston Rod on Both Sides
Figure 5.5Double
5.5Double-acting cylinder with a piston rod on both side
A double-acting
acting cylinder with a piston rod on both sides (figure 5.5) is a cy cylinder with a rod
extending from both ends. This cylinder can be used in an application where work can be done by both
ends of the cylinder, thereby making the cylinder more productive. Double
Double-rod
rod cylinders can withstand
higher side loads because they have an extra bearing, one on each rod, to withstand the loading.
5.2.3Telescopic Cylinder
A telescopic cylinder (figure 5.6) is used when a long stroke length and a short retracted length are
required. The telescopic cylinder extends in stages, each stage consisting of a sleeve that fits inside the
previous stage. One application for this type of cylinder is raising a dump truck bed. Telescopic cylinders
are available in both single-acting
acting and double
double-acting
acting models. They are more expensive than standard
cylinders
nders due to their more complex construction. They generally consist of a nest of tubes and operate on
the displacement principle. The tubes are supported by bearing rings, the innermost (rear) set of which have
grooves or channels to allow fluid flow. The front bearing assembly on each section includes seals and
wiper rings. Stop rings limit the movement of each section, thus preventing separation. When the cylinder
extends, all the sections move together until the outer section is prevented from further eextension by its stop
ring. The remaining sections continue out out-stroking
stroking until the second outermost section reaches the limit of
its stroke; this process continues until all sections are extended, the innermost one being the last of all.
Figure 5.6 Telescopic cylinder

For a given input flow rate, the speed of operation increases in steps as each successive section
reaches the end of its stroke. Similarly, for a specific pressure, the load-lifting capacity decreases for each
successive section.
5.2.4 Tandem Cylinder
Figure 5.7Tandem cylinder
A tandem cylinder, shown in figure 5.7, is used in applications where a large amount of force is required
from a small-diameter cylinder. Pressure is applied to both pistons, resulting in increased force because of
the larger area. The drawback is that these cylinders must be longer than a standard cylinder to achieve an
equal speed because flow must go to both pistons.
5.2.4.1 Through -Rod Cylinders
These are similar in construction to the standard double-acting cylinders, but have a cylinder rod
extending through both cylinder end caps. Although it is possible to have both the piston rods with different
diameters at each end of the cylinder, generally the rods have the same diameters. The main applications of
through-rod cylinders are as follows: the same speed is required in both the directions, both ends of the rod
can be utilized to do work and the non-working end is used to indicate or signal the position of the load. In
some applications, the rod is fixed at both the ends and the cylinder body carrying the load moves on the
rod. A major problem in the manufacture of through-rod cylinders is achieving the correct alignment and
concentricity of cylinder bore, piston, end caps and rods. Any misalignment can result in excessive seal
wear and premature cylinder failure.
5.2.4.2 Displacement Cylinders
A displacement-type hydraulic cylinder shown in figure 5.8 consists of a rod that is displaced from
inside a tube by pumping hydraulic fluid into the tube. The volume of the rod leaving the tube is equal to
the volume of fluid entering the tube, hence the name “displacement cylinder.” The rod of the displacement
cylinder is guided by bearings in the nose or neck of the cylinder body. A collar on the end of the rod
prevents it from being ejected and limits the stroke of the cylinder. Elastomer seals in the neck prevent any
leakage of fluid along the outside of the rod. This design is a single-acting “push” or extension cylinder,
which has to be retracted by gravity, a spring or some external force. The bore of the cylinder body does
not require machining other than that for the neck bearing and the inlet port; the manufacturing cost is,
therefore, low when compared with other types or hydraulic cylinders. The maximum thrust exerted by a
displacement cylinder is given by
Maximum thrust = Pressure × Rod area = 𝑝𝑥
Where d is the diameter of the rod. The extending speed of the rod is given by
Flow rate of luid entering the cylinder

𝑅𝑜𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
Area of cylinder rod
Figure 5.8 Displacement cylinders

5.3 Types of Hydraulic Cylinders (hydraulic motor)
Hydraulic motors convert hydraulic energy into mechanical energy. In industrial hydraulic circuits,
pumps and motors are normally combined with a proper valving and piping to form a hydraulic-powered
transmission. A pump, which is mechanically linked to a prime mover, draws fluid from a reservoir and
forces it to a motor. A motor, which is mechanically linked to the workload, is actuated by this flow so that
motion or torque, or both, are conveyed to the work
Hydraulic motors are rotary actuators. However, the name rotary actuator is reserved for a particular
type of unit that is limited in rotation to less than 3600. A hydraulic motor is a device which converts fluid
power into rotary power or converts fluid pressure into torque. Torque is a function of pressure or, in other
words, the motor input pressure level is determined by the resisting torque at the output shaft.
Table 5.1, shows the differences between a hydraulic pump & hydraulic motor
Hydraulic Motor Hydraulic Pump

It is a device for delivering torque at a given It is a device for delivering flow at a given
pressure. The main emphasis is on mechanical pressure. The main emphasis is on volumetric
efficiency and torque that can be transmitted efficiency and flow.
Motors usually operate over a wide range of Pumps usually operate at high RPM
speed, from a low RPM to high RPM.
Most motors are designed for bidirectional In most situations, pumps usually operate in one
applications such as braking loads, rotary tables. direction.
Motors may be idle for long time Pumps usually operate continuously
Motors are subjected to high side loads (from Majority of pumps are not subjected to side loads.
gears, chains, belt-driven pulleys). Usually pumps are pad mounted on power pack
top and shaft is connected to the prime mover
directly.
Table 5.1Differences between a hydraulic motor and a hydraulic pump
5.4 Classification of Hydraulic Motors
There are two types of hydraulic motors:

- High speed low torque motors and
- Low speed high torque motors.
In high speed low torque motors, the shaft is driven directly from either the barrel or the cam plate,
whereas in low speed high torque motors, the shaft is driven through a differential gear arrangement that
reduces the speed and increases the torque. Depending upon the mechanism employed to provide shaft
rotation, hydraulic motors can be classified as follows:
a) Gear motors.
b) Vane motors.
c) Piston motors:
 Axial piston type motors.
 Radial piston type motors.
Gear motors are the least efficient, most dirt tolerant and have the lowest pressure rating of 3. Piston
motors are the most efficient, least dirt-tolerant and have high pressure ratings. Vane and piston motors can
be fixed or variable displacement, but gear motors are available with only fixed displacement.
5.4.1 Gear Motors (external & internal):
A gear motor develops torque due to hydraulic pressure acting against the area of one tooth. There
are two teeth trying to move the rotor in the proper direction, while one net tooth at the center mesh tries to
move it in the opposite direction. In the design of a gear motor, one of the gears is keyed to an output shaft,
while the other is simply an idler gear. Pressurized oil is sent to the inlet port of the motor. Pressure is then
applied to the gear teeth, causing the gears and output shaft to rotate. The pressure builds until enough
torque is generated to rotate the output shaft against the load. The side load on the motor bearing is quite
high, because all the hydraulic pressure is on one side. This limits the bearing life of the motor. Schematic
diagram of gear motor is shown in figure 5.9.

Figure 5.9 Hydraulic External gear motor
Most of the gear motors are bidirectional. Reversing the direction of flow can reverse the direction of
rotation. As in the case of gear pumps, volumetric displacement is fixed. Due to the high pressure at the
inlet and low pressure at the outlet, a large side load on the shaft and bearings is produced.
Hydraulic motors can also be of internal gear design. These types can operate at higher pressures and
speeds and also have greater displacements than external gear motors (figure 5.10)
Figure 5.10 Internal gear motor
5.4.2 Vane motors
Figure 5.11 shows an unbalanced vane motor consisting of a circular chamber in which there is an
eccentric rotor carrying several spring or pressure-loaded vanes. Because the fluid flowing through the inlet
port finds more area of vanes exposed in the upper half of the motor, it exerts more force on the upper
vanes, and the rotor turns counterclockwise. Close tolerances are maintained between the vanes and ring to
provide high efficiencies.
The displacement of a vane hydraulic motor is a function of eccentricity. The radial load on the shaft
bearing of an unbalanced vane motor is also large because all its inlet pressure is on one side of the rotor.
Figure 5.12 shows the balanced vane motor. The radial bearing load problem is eliminated in this
design by using a double-lobed ring with diametrically opposite ports. Side force on one side of bearing is
canceled by an equal and opposite force from the diametrically opposite pressure port. The like ports are
generally connected internally so that only one inlet and one outlet port are brought outside. The balanced
vane-type motor is reliable open-loop control motor but has more internal leakage than piston-type and
therefore generally not used as a servo motor.
Figure 5.12 Unbalanced Vane motor

Figure 5.12 Balanced Vane motor

5.4.3 Piston Motors
Piston motors are classified into the following types:

1. According to the piston of the cylinder block and the drive shaft, piston motors are classified as follows:
 Axial piston motors.
 Radial piston motors.
2. According to the basis of displacement, piston motors are classified as follows:
 Fixed-displacement piston motors.
 Variable-displacement piston motors.
5.4.3.1 Axial Piston Motors
In axial piston motors, the piston reciprocates parallel to the axis of the cylinder block. These motors
are available with both fixed-and variable-displacement feature types. They generate torque by pressure
acting on the ends of pistons reciprocating inside a cylinder block. Figure 5.13 illustrates the inline design
in which the motor, drive shaft and cylinder block are centered on the same axis. Pressure acting on the
ends of the piston generates a force against an angled swash plate. This causes the cylinder block to rotate
with a torque that is proportional to the area of the pistons. The torque is also a function of the swash-plate
angle. The inline piston motor is designed either as a fixed- or a variable-displacement unit. The swash
plate determines the volumetric displacement.
Figure 5.13 Inline piston motor
In variable-displacement units, the swash plate is mounted on the swinging yoke. The angle can be
varied by various means such as a lever, hand wheel or servo control. If the offset angel is increased, the
displacement and torque capacity increase but the speed of the drive shaft decreases. Conversely,
reducing the angle reduces the torque capability but increases the drive shaft speed.
5.4.3.2 Bent-axis Piston Motors

A bent-axis piston motor is shown in figure 5.14. This type of motor develops torque due to pressure
acting on the reciprocating piston. In this motor, the cylinder block and drive shaft mount at an angel to
each other so that the force is exerted on the drive shaft flange.
Speed and torque depend on the angle between the cylinder block and the drive shaft. The larger the
angle, the greater the displacement and torque, and the smaller the speed. This angle varies from 7.5°
(minimum) to 30° (maximum). This type of motor is available in two types, namely fixed-displacement
type and variable-displacement type.
5.4.3.3 Radial Piston Motors
In radial piston-type motors, the piston reciprocates radially or perpendicular to the axis of the output
shaft. The basic principle of operation of the radial piton motors is shown in figure 5.15. Radial piston
motors are low-speed high-torque motors which can address a multifarious problem in diverse power
transfer applications.
Figure 5.14 Bent axis piston motor
Figure 5.15 Radial piston motor
5.5 Semi-Rotary Actuators
These are devices used to convert fluid energy into a torque which turns through an angle limited by
the design of the actuator. With the majority of designs, the angle of rotation is limited to 3600 although it
is possible to considerably exceed this when using piston-operated actuators.
5.5.1 Vane-Type Semi-Rotary Actuator (Single Vane)
A single-vane rotary actuator is shown in figure 5.16. A semi-rotary actuator allows only a partial
revolution. A vane-type semi-rotary actuator consists of a vane connected to an output shaft. When
hydraulic pressure is applied to one side of the vane, it rotates. A stop prevents the vane from rotating
continuously. The rotation angle in the case of a single-vane semi-rotary actuator is 315°.

Figure 5.16 Vane-type semi-rotary
5.4 Determination of diameter of rod & piston
5.4.1 Standard Metric Cylinders

F
- Theoretical force: Fth  (daN)

F daN
- Area A: A (cm2 )  th 
P bar
D2 4A
- Diameter: A   D
4 
Table 5.9 gives preferred sizes for the cylinder bore and rod diameter of metric cylinders. Most
cylinder manufacturers have based their standard range of metric cylinders on these recommendations,
offering two rod sizes for each cylinder bore. A number of combinations have a piston rod to piston
diameter ratio in the region of 0.7, which gives an annulus area of approximately one-half of the full bore
area. This area ratio is of use in regenerative circuits to give similar values of speed and thrust on both the
extension and retraction strokes. Table 5.10 gives the graphical symbols for various kinds of cylinders.
Table 5.9 Recommended cylinder bore and rod sizes
5.5 Cylinder Force, Velocity and Power
The output force (F) and piston velocity (v) of double-acting cylinders are not the same for extension
and retraction strokes.
During the extension stroke shown in figure 5.11 (a), the fluid pressure acts on the entire circular piston
area Ap. During the retraction stroke, the fluid enters the rod-end side and the fluid pressure acts on the
smaller annular area between the rod and cylinder bore (Ap−Ar) as shown by the shaded area in Fig.5.11 (b)
(Ar is the area of the piston rod). Due to the difference in the cross-sectional area, the velocity of the piston
changes. Because Ap is greater than (Ap−Ar), the retraction velocity (vret) is greater than the extension
velocity (vext) for the same flow rate.
During the extension stroke, the fluid pressure acts on the entire piston area (Ar), while during the
retraction stroke, the fluid pressure acts on the annular area (Ap−Ar). This difference in area accounts for
the difference in output forces during extension and retraction strokes. Because Ar is greater than (Ap−Ar),
the extension force is greater than the retraction force for the same operating pressure.
Force and velocity during extension stroke
Velocity
𝑄
𝑉 =
𝐴
Force
𝐹 =𝑝𝑥𝐴
Force and velocity during retraction stroke
Velocity
𝑄
𝑉 =
𝐴 −𝐴
Force
𝐹 =𝑝𝑥 𝐴 −𝐴
Power developed by a hydraulic cylinder (both in extension and retraction) is
Power = Force ×Velocity= F x V
In metric units, the kW power developed for either extension or retraction stroke is
𝑚
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑘𝑊) = 𝑉 𝑥 𝐹(𝑁) = 𝑄(𝑚 /𝑠) 𝑥 𝑝(𝑘𝑃𝑎)
𝑠
Power during extension is
𝑃 =𝐹 𝑥𝑉 =𝑝𝑥𝐴 𝑥 =𝑝𝑥𝑄 (Equation 5.1)
Power during retraction is
𝑃 =𝐹 𝑥𝑉 = 𝑝 𝑥 (𝐴 − 𝐴 ) 𝑥 ( )
=𝑝𝑥𝑄 (Equation 5.2)
Comparing Equation 5.1 and 5.2, we can conclude that the powers during extension and retraction
strokes are the same

Table 5.10 Graphical symbols of different linear actuators
Figure 5.11 Effective areas during (a) extension strokes and (b) retraction strokes

Désignation Extrémité de tige Type de montage Coefficient K
Articulation Tenon guidé 2

arrière
Articulation guidé 2
Filetage guidé 1,5
Filetage ou tenon 4
non guidé
Tourillons Tenon guidé 1,5
intermédiaires
(placés sur le 1/3 Articulation guidé 1,5
avant du corps)
Filetage guidé 1
Filetage ou tenon 3
non guidé
Tourillons avant Articulation guidé 1
Articulation non 2
guidé
Equerres pattes Tenon guidé 0,7
basses pattes
médianes Articulation guidé 0,7
Filetage guidé 0,5
Filetage ou tenon 2
non guidé
Bride avant Fixée rigidement, 0,5
guidé
Articulée 0,7
rigidement, guidé
Supportée – non 2
guidé
Bride arrière Fixée rigidement, 1
guidé
Articulée 1,5
rigidement, guidé
Supportée – non 4
guidé

Graph 1. Determination rod diameter to buckling

Chapter VI
Directional Control Valve
6.1 Introduction
One of the most important considerations in any fluid power system is control. If control components
are not properly selected, the entire system does not function as required. In fluid power, controlling
elements are called valves.
There are three types of valves:
- Directional control valves (DCVs): They determine the path through which a fluid transverses a
given circuit.
- Pressure control valves: They protect the system against overpressure, which may occur due to a
sudden surge as valves open or close or due to an increase in fluid demand.
- Flow control valves: Shock absorbers are hydraulic devices designed to smooth out pressure surges
and to dampen hydraulic shock.
In addition, the fluid flow rate must be controlled in various lines of a hydraulic circuit. For example,
the control of actuator speeds can be accomplished through use of flow control valves. Non-compensated
flow control valves are used where precise speed control is not required because the flow rate varies with
pressure drop across a flow control valve. It is important to know the primary function and operation of
various types of control components not only for good functioning of a system, but also for discovering
innovative methods to improve the fluid power system for a given application.
6.2 Directional Control Valves
A valve is a device that receives an external signal (mechanical, fluid pilot signal, electrical
or electronics) to release, stop or redirect the fluid that flows through it. The function of a DCV is to control
the direction of fluid flow in any hydraulic system. A DCV does this by changing the position of internal
movable parts. To be more specific, a DCV is mainly required for the following purposes:
To start, stop, accelerate, decelerate and change the direction of motion of a hydraulic actuator.
 To permit the free flow from the pump to the reservoir at low pressure when the pump’s delivery is
not needed into the system.
 To vent the relief valve by either electrical or mechanical control.
 To isolate certain branch of a circuit.
Any valve contains ports that are external openings through which a fluid can enter and exit
via connecting pipelines. The number of ports on a DCV is identified using the term “way.” Thus, a valve
with four ports is a four-way valve A DCV consists of a valve body or valve housing and a valve
mechanism usually mounted on a sub-plate. The ports of a sub-plate are threaded to hold the tube fittings
which connect the valve to the fluid conductor lines. The valve mechanism directs the fluid to selected
output ports or stops the fluid from passing through the valve. DCVs can be classified based on fluid path,
design characteristics, control methods and construction.
6.2.1 Classification of DCVs based Fluid Path
Based on fluid path, DCVs can be classified as follows:

 Check valves.
 Shuttle valves.
 Two-way valves.
 Three-way valves.
 Four-way valves.
6.2.2 Classification of DCVs based on Design Characteristics
Based on design characteristics, DCVs can be classified as follows:

An internal valve mechanism that directs the flow of fluid. Such a mechanism can either be a poppet,
a ball, a sliding spool, a rotary plug or a rotary disk.
 Number of switching positions (usually 2 or 3).
 Number of connecting ports or ways.

 Method of valve actuation that causes the valve mechanism to move into an alternate
position.
6.2.3 Classification of DCVs based on the Control Method
Based on the control method, DCVs can be classified as follows:

 Direct controlled DCV: A valve is actuated directly on the valve spool. This is suitable for small
sized valves.
 Indirect controlled DCV: A valve is actuated by a pilot line or using a solenoid or by the
combination of electro-hydraulic and electro-pneumatic means. The use of solenoid reduces the
size of the valve. This is suitable for large-sized valves.
6.2.4 Classification of DCVs based on the Construction of Internal Moving Parts
Based on the construction of internal moving parts, DCVs can be classified as follows:
 Rotary spool type: In this type, the spool is rotated to change the direction of fluid. It has
longitudinal grooves. The rotary spools are usually manually operated.
 Sliding spool type: This consists of a specially shaped spool and a means of positioning the spool.
The spool is fitted with precision into the body bore through the longitudinal axis of the valve
body. The lands of the spool divide this bore into a series of separate chambers. The ports of the
valve body lead into these chambers and the position of the spool determines the nature of inter-
connection between the ports.
Table 6.1
Each individual switching portion is shown in a square
Flow path is indicated by means of arrow within a square
Closed position
Two position valve
Three position valve
Ports added to the two position valve
Two flow paths
Two ports are connected, two ports are closed

Table 6.2
2/2 way valve: 2 ports and 2 positions
Normally closed position: P is not connected to A. when the valve is
actuated, the way is closed
Normally open position: P is connected to A. when the valve is not

actuated, the way is open
3/2 way valve: 3 ports and 2 positions DCV

Normally open position: P is connected to A. when the valve is actuated,
the way is open
Normally open position: P is connected to A. when the valve is actuated,

the way is closed
4/2 way valve: 4 ports and 2 position DCV

P is connected to A
B is connected to T
P is connected to B
A is connected to T

P is connected to A
B is connected to R

R, T, A, B
R to T, A and B closed
4.8 Each different switching position is shown by a square.

4.9 Flow directions are indicated by arrows.
4.10 Blocked ports are shown by horizontal lines.
4.11 Ports are shown in an appropriate flow direction with line arrows
The switching position, flow direction, and port for different configurations is represented in Table
6.1. Two-way, three-way, four-way and five-way representation is shown in Table 6.2.

6.3 Actuating Devices
Direction control valves may be actuated by a variety of methods. Actuation is the method of moving
the valve element from one position to another. There are four basic methods of actuation: Manual,
mechanical, solenoid-operated and pilot-operated. Several combinations of actuation are possible using
these four basic methods. Graphical symbols of such combinations are given in Table 6.3.
 Manually operated: In manually operated DCVs, the spool is shifted manually by moving a handle
pushing a button or stepping on a foot pedal. When the handle is not operated, the spool returns to
its original position by means of a spring.
 Mechanically operated: The spool is shifted by mechanical linkages such as cam and rollers.
 Solenoid operated: When an electric coil or a solenoid is energized, it creates a magnetic force that
pulls the armature into the coil. This causes the armature to push the spool of the valve.
 Pilot operated: A DCV can also be shifted by applying a pilot signal (either hydraulic or
pneumatic) against a piston at either end of the valve spool. When pilot pressure is
introduced, it pushes the piston to shift the spool.
Solenoid operated Foot operated
Pilot operated Pilot operated solenoid
Manual operated Two-position detent
Push button Spring return
6.4 Check Valve
The simplest DCV is a check valve. A check valve allows flow in one direction, but blocks the flow
in the opposite direction. It is a two-way valve because it contains two ports. Figure 6.1 shows the
operation (Figure 6.1a) and graphical symbol (Figure 6.1 b) of a check valve along with its no-flow and
free-flow directions.
4.11.1.1.1 (b)
Figure 6.1 Graphical symbol of a check valve.

In Figure 6.2, a light spring holds the ball against the valve seat. Flow coming into the inlet pushes
the ball off the seat against the light force of the spring and continues to the outlet. A very low pressure is
required to hold the valve open in this direction. If the flow tries to enter from the opposite direction, the
pressure pushes the ball against the seat and the flow cannot pass through.
Figure 6.3 provides two schematic drawings showing the operation of a poppet check valve. A
poppet is a specially shaped plug element held on a valve seat by a light spring. Fluid flows through the
valve in the space between the seat and poppet. In the free flow direction, the fluid pressure overcomes the
spring force. If the flow is attempted in the opposite direction, the fluid pressure pushes the poppet in the
closed position. Therefore, no flow is permitted
Figure 6.2 Ball-type check valves.
Figure 6.3 Poppet check valve: (a) Open and (b) closed position
6.4.1 Advantages of a poppet valve
 Virtually zero leakage in closed position.

 Poppet elements do not stick even when left under pressure for long periods.
 Fast, consistent response time: typically 15 ms.
6.4.2 Disadvantages of a Poppet Valve
A poppet valve has the following disadvantages:
 Axial pressure balance is impossible and considerable force may be needed to open the poppet
against the flow at a high pressure. This limits valves that have direct mechanical actuation to low
flow duties.
 Generally individual poppets are required for each flow path that significantly increases the
complexity of multi-port valves.
 Lapping and super finishing of valves add cost.
6.5 Pilot-Operated check Valve
A pilot-operated valve along with its symbol is shown in Fig. 6.4. This type of check valve always
permits free flow in one direction but permits flow in the normally blocked opposite direction only if the
pilot pressure is applied at the pilot pressure point of the valve. The check valve poppet has the pilot piston
attached to the threaded poppet stem by a nut. The light spring holds the poppet seated in a no-flow
condition by pushing against the pilot piston. The purpose of the separate drain port is to prevent oil from
creating a pressure build-up at the bottom of the piston. The dashed line in the graphical symbol represents

the pilot pressure line connected to the pilot pressure port of the valve. Pilot check valves are used for
locking hydraulic cylinders in position.
6.6 Shuttle Valve
A shuttle valve allows two alternate flow sources to be connected in a one-branch circuit. The valve
has two inlets P1 and P2 and one outlet A. Outlet A receives flow from an inlet that is at a higher pressure.
Figure 6.5 shows the operation of a shuttle valve. If the pressure at P1 is greater than that at P2, the ball
slides to the right and allows P1 to send flow to outlet A. If the pressure at P2 is greater than that at P1, the
ball slides to the left and P2 supplies flow to outlet A
One application for a shuttle valve is to have a primary pump inlet P1 and a secondary pump inlet
P2 connected to the system outlet A The secondary pump acts as a backup, supplying flow to the system if
the primary pump loses pressure. A shuttle valve is called an “OR” valve because receiving a pressure
input signal from either P1 or P2 causes a pressure output signal to be sent to A. Graphical symbol of
shuttle valve is shown in Fig. 6.6.
Figure 6.4Pilot-perated check valve
Figure 6.5 Shuttle valve: (a) Flow from left to outlet and (b) flow from right to outlet in Fig. 1.5.
Fig 6.6 symbol of Shuttle valve

Chapter VII
Pressure control valves
A control valve is a valve used to control fluid flow by varying the size of the flow passage as
directed by a signal from a controller. This enables the direct control of flow rate and the consequential
control of process quantities such as pressure, temperature, and liquid level. Common schematics for
pressure control valves:
The primary concern in fluid power circuits is to either control the rate of flow or the pressure
level. One misconception has been that pressure may be controlled with an orifice or flow control device.
This is never accomplished with any degree of accuracy. For accurate control of force, six types of pressure
controls have been developed.
 Relief valve
 Unloading valve
 Sequence valve
 Reducing valve
 Counterbalance valve
 Brake valve.
By symbol, these valves closely resemble one another. Often only their location in the hydraulic
circuit will designate what type of pressure valve they are.
7.1 Pressure relief valves
The pressure relief valves are used to protect the hydraulic components from excessive pressure.
This is one of the most important components of a hydraulic system and is essentially required for safe
operation of the system. Its primary function is to limit the system pressure within a specified range. It is
normally a closed type and it opens when the pressure exceeds a specified maximum value by diverting
pump flow back to the tank.
The most common types of valve are:

- Ball type: In pressure relief valves with a ball-type valving device, the ball rests on a
contoured seat. Pressure acting on the bottom of the ball pushes it off its seat, allowing the
fluid to bypass. Figure 7.1 a
- Sleeve type: In pressure relief valves with a sleeve type valving device, the ball remains
stationary and a sleeve-type seat is moved up by the fluid pressure. This allows the fluid to
bypass between the ball and the sliding sleeve-type seat.
- Poppet type: in pressure relief valves with a poppet type valving device, a cone-shaped
poppet may have any of several design configurations; however, it is basically a cone and
seat machined at matched angles to prevent leakage. As the pressure rises to its
predetermined setting, the poppet is lifted off its seat, as in the ball-type device. This
allows the fluid to pass through the opening created and out the return port.
The simplest type valve contains a poppet held in a seat against the spring force as shown in
Figure 7.1 b. The fluid enters from the opposite side of the poppet. When the system pressure
exceeds the preset value, the poppet lifts and the fluid is escaped through the orifice to the storage
tank directly. It reduces the system pressure and as the pressure reduces to the set limit again the
valve closes. This valve does not provide a flat cut-off pressure limit with flow rate because the
spring must be deflected more when the flow rate is higher. Various types of pressure control
valves are discussed in the following sections:

a) b)
Figure 7.1 Pressure Relief Valve
7.1.1 Direct type of relief valve
Schematic of direct pressure relief valve is shown in figure 7.1 b. This type of valves has two ports;
one of which is connected to the pump and another is connected to the tank. It consists of a spring chamber
where poppet is placed with a spring force. Generally, the spring is adjustable to set the maximum pressure
limit of the system. The poppet is held in position by combined effect of spring force and dead weight of
spool. As the pressure exceeds this combined force, the poppet raises and excess fluid bypassed to the
reservoir (tank). The poppet again reseats as the pressure drops below the pre-set value. A drain is also
provided in the control chamber. It sends the fluid collected due to small leakage to the tank and thereby
prevents the failure of the valve.
7.2 Unloading Valve
The construction of unloading valve is shown in Figure 7.2. This valve consists of a control chamber
with an adjustable spring which pushes the spool down. The valve has two ports: one is connected to the
tank and another is connected to the pump. The valve is operated by movement of the spool. Normally, the
valve is closed and the tank port is also closed. These valves are used to permit a pump to operate at the
minimum load. It works on the same principle as direct control valve that the pump delivery is diverted to
the tank when sufficient pilot pressure is applied to move the spool. The pilot pressure maintains a static
pressure to hold the valve opened. The pilot pressure holds the valve until the pump delivery is needed in
the system. As the pressure is needed in the hydraulic circuit; the pilot pressure is relaxed and the spool
moves down due to the self weight and the spring force. Now, the flow is diverted to the hydraulic circuit.
The drain is provided to remove the leaked oil collected in the control chamber to prevent the valve failure.
The unloading valve reduces the heat buildup due to fluid discharge at a preset pressure value.
Figure 7.2 Unloading Valve

7.3 Sequence valve
The primary function of this type of valve is to divert flow in a predetermined sequence. It is used to
operate the cycle of a machine automatically. A sequence valve may be of direct-pilot or remote-pilot
operated type. Schematic of the sequence valve is shown in Figure 7.3. Its construction is similar to the
direct relief valve. It consists of the two ports; one main port connecting the main pressure line and another
port (secondary port) is connected to the secondary circuit. The secondary port is usually closed by the
spool. The pressure on the spool works against the spring force. When the pressure exceeds the preset value
of the spring; the spool lifts and the fluid flows from the primary port to the secondary port. For remote
operation; the passage used for the direct operation is closed and a separate pressure source for the spool
operation is provided in the remote operation mode.
Figure 7.3 Sequence valve
7.4 Counterbalance Valve
The schematic of counterbalance valve is shown in Figure 7.4. It is used to maintain the back
pressure and to prevent a load from failing. The counterbalance valves can be used as breaking valves for
decelerating heavy loads. These valves are used in vertical presses, lift trucks, loaders and other machine
tools where position or hold suspended loads are important. Counterbalance valves work on the principle
that the fluid is trapped under pressure until pilot pressure overcomes the pre-set value of spring force.
Fluid is then allowed to escape, letting the load to descend under control. This valve is normally closed
until it is acted upon by a remote pilot pressure source. Therefore, a lower spring force is sufficient. It leads
to the valve operation at the lower pilot pressure and hence the power consumption reduces, pump life
increases and the fluid temperature decreases.
Figure 7.4 Counter Balance Valve
7.5 Pressure Reducing Valve

Sometimes a part of the system may need a lower pressure. This can be made possible by using
pressure reducing valve as shown in Figure 7.5. These valves are used to limit the outlet pressure.
Generally, they are used for the operation of branch circuits where the pressure may vary from the main
hydraulic pressure lines. These are open type valve and have a spring chamber with an adjustable spring, a
movable spool as shown in figure. A drain is provided to return the leaked fluid in the spring (control)
chamber. A free flow passage is provided from inlet port to the outlet port until a signal from the outlet port
tends to throttle the passage through the valve. The pilot pressure opposes the spring force and when both
are balanced, the downstream is controlled at the pressure setting. When the pressure in the reduced
pressure line exceeds the valve setting, the spool moves to reduce the flow passage area by compressing the
spring. It can be seen from the figure that if the spring force is more, the valve opens wider and if the
controlled pressure has greater force, the valves moves towards the spring and throttles the flow.
Figure 7.5 Pressure Reducing Valve

Chapter VIII
Flow control valves
8.1 Introduction
Flow-control valves control the rate of flow of a fluid through a hydraulic circuit. Their function is
to provide velocity control of linear actuators, or speed control of rotary actuators.
8.2 Functions of Flow-Control Valves
Flow-control valves have several functions:

- Regulate the speed of linear and rotary actuators: They control the speed of piston that is dependent
on the flow rate and area of the piston
- Regulate the power available to the sub-circuits by controlling the flow to them
- Proportionally divide or regulate the pump flow to various branches of the circuit: It transfers the
power developed by the main pump to different sectors of the circuit to manage multiple tasks, if
necessary.
8.3 Classification of Flow-Control Valves
Flow-control valves can be classified as follows:

- Non-pressure compensated.
- Pressure compensated.
8.3.1 Non-Pressure-Compensated Valves
Non-pressure-compensated flow-control valves are used when the system pressure is relatively
constant and motoring speeds are not too critical. The operating principle behind these valves is that the
flow through an orifice remains constant if the pressure drop across it remains the same. In other words, the
rate of flow through an orifice depends on the pressure drop across it.
The inlet pressure is the pressure from the pump that remains constant. Therefore, the variation in
pressure occurs at the outlet that is defined by the work load. This implies that the flow rate depends on the
work load. Hence, the speed of the piston cannot be defined accurately using non-pressure-compensated
flow-control valves when the working load varies. This is an extremely important problem to be addressed
in hydraulic circuits where the load and pressure vary constantly.
8.3.2 Pressure Compensated Valves
Pressure-compensated flow-control valves overcome the difficulty caused by non-pressure-

compensated valves by changing the size of the orifice in relation to the changes in the system pressure.
This is accomplished through a spring-loaded compensator spool that reduces the size of the orifice when
pressure drop increases. Once the valve is set, the pressure compensator acts to keep the pressure drop
nearly constant. It works on a kind of feedback mechanism from the outlet pressure. This keeps the flow
through the orifice nearly constant.
8.4 Types of Flow-Control Valves
8.4.1 Globe Valve
A disc, which is screwed directly on the end of the stem, is the controlling member of a globe valve.
A valve is closed by lowering a disc into a valve seat. Since fluid flows equally on all sides of the center of
support when a valve is open, there is no unbalanced pressure on a disc to cause uneven wear. Figure 8.1
shows a globe valve.
8.4.2 Needle Valve
A needle valve is similar in design and operation to a globe valve. Instead of a disc, a needle valve
has a long, tapered point at the end of a valve stem. Figure 8.2 shows a sectional view of a needle valve. A
long taper allows a needle valve to open or close gradually. A needle valve is used to control flow.
- Into delicate gauges, which could be damaged if high-pressure fluid was suddenly delivered.
- At the end of an operation when work motion should halt slowly.
- At other points where precise flow adjustments are necessary.
- At points where a small flow rate is desired.
Figure 8.1 Globe valve (assuredautomation.com)
Figure 8.2 Needle valve (assuredautomation.com)
8.4.3 Restrictor
A restrictor is used in liquid-powered systems to limit the movement speed of certain actuating
devices by limiting flow rate in a line. Figure 8.3 shows a fixed restrictor. Figure 8.4 shows a variable
restrictor, which varies the restriction amount and is a modified needle valve. This valve can be
preadjusted to alter the operating time of a particular subsystem. Also, it can be adjusted to meet the
requirements of a particular system.

Figure 8.3 Fixed restrictor valves Figure 8.4 Variable restrictor valves
8.4.4 Gate Valve
A gate valve functions by moving a wedge shaped disc obstructer up and down to open and close
the flow path through the valve (figure 8.5). This linear motion is provided by a threaded rising stem.
Turning this threaded stem requires multiple revolutions (multi-turn) to travel from open to close. They
should only be used for on/off applications as throttling for an extended period of time will damage both
the obstructer and seals. Use of a gate valve for throttling is also not very effective since most of the
reduction of flow will increase in the last 10% of closure.
Figure 8.5 (assuredautomation.com) Gate valve

1. Technological Studies. Pneumatic Systems
2. Yuken. Basic Hydraulics and components.
3. NPTEL – Mechanical – Mechatronics and Manufacturing Automation
4. Chapter 12, Hydraulic & Pneumatic Power Systems
5. www.assuredautomation.com
6. www.hpmmag.com
7. FM5-499 Hydraulics. Headquarters, department of the army
8. Epol Hydraulic accumulators

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Hydraulic & Pneumatic circuits

Prepared by Dr. Mussaui Hussein 1

Chapter Description Page

Prepared by Dr. Mussaui Hussein 2

1.1 Quantities, symbols, units

Quantity Symbol SI unit Dimension Conversion Relation

According to Newton laws:

Prepared by Dr. Mussaui Hussein 3

Prepared by Dr. Mussaui Hussein 4

2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of hydraulic circuits:

 The disadvantage of a hydraulic system are:

2.3 Components of hydraulic circuit:

2.4 Applications of hydraulic systems

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2.5 Basic hydraulic systems

2.5.1 Open Center Hydraulic Systems

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Figure 2.3 Open center hydraulic systems

2.5.2 Closed-Center Hydraulic Systems

Figure 2.4 Basic closed-center hydraulic systems.

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3.2 Classifications of Pumps.

POSITIVE NON POSITIVE

GEARS VANE PISTON CENTRIFUGAL PROPELLER

A. Non-positive displacement pumps.

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The three contrasting characteristics in the operation of positive- and nonpositive-displacement

3.4 Positive displacement pump

They are two types of positive displacement pumps figure 3.2

Positive Displacement Pumps

Fixed Displacemnt Variable Displacecemt

Axial Direct Radial

Bent Axial Axial

3.4.1 Gear Pumps:

3.4.1.1 External gear pumps

Figure 3.3 External gear

Operation of external gear pumps:

Figure 3.4 Operation of external gear pump

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3.4.1.2 Internal Gear Pumps (figure 3.5)

Figure 3.5 Internal gear pump

Operation of internal gear pumps (figure 3.6):

Figure 3.6 Operation of internal gear pump

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3.4.1.3 Lobe Pumps (figure 3.7)

Figure 3.7 Lobe pump

Operation of lobe pumps (figure 3.8):

Figure 3.8 Lobe pump

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3.4.1.4 Gerotor Pumps (figure 3.9)

Figure 3.9 Gerotor pump

Operation of gerotor pumps

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3.4.2. Vane pumps

Operation of balanced vane pumps:

Figure 3.7.1 balanced vane pump

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