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ONUCHE SUMMARY OF PROJECT Finished Yes
1.0 INTRODUCTION
factors and prevailing in the area. A review of those factors and processes that have the soil
(Onyekanne et al., 2012), understanding inherent characteristics of the starting point for
understanding our soils and how best they can be used. The coupling of soil characterization,
soil classification and soil mapping provides a powerful resource for the benefit of mankind
Soil characterization provides the information for our understanding of the physical,
chemical and morphological and microbiological properties of the soil we depend on to grow
crops, sustain forests and grasslands as well as support homes and society structures
(Ogunkunle, 2005). Soil classification, on the other hand, helps to organize our knowledge,
facilitates the transfer of experience and technology from one place to another and helps to
include to aid in the correct classification of the soil and enable other scientists place the soils
in their taxonomies and classification systems and to serve as a basis for more detailed
evaluation of the soil as well as gather preliminary information on nutrient, physical or other
major building block for understanding the soil, classifying it and getting the best
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1.2 Statement of the Research Problem
The absence of adequate information to rural dwellers within the university of Abuja
and the fact that the land areas has been subjected to many various agricultural uses without
having proper and prior knowledge of soils and their inherent characteristics could lead to
attendant consequences.
soil may limit their uses and this may hinder adequate plant growth thereby influencing low
food production and may increase degradation of soil. It is unfortunate that rural researchers
and farmers often subject the soil to different uses without taking into cognizance the inherent
This in turn does not allow predictability of soils response to a particular type of soil
management practice or usage on the long run, the negative effect for outright the immediate
benefits enjoyed. This has remained the primary factor in most soil quality degradation of
The University of Abuja is blessed with large floodplains lands that are exploited;
therefore this study will help to provide data for better agricultural management and
The study is aimed at characterizing and classifying the agricultural potentials of soils as
i. To gather data on the morphological, chemical and physical properties of the soil
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ii. To assess the variations in their properties along the terrace and the back swamps
with depth
iii. To use the data collected to classify the soils using the FAO soil classification
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CHAPTER TWO
Pertinent reviews have been carried out and revealed on project under the following
topics/headings;
2.1 Characterization
Characteristics and properties are the outcome of the interplay of pedogenetic factors
and prevailing in the area. A review of those factors and processes that have the soil
(Onyekanne et al., 2012), understanding inherent characteristics of the starting point for
understanding our soils and how best they can be used, (Foth, 2006) observed that all soil
studies are focused on understanding the nature characteristics and properties so that it will be
useful and meaningful predictions can be made, and its response to management. While this
is done the focal interest is in the constraints associated with a particular soil type.
Soils are made up of four basic components; minerals, air, water and organic matter.
Mineral represent around 45% of the total volume, water and air about 25% each and 2% to
5% organic matter. The mineral portion consists of three distinct particles classified as sand,
the field as there are so many behavioural response of the soil can be predicted as related to
nutrient, retention, workability, aeration, erosion and presence or absence of some important
properties in the soil (Duprieze and Deleener, 2008). The physical characteristics of soil are;
i. texture
ii. colour
iii. depth
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iv. structure
v. stone content
Texture refers to the relative properties of sand, silt and clay. A loamy soil contains a
lance proportion of the three separates. A sandy loamy soil is a mixture containing a large
amount of clay and sand. Soil texture is determined by rubbing the moist between the finger
thumb. It is a subjective technique, but can be mastered with some experience. According to
(Ojo et al., 2009), the name of the texture class is that of mechanical analysis fraction or
textual fraction, whose properties dominate the soil properties, except that barns are soil in
which no fraction dominates. The proportions of the separates in classes, commonly used in
cribbing soil are given in the textural triangle. In the textural triangle, the sum of the
percentage of the sand, silt and clay at any appoint in the triangle is 100. The various soils are
separated from one another by definite linens of division. Their properties do not age abruptly
at these boundary lines, however, one class grade into the adjoining classes’ coarse or fine
texture. Their important soil characteristics is soil structure, it is distinct from soil texture,
structure to the size, shape and arrangement of solids and voids, continuity of pores and
voids, capacity to retain and transmit fluids and organic and inorganic substances, and ability
Soil texture is classified on the basis of shape, size and grade of distinctness of peds
(Brady 2002). Types of soil structure include; blocky, platy prismatic columnar and granular
structure is developed through the action of soil biota such as microbes and earthworms.
Micro organisms help open up compacted soils so roots can move easily and penetrate the
soil. Soil crumbles easily. This is an indication that sand, silt and clay particles are aggregated
into granules or crumbs. Both texture and structure determines pore space for air and water
circulation, erosion resistance case of tillage, and root penetration, soil texture is related to
minerals in the soil, it changes little with agricultural activities. Soil structure on the other
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hand can be improved or destroyed readily by choice and liming of farming practice. Bioflora
products are formulated and designed to help create better soil structure and thus create more
particles (Brady and Weil 2002); (Esu 2004); (Foth, 2006); (Agbede, 2009) (Onyekanne, et
al., 2010) soil consistency or handling properties refers to the type and degree of cohesion
and adhesion between soil particles, i.e. the resistance of the soil to deformation.
For soil boundaries, a change in colour is the principal and most easily observed property
that is used to delimit horizon boundaries, but in many cases other properties such as
structure, texture and inclusions are used. The vertical change from one horizon to the other
Chemical properties of soils include the following aspects: inorganic matters of soil,
organic matters in soil, colloidal properties of soil particles and soil reactions and buffering
action in acidic soils and basic soils. The chemical side of a soil is extremely important of
course and is about the correct balance of the available nutrients in the soil. This is largely
determined by the organic-matter content and its humus percentage; this is the ‘store house’
of nutrients on any farm. The extent to which minerals have a dominant presence or not,
affects the release of specific nutrients. Supplementing shortages is important, but the right
balance is even more important. The soil only produces nutrients if you have the right
balance. Chemical and physical properties impact biological properties. Optimal chemical
and physical properties will lead to optimal biological properties and soil functions i.e.
Chemical properties of the soil are important to soil fertility, plant growth and
reproduction. That is why it is important to understand how chemical properties of the soil
interact to affect the soil’s capacity to store and release nutrients, and how soil chemistry can
affect soil structure. The soil fertility status found within the soils at the main campus arte
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variable low. The soil fertility parameters such as organic matter content, total nitrogen,
available phosphorus, and total exchangeable bases of the area are very low. The nature of
the soils are acidic in reaction and mobility of most elemental; nutrients in the soils. As a
result of its low fertility status in the soils, the soils would require a heavy application of both
organic and inorganic fertilizer (mostly single phosphate) to moderate the acidic level and
The soils are young by way of classification (inceptisols) with low developed
horizons and partial weathering of parent materials especially in the subsoil. Also, saprolites
are common features of the soil profiles studied. This means that the soils are still maturing.
Soil pH is perhaps the single most important aspect of soil chemistry, because it affects the
availability of nutrients to plants and the activity of microorganisms in the soil. Soil pH is a
measure of the number of hydrogen ions (H+) present in a solution. In more common terms,
it is a measure of alkalinity and acidity. The pH scale runs from 0 to 14. Seven is neutral, 0 is
the most acidic value possible, and 14 is the most alkaline, or basic, value.
While many plants can tolerate pH ranges between 5.2 and 7.8, most plants grow best
in mineral soils (soils with less than 20 percent organic content) when soil pH is between 6.0
Soil morphology is the field observable attributes of the soil within the various soil
horizons and the description of the kind and arrangement of the horizons. Soil morphology
deals with the form and arrangement of soil features. Soil morphology is ordinarily first
observed, described, and studied in the field, but investigation can be continued in the
Field observations with the unaided eye or with a hand lens are considered macro-
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2.1.4 Other Soil Properties
These are major soil characteristics that relate more specifically to soil fertility and
evaluation and assessment they are basically considered as soil chemical properties and may
Three major diagnostic features of soil are often been referred to those that are
According to Onyekanne et al., (2012) organic soil are those soils in which more than
half of the profile thickness is composed of organic soil materials. On the other hand, organic
soil materials are piece of plant tissue of fibres which are saturated with water for prolonged
period unlike artificially drained and contain 18% organic carbon (by weight) if the minerals
fraction contains more than 60% clay or >12% organic carbon if the minerals fraction is
between 0 and 60% Esu, (2010). According to (Eswaran, et al., 2010), organic soils materials
are also fibres which are never saturated with water for more than a few days and having
more than 20% organic carbon. There are various kind of organic soil materials which are
diagnostic for the classification of organic soils and described soils as follows (Esu, 2010);
These are organic soil materials that contains three fourth or more (by volume) of
fibres after rubbing, exchanging coarse fragments. These are also called peats.
materials between the less decomposed frbric and the more decomposed sapric materials.
Their morphological features give intermediate values for fiber content, bulk density and
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iii. Humilluvic Materials
This is alluvial humus which accumulates in the lower parts of some organic soils that
are idle and have been drained and cultivated. It has very high solubility in sodium sulphate
and renews very slowly after drying. Most commonly it accumulates near a contact with a
derived from under water and floating and aquatic plants and subsequently modified bay
aquatic animals. They include corpogenous earth (sediment peat), diatomaceous earth
rock structure has been destroyed, it is darkened by organic matter or shows evidence of
horizon always because it may include part or all of the E, AB or BA or even part or all of the
illuvial B horizon. If the darkening by organic matter extends from the soil surface into the B
horizon, a soil with a mantle, thick enough to have a buried soil has no epipedon. According
to (Arnold 2000), there are eight Epipedons presently recognized is soil taxonomy defined as
follows;
i. Molic Epipedon
Consist of organic matter (>0.6 through its thickness) and softness even when they
dry. It has a high percentage be saturated (>50% by NH 4OAC at pH 7.0). mollic Epipedons
from the ground decomposition of mainly graves organic residue and are associated with
Hisols of the grassland or prairic region of the world. They have good soil structure and
porosity and are associated with some of the richest agricultural soils of the world.
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ii. Umbric Epipedons
This is a surface horizon that is similar to a mollic epipedon in several respect except
that they are formed largely under forest vegetation and they have a lower natural fertility
status than a mollic Epipedons. The major distinctions between the mollic Epipedons and
umbric epipedon is that an epipredon has a percentage base saturation of <50% by NH 4OAC
at pH 0.7. it is most commonly associated with inceptisols, Andisols, Affisols and Ultisols
with respect to color, thickness, organic carbon content, consistence and base saturation, but
that has >110 mg P kg-1 soluble in 0. 05 M citric acid, or is dry >300 days (cumulative)
during the period when not irrigated. The anthropic epipedon forms under long continued
over long time. They occur mostly in Europe where in medieval times, sod or other materials
were used for bedding livestock and manure was spread on the cultivated fields, they often
contain artifacts, such as bits of brick and pottery throughout its depth. The plaggen
v. Folistic Epipedons
This is a surface horizon which is 20cm or more thick and contains high amount of
organic soil with bulk density less than 0.1gm cm3, but is not saturated mostly with podosols
and inceptisols.
consecutive days or more in most years (unless drained) and has a thickness of 10 cm or
10
more. If the layer with organic material is less than 20 cm thick, the upper 20 cm of the soil
after mixing, or if continuous rock is present within 20 cm depth, the entire soil above after
The melanic epipedon is defined as a surface horizon with (1) a cumulative thickness
of 30 cm or more, (2) andic properties throughout, (3) a moist color value and chroma of 2 or
less, (4) a melanic index of 1.7 or less, and (5) a SOC concentration of 6 % of more
The ochric epipedon refers to the “other” category, i.e., to epipedons that do not have
the thickness, color, SOC concentrations, and evidence of human disturbance of the other
seven epipedons. It is either too light ion colour, too low in organic carbon and it high in
organic carbon and dark in colour and it is too thin to be mollic epipedons. On the orchric
epipedons can occur in a variety of soil orders but it is most common in the tropics, it has
greater than or equal to 1% organic matter. It is characteristics of soils with high allophone
of that kind of soil. These characteristics may be of structure, origin. The World Reference
Base for soil resources refers to 39 diagnostic horizons. According to (Esu, 2005) and (Esu,
2019), they are nineteen in number and are regarded mostly as the B horizon by many
i. Argic Horizon
containing large amounts of illuvial clay, silt, and humus. A mineral-soil diagnostic horizon,
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formed from an accumulation of clay, silt, and humus, which has moved down from an
overlying, cultivated soil layer. It is a soil horizon created by agricultural management, and is
identified by its near-surface position, and by colloids accumulated in the pores of the soil.
Is an eluvial horizon 10cm or more thick often with a bleached or white color because
clay and iron oxide coating have been removed by pedogenesis. They often overlie on
allergic, kandic, nitric, cambic or spodic horizon or a fragipan and are associated with
Spodosols, Affisols, Utisols and Mollisols. They are light-cloured horizon that is
moving of clay from one horizon to another or from one point to another within a horizon.
This horizon develops in areas with high rainfall for effective leaching.
calcium carbonate or other carbonates. It is 15 cm or more thick. These are found in arid and
semi-arid areas. It is very hard. Calcic horizons occur in Adrisols, Mollisols, inceptisols and
Gelisols.
v. Cambic Horizon
transformation. Physical alterations destroy the original rock structure and result in soil
formation. There is no evidence of movement of clays in the cambic horizons. This horizon
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vi. Duripan
Sand supportively by calcium carbonate. It is very firm even after prolonged wetting. Soils
containing horizons cemented with silica occur worldwide, especially in the sub-humid,
Mediterranean, and semiarid regions. When the subsoil is cemented by silica into a hardpan,
(Milnes and Twidale 1983). In Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff 2010), a duripan is defined
cementing agents could be Fe oxides and CaCO3. The duripan horizon can occur concurrently
vii. Fragipan
A fragipan is an altered subsurface horizon with fifteen centimeters or more thickness.
It has low amount of organic matter and high bulk density. It is very hard. Fragipan is a
subsurface diagnostic horizon that is compact but not or only weakly cemented, with
degradation of an argillic horizon from which clay and free iron oxides are removed” (Soil
Survey Staff (2010), p. 11). Glossic horizons occur in several orders besides Alfisols,
including Mollisols, Aridisols, Ultisols, and Spodosols. The glossic horizon is formed
after the degradation of an argillic, kandic, or natric horizon from which clay and free iron
5% more occur in arid environment where the parent materials are rich in gypsum. The soils
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which ground water close to the surface, gypsum can accumulate by capillary rise
evaporation and transpiration. They occur most commonly in Ardisols, but cal also occur in a
x. Kandic Horizon
and share properties with the argillic (relatively finer textured subsoils) and oxic (low activity
The natric horizon has, in addition to the properties of the argillic horizon: either:
Columns or prisms in some part, which may break to blocks; or both blocky structure and
eluvial materials, which contain uncoated silt or sand grains and extend more than 2.5 cm
into the horizon; and: an exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) of 15 percent or more (or a
sodium adsorption ratio [SAR] of 13 or more) in one or more horizons within 40 cm of its
upper boundary. Requires lab testing to measure % of sodium on CEC sites, or SAR or pore
organic matter with or without Fe (Spodic materials) which limits root growth and the
insoluble minerals such as quartz, hydrated oxides of iron and aluminum, and small amounts
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xiv. Petrocalcic Horizon
They are mainly concentration of carbonates. They are associated with Aridsols but
This is a cemented or indurated, gypsic horizon 10cm thick, whose dry flakes do not
This is a (<25mm), dark coloured (dark reddish brown to black) horizon that is
cemented by either Mn or Fe and organic matter and lies within 50cm of the soil surface and
is wavy, involved and slowly permeable. They are associated mainly with Spodisols and
Inceptisols.
NaCl, KCl, MgCl, NaSO4, MgSO4, etc. Defined by EC (electrical conductivity): at least 30
dS/cm in saturated paste“Bz”, or Bnz, Byz, etc. If ochric or albic has <20% clay, clay content
must double within 7.5 cm or less.If ochric or albic has >20% clay, increase of 20% clay
(absolute) within 7.5 cm, and clay content in some part of argillic should be double that of
ochric/albic.
Is a free draining horizon, not under an albic horizon has the darkness and base
saturation of an umbric epipedon and has formed by illuviation of human but not of Al or Na.
it may easily be mistaken for a buried horizon. They are largely confined to the cool, moist
soils of high platens or mountains of the tropics and occur in Inceptisols, Oxisols and
Ultisols.
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xix. Spodic horizon
Illuvial accumulation of organic matter and aluminum (+/- iron), Dark colored
(value, chroma < 3). Low base saturation (acidic), Formed under humid acid conditions
definition of its object is impossible. Dokuchaev, commonly regarded as the founder of soil
science, gave the first scientific definition of soils. However, as evidenced by the constant
appearance of old and new definitions, there is the need to improve Dokuchaev’s definition
or give another one. For example, in a recent study, Hartemink (2015) analyzes eighty-one
definitions of soils and suggests another. However, these new definitions, in contrast to
Dokuchaev’s one, for the most part only list the diagnostic properties of soils, leaving their
essential character without proper attention. Their essential nature lies in their duality—on
the one hand, the soils are independent natural bodies (that is, systems), and on the other hand
they are the result of the interaction and interrelationship of soil-forming factors (that is,
explanatory notes to the “world reference base for soil resources” (WRB), the U.S. soil
taxonomy and Russian soil classification system: – For WRB, soil is: any material within two
meters of the Earth’s surface that is in contact with the atmosphere, excluding living
organisms, areas with continuous ice not covered by other material, and bodies of water
Judging from the foregoing, (Esu 2010 and Nwaka, 2012), defined soil classification
characteristics. Soils under continuous rock, except those that occur in caves, are generally
not considered for classification. In special cases, the WRB may be used to classify soils
under rock, for example for palaeopedological reconstruction of the environment. (IUSS
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Working Group WRB 2015, 4) – For “U.S. Soil Taxonomy” (Soil Survey Staff 1999): “Soil
is a natural body comprised of solids (minerals and organic matter), liquid, and gases that
occurs on the land surface, occupies space, and is characterized by one or both of the
following: horizons, or layers, that are distinguishable from the initial material as a result of
additions, losses, transfers, and transformations of energy and matter or the ability to support
For the Russian soil classification system (Shishov et al. 2004): “The soil is a natural
long-term interaction of the processes leading to the differentiation of the original mineral
and organic material into horizons.” It should be recalled that there are two main versions of
the definition of soils proposed by Dokuchaev, which have a similar first part (namely, the
soil is an independent natural body) and are distinguished by their second part. These two
parts of the definition reflect the dual nature of the soil. The second part of the well-known
first version, which is commonly used every day: “Each soil is the product of the aggregate
activity of parent material, climate, vegetation, and topography” (Dokuchaev 1879, 1). This
second part of the first version varies in other works of Dokuchaev, since he returned to it
many times over many years. Much more rarely is this second part used, namely: soils are
“those daily or outward horizons of rocks which are more or less changed naturally by the
common effect of water, air and various kinds of living and dead organisms” (Dokuchaev
1886, 227). A comparison of these second parts of the two versions of the definition shows
that, unlike the second part of the first version, the second part of the second version
corresponds to the systems approach, despite the fact that it does not use its terminology
However, at present, only the first part of Dokuchaev’s definition is used as the basis
for soil classification, while the second is either not used at all, or its use is only declared (see
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Buol et al. 1980, 17; 320; Florea 2012; Lebedeva and Gerasimova 2009). For example, Jenny
(1941, 1-21) draws attention to the fact that most soil scientists deal only with the soil as such
(that is, with the soil as an independent natural body), but not with the soil as a part of a wider
system, namely the natural landscape or the environment,” however, “often it is not
sufficiently realized that the boundary between soil and environment is artificial.” In turn,
Karpachevsky (1981) expresses the following view: “An analysis of the soil definition given
by V.V. Dokuchaev shows that although soil is a special natural body … it should always be
considered as a subsystem of the other natural systems. There is no soil out of these systems.
This provision, explicitly or implicitly, normally provides the foundation of all scientific
researches of soils.” Fridland (1986, 9) considers the relationship of soils with soil formation
factors to be their main property. However, it is the second version of the definition of
Dokuchaev, which is currently used to Know. Org. 46(2019) No.6 A. A. Nikiforova. Soil
Classification studies the landscape in Russia. Moreover, mainly because of this version,
Dokuchaev is considered to be the founder of Russian landscape science, despite the fact that
he never used the term landscape in his works. The definition of soils affects the set of
objects that are proposed for inclusion in SCSs. For example, in addition to natural terrestrial
soils, it is proposed to include in SCSs: 1) regolith and groundwater, which together with the
soil form an integrated natural body that supports life on Earth (Krasilnikov and Arnold 2009,
329); 2) superficial friable rocks, redeposited and artificially accumulated soils, as well as
underwater bottom formations located at a shallow depth and serving as a substrate for green
plants (Fridland 1986, 8-9); and, 3) all exogenous bodies characterized by fertility, since they
are genetically related to soils by gradual transitions, perform biospheric ecological functions
of soils, and are objects of economic activity, cartography, and accounting (Sokolov 1991).
Classification of soils consists of the division of soils into classes based on their
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nature of the parent rock influences the composition of the resulting soil. The weathering
processes and type and amount of transport before deposition, as in the case of sedimentary
soils, affect the structure of the soils and their engineering properties.
agrarian civilization they noted that the soils are different (Yaalon 2008). This knowledge
then was then used by the governors for evaluating land value and, consequently, the taxes.
The earliest known soil classification system in the world can be find in an ancient Chinese
book Yugong (2,500 y.b.p.), where soils of China were classified into three categories and
nine classes based on soil color, texture and hydrologic features; the classification was used
for land evaluation (Gong Zitong 1994). Ancient name for Egypt – Kemet means fertile black
alluvial soils, while Deshret means red desert land. About 3,000 y.b.p. different arable soils
had different cost in Egypt: “nemhuna” soils cost 3 times more than “ sheta-teni” soils
(Krupenikov 1981). This tradition continued in newer times. For example, in Russia a
systematic survey of folk soil knowledge was started in the 16th century, when special books
were created to evaluate soil resources of the state; these books were prepared by
interviewing the peasants about the quality and productivity of their lands. These books
mainly included short characteristics of soils, like poor sandy soil, clayey stony soils, fat
loams etc. Later, in 19th century, the survey became more regular, and perennial data were
folk soil names for soils were listed. The materials were also used for preparing first soil
environmental conditions, such as climate and vegetation, are termed as Zonal Soils, for
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2.4.2 Zonal or Normal Soil
Zonal Soils are formed by long period effect of vegetation and climate and thus are
distributed throughout the world according to the vegetative and climatic conditions. Zonal
soils are further divided into following types: - 1. Pedalfer Soil: - It is made up of three words
(Ped+ Al + Fe). Ped means soil. So Pedalfer are those soil having large amount of aluminum
and iron. It is formed by the process of Laterization. Pedalfer soil is further divided into two
groups: - a) Forest Region Pedalfer soil b) Grassland Region Pedalfer soil 2. Pedocal soils: -
(Ped + Cal) Ped means soil and Cal stands for calcium. So Pedocal soils are having large
amount of calcium. In such type of soil calcium comes to the upper layer of soil from its
lower layers by the process of Capillary Action. Pedocal soils are further divided into
following groups: - a) Chernozem Soils b) Brown Steppe Soils c) Desert Pedocal Soils 3.
Tundra Soils: - It is found in the Tundra region and due to very cold climatic condition these
soils are much less developed again due to lack of Bacterial activity these soils are not fertile.
These are not having developed layers of Soil Profile and are also not formed by any
specific process. These undeveloped soils have humus and minerals deposition at many
places. Alluvial, Loess, Moraine, and Lithosol are prominent Azonal soil among which
Alluvial soils are much fertile soils which are found in the flood plains of the world formed
by different rivers. Deposition of new layers of soil every year by floods caused by these
reivers has made them much fertile but this is also the basic reason why such soils have less
These are formed by the combined effect of parent rocks, surface features, drainage
factors etc. As such soils are found in scattered way between the Zonal soils these are known
as Intra-Zonal soils. Regur or Black soils, Rendzina soil, Peat, Bog soil, Muck soil,
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Solanchak, Solonetz etc. are prominent Intra-Zonal soils. These soils are somewhere fertile
tropical belts from the Mediterranean (37oN) to the Cape of Good Hope (35 oS). Its enormous
size and variations in relief give a wide variety of climates, soils and agricultural systems.
Nowhere in Africa is rainfall evenly distributed over the year; there are everywhere distinct
wet and dry seasons. High isolation and high evaporation are about the only common factors.
The system of soil classification used by the National Cooperative Soil Survey has six
categories (Soil Survey Staff, 1999). Beginning with the broadest, these categories are
the Order, Suborder, Great Group, Subgroup, family, and Series. These categories are
Order – Twelve soil orders are recognized. The differences among orders reflect the
dominant soil forming processes and the degree of soil formation. Each order is identified by
Suborder - Each order is divided into suborders primarily on the basis of properties that
Great Group – Each suborder is divided into great groups on the basis of similarities in
horizons present, soil moisture or temperature regimes, or other significant soil properties.
Subgroup – Each great group has a ‘typic’ (typical) subgroup which is basically defined by
the Great Group. Other Subgroups are transitions to other orders, suborders, or great groups
Family – Families are established within a subgroup on the basis of physical and chemical
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Series – The series consists of soils within a family that have horizons similar in color,
texture, structure, reaction, consistence, mineral and chemical composition, and arrangement
in the profile.
series (Effland et al., 2009) , as documented in the SRI Soil Survey Memoirs (Adu et al.,
a. Climatophytic earths: These are well drained soils whose genesis is considered to
have been predominantly influenced by climate and vegetation of the areas in which
they occur.
soils are primarily influenced by the relief and drainage conditions. They have
impeded drainage.
c. Lithochronic earths: The developments of these soils are mainly influenced by parent
material and time over which the soil is developed. The profiles of these soils are
generally immature.
The ORSTROM system is known as the French system. It is comparable to the Ghana
system in as much as soil are divided into broad groups based on the extent of weathering and
leaching, it consist of groups which are broadly related to climate and vegetation belts. It is
mainly used throughout the French-speaking countries. This system is a natural system based
not on simple parameters or diagnostic horizons but on the evolution of the profile as a whole
and is associated with the work of G. Albert and others and covers all the world’s soils.
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2.4.9 The FAO-UNESCO Soil Classification System World Reference Base (WRB) for
Soil Resources.
In 1974, the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United Nations
published its soil map of the legend. The legend of the Soil Map of the World is not meant to
replace any of the national classification schemes but to serve as a common denominator"
(FAO, 1974). The legend is described by its authors as a "monocategorical classification," but
is presented as a two level hierarchical system of 26 first level classes ("soil units") and 106
second level classes with three kinds of textural phases, three slope phases, and twelve
management phases. A great deal of generalization was required to correlate the diversity of
classification systems and scales of mapping to one system. The map's scale for this system is
1:5,000,000 and is equally general in detail (one cm2 on the map equals 2500 km2).
Nevertheless, this system as well as others is useful to organize the diversity of soils and their
Since the original publication in 1974, FAO (1988) has made revisions to their legend
based on a better understanding of soil conditions. The modified legend applies only to new
studies and updated GIS based maps. There are now 28 first level classes and 153 second
level classes. A major change to the legend has been the removal of two first level classes
that were defined by an aridic soil moisture regime, Yermosols and Xerosols. This change
was based on one of FAO's general principles of their classification system, "that no climatic
criteria would be used to define the soil units." The two classes were originally established
because there were no better separation criteria. Accumulation of calcium carbonate and
gypsum are now used as additional separation criteria to deal with the aridic problem.
Calcisols and Gypsisols classes were introduced for this purpose. These soils occur
23
CHAPTER THREE
3.1 Location
The study was carried out in the main campus of University of Abuja, geographically
located between latitude 070 59' 20" and 080 58' 24" N and longitude 0060 54' 06" and 0070
10' 00" E, in the following locations within the University of Abuja land.
i. Institute of Education
To make detail description of each soil mapping unit a total of five (5) profile pits
representative site was selected, and dug with the standard dimension of 2m x 1m x 2m with
The depth of each profile pit was dependent on depth to water table or any
impediment (impenetrable layer) at depth which may not permit further digging. Land and
soil properties at each profile pit site will be described and examined in details and record in
3.2.2 Reconnaissance
Prior visit was carried out at various locations within the University of Abuja Main
campus and the field conditions were observed and noted. In each of the selected, the
topographic features were assessed and sites for profile pit were marked and geo-referenced
preparatory for the soil studies. After detailed description of the profile, soil samples were
24
taken from each diagnostic horizon for both physical and chemical laboratory analysis,
starting from the lower horizons coming upwards to avoid contamination. Samples for bulk
The collected samples for routine analysis and for analysis of physiochemical
properties will be carefully labeled for identification and air dry at room temperature. The air
dried samples will be crushed using a mortar and a pestle and sieved with a 2.00m sieve
mesh. All samples were re-bagged, coded and transported to the laboratory for analysis
Samples for bulk density were immediately weighed and oven dry at a temperature of
105c until a constant weight is attain. The values obtained were used to determine/calculate
The soil textures were determined by the hydrometer method (Tee and Baunder,
(1986); Citedin Kiute, 1986). Limited chemical treatments will be used to remove cementing
A measurement of silt clay (0-5mm) and clay (0.20mm) was carried out with a
micrometer ASTM 15211 hydrometer after 40 seconds and 3 hours respectively. The sand
fraction (50-2.0mm) will be obtained by difference. Soil textural classes will be read directly
from the standard U.S Department of Agriculture textural Ariangle (soil survey staff, 1975).
Particle size distribution was determined using the bouyancus method (hydrometer) as
described by Udo et al., (2009). Distilled water and neutral sodium hexa-metaphosphate
(calgon) will be used (50gram of the soil sample will be treated to aid dispersion).
25
The first hydrometer and temperature reading will be taken within the first 40 seconds
to one minute. The second readings will be taken after two hours. The results will be
Soil bulk density will be determined by using the core method (Blake and Hartage,
1986, cited in Klute, 1986). The samples will be oven dried for 24 hours at 105 0C, cool in
desiccators and then weighed. The saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksal) will be determined
The PH will be measured with a glass electrode Ph meter on 1:1 suspension of soil in
water and on KCl solution, in all cases after shaking for 1 hour, as described by Black ?
(1965). The electrical conductivity will also be measured on the 1:1 soil-water suspension
using direct reading conductivity meter using electrodes and the results reported in ds/m.
The percentage organic carbon will be determined by the Walkey and Black method
(Nelson and Sommer, 1982; cited in Face et al., 1982). The percentage of easily oxidizable
organic carbon will be determined by digesting the soil samples with potassium dichromate
The total Nitrogen will be determined by the Kjedhal method (Bremmer, 1967; cited
in Face et al., 1982). Organic nitrogen compound will be digested in the mixture of selenium
and sulphuric acid. Sodium hydroxide will be added to the mixture to make it absorbed in
boric acid. The released ammonia will be determined by titrating with dilute sulphuric acid.
26
CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 Results
Results of the morphological properties were presented in table 1 in the main project
work. However an appendix shall be referenced for the purpose of this presentation. Data on
The result showed that soil colour of the soil at different depth level at the crest of the
catena varied between dark brown (10YR 4/3) at the surface horizon to yellowish red (5YR
4/6). In the upper slope, the colour ranged from light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4), while
within the profile the colour varied between yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) to brownish yellow
(10YR 5/4). In the middle slope profile, the odour was Brown (10YR5/3) and varies at depth
from yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) to light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4). At the lower slope,
the colour sited was grayish brown (10YR 7/1) at the depression, soil colour ranges between
the surface, dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2) to the subsurface light yellowish brown (10YR
6/4).
Mottles were absent in the soil at crest, upper slope, middle slope of the catena.
However, at the lower slope and depression, mottles were common all through the profile
depth. The mottles estimated at the surface of the lower slope and depression was 2.20%,
Soil structure as observed in the soils of the crest was slightly coarse sub angular
blocky at the surface and was uniform through the sub surface horizon. In the upper slope, the
soil was moderate medium crumb with changes varying from medium moderate sub angular
27
blocky top slightly coarse moderate sub angular blocky at the surface and moderately coarse
angular blocky at the subsurface. The structure of the soil at the lower slope was moderate
medium sub-angular blocky and slightly medium prismatic at its subsurface level. In the
depression, the surface horizon had moderate medium and sub-angular blocky structure
uniformly to a depth of 94-120 (cm), which turns to be slightly coarse angular blocky
structure.
28
29
30
31
32
4.2 Physical Properties of the Soils
Table 4.2: Physical Properties of Soil
Location Pedon Depth Horizon Particle Size %
Sand Silt Clay Tc Mc Bd Tp
Institute of Crest 1 0-13 Ap 1 75.0 7.0 18.0 SL 3.04 1.17 55
education 13-37 Ap 2 55.0 21.0 24.0 SCL 4.36 0.89 66
37-70 Bt 1 55.0 9.0 36.0 SC 8.50 1.11 58
70-110 Bt 2 54.0 10.0 36.0 SC 11.80 1.09 58
Behind ASUU Crest 2 0-19 A 74.0 8.0 38.0 SC 1.21 1.88 55
secretariat 19.50 E 64.0 11.0 25.0 SCL 6.98 0.99 63
50-66 Bt 1 54.0 8.0 38.0 SC 2.38 1.14 57
66-200 Bt 2 52.5 9.5 38.0 SC
Institute of Upper Slope 0-15 Ap 71.5 9.5 19.0 SL 3.18 1.37 48
Education 1 15-30 E 70.0 15.0 15.0 SL 4.54 1.04 61
30-57 Bt 1 57.0 19.0 24.0 SCL 8.58 1.02 62
57-80 Bt2 44.0 25.0 32.0 CL 1.31 0.80 70
80-140 Bt3 43.0 22.0 35.0 CL 9.16 1.44 46
Behind ASUU Upper slope 0-12 Ap 71.0 14.0 15.0 SL 2.17 1.19 55
Secretariat 2 12-28 AB 69.0 12.0 19.0 SL 2.06 1.14 57
28-53 Bt1 47.5 24.0 28.5 SCL 3.94 1.18 55
53-80 Bt2 42.5 25.0 32.5 SC 6.63 0.93 65
80-180 BC 43.0 26.0 31.0 CL 6.06 0.79 70
Teaching and Middle 0-10 Ap 65.0 17.0 18.0 SL 3.41 1.29 51
Research farm slope 1 10-38 AB 62.0 16.0 22.0 SL 3.48 1.01 62
38-75 Bt1 62.0 12.0 26.0 SCL 3.73 0.81 69
75-100 Bt2 64.0 8.0 28.0 SCL 6.94 1.35 49
100-140 BC 56.0 18.6 25.4 SCL 8.63 1.05 60
Front of Middle 0-16 Ap 63.0 11.0 26.0 SCL 4.37 1.29 51
secretariat slope 2 16-60 AB 42.0 20.0 38.0 CL 6.65 1.09 59
building 60-84 Bt1 43.0 19.0 38.0 CL 7.00 0.81 69
84-106 Bt2 46.0 16.0 38.0 SC 10.30 1.35 49
106-200 BC 42.0 13.0 45.0 C 23.96 1.05 60
Teaching and Lower slope 0-12 Ap1 71.0 14.0 15.0 SL 2.72 1.07 60
research farm 1 12-36 Ap2 70.0 15.0 15.0 SL 4.39 1.20 55
36-69 Bt1 58.0 20.0 22.0 SCL 4.56 1.45 45
69-120 Bt2 57.0 19.0 24.0 SCL 12.14 1.45 45
120-200 Bt3 43.0 25.0 32.0 CL 8.81 1.55 42
Behind ASUU Lower slope 0-16 Ap1 72.0 12.0 16.0 SL 0.02 1.14 57
secretariat 2 16-30 Ap2 69.0 13.0 18.0 SL 14.16 0.84 68
30-69 Bt1 63.0 10.0 27.0 SCL 1.63 1.18 55
69-100 Bt2 43.0 26.0 31.0 CL 3.42 1.00 62
100-120 Bt3 43.0 24.0 33.0 CL 4.92 1.16 56
Teaching and Depression 0-18 Ap 75.0 7.0 18.0 SL 3.75 1.15 57
research farm 18-53 Bt1 69.0 6.0 25.0 SCL 6.40 1.32 50
53-94 Bt2 62.0 10.0 28.0 SCL 6.27 1.16 56
94-120 BC 42.0 25.0 33.0 CL 11.11 1.04 61
Depression 0-20 Ap 71.0 14.0 15.0 SL 7.89 1.08 59
20-48 AB 58.0 20.0 22.0 SCL 9.10 1.08 59
48-84 Bt1 57.0 19.0 24.0 SCL 8.02 0.75 72
84-115 Bt2 43.0 26.0 31.0 CL 5.70 1.17 56
115-137 2C1 40.0 16.0 44.0 C 11.16 1.23 54
137-200 2C2 40.5 15.0 44.5 C 32.88 1.09 59
33
4.2.1 Soil Texture and Aggregate Stability
The result of the particle size distribution of various pedons was carried out on (g/kg).
at the crest of the positions, sand particles ranged from 75.0-54.0 within the profile, while the
silt content ranged from 18.0-36.0. The sand decreased with depth pit while clay content
increased with depth. At the upper slope positions, the sand content ranged from 71.5-43.0
(%) and decreased with depth, while the silt ranged from 9.5-22.0 (%) and the clay content
ranged from 19.0-35.0 (%). At the middle slope positions, sand content ranged from 65.0-
56.0 (%) while the silt content ranged from 14.0-25.0 (%) and the clay content was showed to
be 15.0-32.0. at the lower slope. It showed decrease of sand particles with profile depth and
increase of the clay content respectively. In the depression the sand particles ranged from
75.0-42.0 (%), while the silt ranged from 7.0-25.0 (%) and the clay content ranged from 18.0-
33.0 (%).
The data showed that the soil textural class that at the crest, the soil texture was sandy
loam, at the surface of the horizon and varied from sandy clay loam to sandy clay at the
subsurface horizon. At the upper slope, the soil texture was sandy loam and varied with depth
to sandy clay loam. Sandy loam soil at the surface horizon and sandy clay loam to clay loam
at the subsurface. At the middle slope, the soil texture was sandy loam and varies with depth
to sandy clay loam. Sandy loam soil at the surface horizon was at the lower slope and
Further calculations were made to discover the moisture content, bulk density and
total porosity.
The chemical properties of soils from a position in the university of Abuja land of
Faculty of Agriculture University of Abuja, Abuja Nigeria are presented in table 4.3
34
4.3.1 Soil pH
The pH of the soil which is called soil reaction (determined at the ratio of 1:1),
showed pH in water ranged from 5.35-5.60, while pH in KCl ranged from 5.85-9.95 at the
moderately acidic to strongly acidic in KCl. At the upper slope, pH in water ranged from
5.70-5.74 and 5.05-5.20 in KCl. This range of pH is interpreted as moderately acidic to very
strongly acidic. The range from 5.36-5.20 and was interpreted as moderately acidic to
strongly acidic. For the lower slope of the toposequence, pH ranges from 5.86-6.00 in H 2O
(moderately acidic). Lastly, in the soils of the depression, the pH of the soil within the profile
pH ranged from 6.50-6.76 (slightly acidic neutral) in H2O, while in KCl, the pH value ranged
It is observed that the pH in water is higher than the pH in KCl, also the pH values
were lower in the surface horizons and higher than in the sub surface horizons. This means
that the soils at the surface of the soils were more acidic than in the sub surface horizons.
At the crest in the toposequence, the soil electrical conductivity ranged from 0.13-0.8
ds/cm. for the upper slope, the soil electrical conductivity ranged from 0.12-0.10 ds/cm. in
the middle slope, it ranged from 0.12-0.10 ds/cm, for the lower slope, the electrical
conductivity ranged from 0.15-0.12 ds/cm. at the depression of the toposequence, it ranged
from 0.11-0.09. These values were interpreted generally as low compared to the critical limit
of 0.45 ds/cm at which the soils are said to have salinity problems.
The distribution of organic carbon and organic matter in the soils at the crest along
the toposequence had organic carbon content ranged from 22.30-22.50 g/kg. These values are
interpreted as moderate to high. At upper slope, soil organic carbon ranged from 8.50-9.
35
80g/kg and correlated with soil organic matter content of 14.60-16.80 g/kg and is interpreted
as moderate to high. In the middle slope, soil organic carbon content ranged from 11.10-6.00
g/kg which correlated with moderate to high. At the lower slope, the soil organic carbon
ranged from 9.10-9.60 g/kg moderate to high for depression, the soil organic matter, which
ranged from 15.60-16.50 g/kg moderate to high for depression, the soil organic carbon
content ranged from 7.00-3.40 g/kg which correlated to soil organic matter of 12.00-5.80
The distribution of total Nitrogen at various pedons along the toposequence ranged
from crest 1.24-0.12mg/kg, upper slope ranged from 1.18-0.09mg/kg, middle slope ranged
from 0.10-0.25mg/kg, lower slope ranged from 1.28-0.09 and at the depression on the
Available phosphorus in the soil within the profile depth of each pedon, crest ranged
from 9.998-4.58mg/kg, upper slope ranged from 46.65-4.166mg/kg, middle slope ranged
from 37.082-10.415mg/kg and for depression the available phosphorus ranged from 59.165-
15.832mg/kg. the values for available phosphorus in the crest, upper slope, middle slope and
lower slope was interpreted as low while in depression it was interpreted as low to moderate.
pedon, the result indicate that exchangeable potassium (K) in the soils within the profile
depth of the crest ranged from 0.15-0.10cmol/kg. In upper slope, it ranged from 0.12-
0.19cmol/kg. At the middle slope it ranged from 0.27-0.16cmol/kg. At lower slope, the
exchangeable potassium ranged from 0.14-0.09cmol/kg, while for depression it ranged from
0.20-0.10cmol/kg. Potassium (K) was found to be decreasing with increase in depth and was
36
Exchangeable sodium (Na) within the profile pit: At the crest of the catena
exchangeable sodium ranged from 0.07-0.06cmol/kg. These values were interpreted as very
low in the soils. At the upper slope, it ranged from 0.06-0.07 cmol/kg, interpreted as very low
for middle slope the values ranged from 0.02-0.03cmol/kg, while at the lower slope, the
distribution ranged from 0.01-0.06 cmol/kg, interpreted generally as very low within the
profile pit.
Exchangeable Magnesium (Mg) in the soils within the profile pit: At crest, the
distribution ranged from 5.66-2.91cmol/kg, it ranged from 4.39-5.37 at the upper slope, also,
for the middle slope it ranged from 2.99-4.36cmol/kg at the lower slope, it ranged from 3.30-
4.11cmol/kg and for the soils at the depression, the distribution ranged from
2.98-3.96cmol/kg.
Exchangeable calcium (Ca) distribution within the profile pit located at different
pedons. At the crest, Calcium distribution in the soil ranged from 7.66-4.86cmol/kg. at the
upper slope, Ca ranged from 6.74-6.41cmol/kg. In the middle slope, calcium ranged from
the depression, it ranged from 4.61-5.63cmol/kg. These ranges of calcium values across the
Exchangeable Aluminum (Al) in the soil within the profile pit at the crest of the
catena ranged from 0.27-0.72cmol/kg, while for the upper slope, the exchangeable aluminum
ranged from 0.41-0.53cmol/kg. For the soils in the middle slope, the distribution of
aluminum ranged from 0.41-0.28cmol/kg, while soils in the lower slope, exchangeable
aluminum values ranged from 0.41-0.58. In the depression, aluminum distribution in the soil
37
38
39
4.2.6 Effective Cation Exchange Capacity (ECEC), Percentage Base Saturation (PBS)
The effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC) of the soils from the crest ranged from
15.64 – 9.85 cmol/kg. at the upper slope, the ECEC ranged from 13.72-14.62 cmol/kg. in the
middle slope, the ECEC ranged from 10.66-13.53 cmol/kg. at the lower slope, the ECEC
distribution in the soil ranged from 8.69-11.45 cmol/kg while at the depression, the values of
exchangeable cations in the soil within the profile pit. At the crest, the total exchangeable
bases of the soil ranged from 13.46-7.98 cmol/kg. in the upper slope, it ranged from 11.25-
12.40 cmol/kg, while in the lower slope, the distribution values ranged from 6.23-8.89
For percentage base saturation (PBS) of the soils within the profile pit, the values
obtained for the crest ranged from 86.1-80.5% while for the upper slope, the values ranged
from 81.9-82.4%. in the middle slope, the values of PBS ranged from 74.9-83.8% while for
the lower slope, PBS distribution values ranged from 71.7-77.6%. at the depression position,
the values ranged from 79.9-79.8%. these values of base saturation in the soils across the
40
4.2.7 Soil Classification
Table 4 Soil Classification
Soil Unit USDA Order Sub-Order Great Group Sub-Group WRB (FAO)
Crest 1 Alfisol Ustalfs Haplustalfs Plinthic
Haplustalfs
Crest 2 Inceptisols Ustepts Haplustepts Typic
Haplustepts
Upper Slope 1 Alfisol Ustalfs Haplustalfs Plinthic
Haplustalfs
Upper slope 2 Alfisol Ustalfs Haplustalfs Plinthic
Haplustalfs
Middle Slope 1 Alfisol Ustalfs Haplustalfs Plinthic
Haplustalfs
Middle Slope 2 Alfisol Ustalfs Haplustalfs Plinthic
Haplustalfs
Lower Slope 1 Alfisol Ustalfs Haplustalfs ypic
Haplustepts
Lower Slope 2 Alfisol Ustalfs Haplustalfs Typic
Haplustepts
Depression 1 Alfisol Aqualfs Haploqualf Fluventic
Haploqualf
Depression 2 Alfisol Aqualfs Haploqualf Fluventic
Haploqualf
The soils of the study area were classified according to the USDA Soil Taxonomy (Soil
Survey Staff, 2014) and correlated with the World Reference Base (FAO., 2014). Table 4.4
shows the classified soils. In classifying these soils, certain criteria were considered. These
include the nature of endo and epipedons, type of diagnostic horizons, the cation exchange
capacity, the development of horizons, percentage base saturation based on CEC, organic
carbon content, the presence of absence of concretions (plinthites, duripan, fragipan, e.t.c),
the presence or absence of phological description of the soil. Due to inability to conduct
mineralogical analysis, texture as also used as part of the criteria for assigning taxonomic
classes and the classification cutans, drainage characteristics, moisture regime, and colour as
Classifications into the USDA order, sub-order, great-group and sub-group were carried
out on the basis of properties of diagnostic horizons of soil that reflects the nature of the soil
environment and the dominant pedogenic processes that are responsible for the soil
41
formation. The soils of the crest, upper and lower slopes were classified into the order
inceptisols (Cambisol) because of the young nature of the soil characterized bay partial
weathering at shallow depths of about 100cm depth and saprolites in the sub soils. The soils
were then considered in the sub-order as Ustept based on their ustic moisture regime up to the
depth of 100cm and beyond. The pedons were further placed in Great group Huplustept
having well drained soils with hues of 10YR and value of up to 4 and 6 and absence of
mottles.
The middle slope pedon was placed in the order Alfisol because it showed young soils
with moderate leaching, B horizon enriched in clay and humid forest vegetation. The pedon
was placed in the sub-order Alfa because of its ustic moisture regime; because of the
The pedon located at the depression of the catena was classified and placed in the
USDA order of Alfisol because the soils are young and characterized by partial weathering of
parent materials, moderate leaching and heavy presence of saprolites in the sub surface
horizon. Based on the characteristic aquic moisture regime at about 115cm depth of the
profile, the soil was classified as Acqualf in the sub order level and Haloqualf in the group. In
the sub group level, the soil were classified as Fluventic Haploqualf and correlates with
soils matrix colour was yellow red as in most tropical soils and mostly within the value range
of 5 and 6 and in some cases the value of 2 when the hue is darker. The chroma of the soils
was mostly from 4-8 indicating that the soils were mostly light coloured especially in the
crest down to the lower slope. Sani (2012) reported similar results in a study within Abuja.
This suggests that the soils were well drained and had little or no drainage problems.
42
However, the dark and grey colour observed in the soils of the depression indicates poor
absence of organic matter in the soils. The bright or lighter colours observed in the upper
pedons (crest, upper, middle and lower slopes) also suggest that organic matter content of
the soils may be low. The soil texture was mostly sandy clay loam uniformly at the surface of
all the pedons along the catena. In the sub surface horizons, soil texture ranged from sandy
clay loam and sandy loam. In each case sand content was high in the surface horizons and
decreased down the depth in the profile. Soil texture is the most fundamental quantitative soil
physical property that control water, nutrient and oxygen exchange, retention and uptake. It is
a master soil property that influences most other properties and processes. The predominance
of sandy loam soil under the land-use types is inherited from the parent material of the study
area which is coarse grained granite and gneiss (Okusanmi and Oyediran, 1985). The textural
composition of soil is highly influenced by parent materials (Oguike and Mbagwu, 2009). It
is an inherited property of the soil that is not influenced over a short period of time (Kiflu and
Beyene, 2013).
Soil pH was mostly moderately acidic (pH in water) but very strongly acidic (pH in
KCl). The acidic nature of the soils could be attributed to the nature of the soils and the
apparent materials from which the soils develop. The soils are formed over an
undifferentiated basement complex with mostly granites, schists, migmatites and quartz as
the primary parent materials. These are known to produce soils with acidic reaction especially
as conditioned by high rainfall regime in the area because they easily produce acidic oxides
The soils were of low natural fertility due to how organic matter reserve. Also, low
total nitrogen, low available phosphorus and the low status of exchangeable cations in the
43
soils could be responsible for the fertility status of the soils in the area. Organic matter has an
important influence on soil chemical properties, soil fertility status, plant nutrition and
biological activity in the soil (Brady and Weil, 2022). The low organic matter content of the
soils could mean that the soils will have low nutrient holding potential as well as low water
retention capacity. Planting crops on the soil types would require application of high doses of
Nitrogen reserve of the soils was very low and all the units studied. The result of the
present study agrees with the findings of Gbadegesin et al., (2001) who attributed the
decrease in total nitrogen with increasing depth to declining humus. The total nitrogen
content of the soils were generally lower, which implies that cultivation reduced the total
nitrogen content probably arising from loses through leaching, volatilization and plant uptake
44
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 Conclusion
The studies carried out along various toposequence within the main campus,
University of Abuja showed that the soils are mostly sandy clay, loam and sandy loam in
texture with moderate to high sand content. This makes the soils prone to leaching and loss of
some basic cations. The implication for these soils is that the nutrient holding capacity and
buffering capacity as well as water transmission and retention in the soils is affected. Applied
nutrients can easily be lost. The soils at each toposequence, the crest, upper slopes, middle
slopes and lower slopes are well drained except at the depression which is poorly drained.
This is expected because of high water table as it is common in most soils of a depression.
Due to poor drainage in the soils of the depression, swamp rice production would be most
suitable for the soils. However,, other vegetation types such as flowering trees, low lying
bushes, flowering plants, grasses, grass, live animals and sedges, could also think at soils
5.2 Recommendation
status of the soil should be adopted for better productivity and yield of crops. The use
of high rates of organic manures will improve the physical and chemical quality of
the soils.
ii. Liming materials rich in calcium and magnesium should be applied to the soils to
reduce its acidic content and improve fertility and oxygen levels. This is because the
soils are already having low PH values. Also, the use of fertilizers that will leave
45
iii. Slope gradient should be taken into consideration at the various topo units.
Moughing along the slope should be avoided to check the credibility of the soils.
46
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APPENDIX
Ratings for soil data interpretation
Soil depth
Very shallow - <30cm
Shallow - <30-50cm
Moderate - 50 – 100cm
Deep - >150
Soil Reaction pH
Extremely acidic - <4.5
Very strongly acid - 4.5-5.0
Strongly acid - 5.1-5.5
Moderately acid - 5.6-6.0
Slightly acid - 6.1-6.5
Neutral - 6.6-7.3
Slightly alkaline - 7.4-7.8
Moderately alkaline - 7.9-8.4
Strongly alkaline - 8.5-9.0
Very strongly alkaline - >9.0
Organic Matter
Very low - <0.4%
Low - 0.4-1.0%
Moderate - 1.0-1.5%
High - 1.5-2.0%
Very high - >2%
Total Nitrogen
Very low - >0.05%
Low - 0.05-0.10%
Moderately low - 0.101-0.15%
Medium - 0.151-0.200%
Moderately high - 0.201-0.250%
High - 0.251-0.300%
Very high - >0.3%
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Cations Exchange Capacity (cmol (+) kg-1 (i.e. meg/100g soil)
Very high - >6
High - 6-12
Moderately - 12-25
Low - 25-40
Very low - <40
52
APPENDIX II
Date:
Weather condition prior to description: cloudy
Pedon name/number: unit/pedon Crest 1
State: FCT Abuja
Location and pit number: University of Abuja land
Geology: Undifferentiated basement complex
Parent materials: granite/gneiss
Local relief: Crest
Slope: Moderately to strongly slopping -6.8% Class C
Vegetation/land use: Arable land (Maize, garden egg/G/nut)
Erosion: Moderate sheet erosion
Surface drainage: Well drained
Surface characteristics: No rock out crops
Depth to water table/impenetrable layer: None
Soil classification: Affisols
Horizons:
Depth cm Description
0-13 Dark Brown (10YR 4/3) Boundary is diffused, ustic
moisture regime, thermic temperature regime, AP
horizon.
13-37 Dark brown (7.5YR 4/4) Boundary is diffused, ustic
moisture regime, thermic temperature regime, parent
materials, still undeveloped weathering, AP2 horizon
37-70 Yellowish red (5Yr 4/6) Partial, weathered parent
materials still common, Bt horizon, kandic horizon
70-110 Yellowish red (5YR 4/6) C horizon with saprolites
and un-decomposed parent materials, the boundary is
R (bed rock).
Date:
Weather condition prior to description: wet and cloudy
Pedon name/number: Crest 2
State: FCT Abuja
Location and pit number: University of Abuja land
Geology: Undifferentiated basement complex
Parent materials: granite
Local relief: middle slope adjacent to stream
Slope: Moderately to strongly slopping
Vegetation/land use: cultivated fallow land
Erosion: deposition of erosion materials from upper slope
Surface drainage: very poorly drained
Surface characteristics: inundated by surface flow
Depth to water table/impenetrable layer: 87cm depth
Soil classification: Affisol
53
Horizons:
Depth cm Description
0-19 Dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) Boundary is
defined gravelly, partial; weathering
Date:
Weather condition prior to description: wet and cloudy
Pedon name/number: Upper Slope 1
State: FCT Abuja
Location and pit number: University of Abuja land
Geology: Undifferentiated basement complex
Parent materials: granite
Local relief: lower slope adjacent to stream
Slope: gently slopping 2%
Vegetation/land use: cultivated fallow land
Erosion: deposition of eroded materials from upper slopes
Surface drainage: very poorly drained
Surface characteristics: inundated by surface flow
Depth to water table/impenetrable layer: 140cm depth
Soil classification: Affisol
Horizons:
Depth cm Description
0-15 Light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4) Boundary is
diffused, transitional AP
54
Date:
Weather condition prior to description: cloudy but dry
Pedon name/number: Upper Slope 2
State: FCT Abuja
Location and pit number: University of Abuja land
Geology: Undifferentiated basement complex
Parent materials: granite
Local relief: lower slope adjacent to stream
Slope: gently slopping 2%
Vegetation/land use: arable land (maize and yam)
Erosion: severe
Surface drainage: well drained
Surface characteristics: boundary
Depth to water table/impenetrable layer: 164cm depth
Soil classification: Affisol
Date:
Weather condition prior to description: cloudy and barely sunny
Pedon name/number: Middle slope 1
State: FCT Abuja
Location and pit number: University of Abuja land
Geology: Undifferentiated basement complex
Parent materials: granite
Local relief: middle slope
Slope: undulated (class B)
Vegetation/land use: arable land (maize and yam)
Surface drainage: well drained
Surface characteristics: gravelly stony, rocky (2-10% of total surface
occupied
Depth to water table/impenetrable layer: 127cm depth
Soil classification: Inceptisol
55
0-10 Brown (10YR 5/3)Visible cracks, Fe and Mn patches,
boundary is diffused, pockets of organic matter
collected within the horizon contains OM films,
termite activities
56
10-38 Yellowish brown (10 YR 5/4) Visible cracks, pocket
of organic matter clay film (constains)
38-75 Light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4) Patches of Fe &
Mn,
gravelly, ustic MR, contains clay film, boundary
diffused
75-100 Light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4)
57
Slope: undulated (class B)
Vegetation/land use: arable land (maize and yam)
Surface drainage: well drained
Surface characteristics: gravelly stony, rocky (2-10% of total surface
occupied
Depth to water table/impenetrable layer: 120cm depth
Soil classification: Inceptisol
Date:
Weather condition prior to description: cloudy and barely sunny
Pedon name/number: lower slope 2
State: FCT Abuja
Location and pit number: University of Abuja land
Geology: Undifferentiated basement complex
Parent materials: granite
Local relief: middle slope
Slope: undulated (class B)
Vegetation/land use: arable land (maize and yam)
Surface drainage: well drained
Surface characteristics: gravelly stony, rocky (2-10% of total surface
occupied
Depth to water table/impenetrable layer: 115cm depth
Soil classification: Afisol
58
100-120 Brownish Yellow (10YR 6/6) Saprolites and parent
rock material
Date:
Weather condition prior to description: cloudy and barely sunny
Pedon name/number: Depression 1
State: FCT Abuja
Location and pit number: University of Abuja land
Geology: Undifferentiated basement complex
Parent materials: granite
Local relief: middle slope
Slope: undulated (class B)
Vegetation/land use: arable land (maize and yam)
Surface drainage: well drained
Surface characteristics: gravelly stony, rocky (2-10% of total surface
occupied
Depth to water table/impenetrable layer: 120cm depth
Soil classification: Inceptisol
Date:
Weather condition prior to description: cloudy and barely sunny
Pedon name/number: Depression 2
State: FCT Abuja
Location and pit number: University of Abuja land
Geology: Undifferentiated basement complex
Parent materials: granite
Local relief: middle slope
Slope: undulated (class B)
Vegetation/land use: arable land (maize and yam)
Surface drainage: well drained
Surface characteristics: gravelly stony, rocky (2-10% of total surface
occupied
Depth to water table/impenetrable layer: 110cm depth
Soil classification: Inceptisol
59
boundary is diffused, vertic properties
60