6 - Acero

Acero
ICI 4051
Daniela Martínez, M.S., Ph.D.
Profesora Departamento de Ing. Civil y Ambiental
lopezmd@uninorte.edu.co
Concreto vs Acero
• Resistencia a la tracción del concreto: 2-5MPa
• Resistencia a la tracción del acero: 420-550 Mpa
• Por esto confinamos el concreto con acero de

refuerzo!
D. M. Martínez y M. Dugarte 2
Atributos de los metales?
• Alto módulo de elasticidad
• Conductores eléctricos
• Materiales rígidos
• Abundancia de material
• Fácil de fabricar
• Facilidad de reciclar
Limitaciones de los metales?
• Costo
• Problemas de corrosión
• Altas densidades
• Susceptible a la temperatura
• Susceptible a la fatiga
Introduction – Steel
3rd most used construction material after concrete and
asphalt
• Mineral de hierro (Iron ore) → 1500 B.C. primitive
furnace: iron
→ 18th century – alto horno: producción masiva
→ mid-1800s Convertor Bessemer: steel (iron-carbon)
Difference:
• Concrete & asphalt
Engineers and contractors directly influence
strength, stability, & durability
• Steel
Civil engineer has less flexibility in specifying
steel
Steel Production
1. Reduction of iron ore (mineral de hierro) to pig iron
(arrabio) (high carbon)
2. Refining pig iron to steel
3. Forming steel into products
Steel is iron with varying carbon (0,03%-2,1%)
Iron Ore Pig iron Steel
Definiciones
• Ferrous Metals: Iron and Steel and alloys of iron and steel
such as stainless steel.
• Pig Iron (arrabio): initial product of smelting in a blast
furnace which must be further refined to produce usable
iron and steel. Pig Iron is very hard, but too brittle to be
used for construction purposes.
• Cast Iron (hierro fundido): Ferrous metals composed
primarily of iron, carbon and silicon which is shaped by
being cast in a mold.
• Wrought Iron (hierro forjado): highly refined iron with
slag incorporated, but not in chemical union with the iron.
Wrought iron can be easily machined into various shapes
and can be used for ornamental work and where corrosion
resistance is desirable.
• Steel: Additional oxidation of pig iron produces steel for
structural purposes. Alloying elements can be added to
enhance basic properties to produce desired properties.
Construction Uses of Steel
• Structural steel → plates, bars, pipes,
structural shapes, etc.
• Cold formed steel →studs, roofing,
cladding
• Fastening products → bolts, nuts, washers
• Reinforcing steel → rebar for concrete
• Miscellaneous → forms, pans, hardware,
etc.
https://corporate.arcelormittal.com/about/making-steel?backToSlide=true
Reduction of Iron Ore to Pig Iron
Blast furnace with carbon (coal or coke) &
limestone
Limestone removes impurities from iron ore
Slag (molten rock & impurities) is skimmed
off the top
Molten iron w/carbon is collected at the
bottom
Refining Pig Iron and Scrap to Steel
Remove excess carbon and other impurities

by oxidation in another furnace
• Basic oxygen furnace – 300 tons in 25
minutes
• Electric arc – electric arc melts steel – lots of
energy
• Deoxidize with aluminum, ferrosilicon,
manganese, etc.
• Killed Steel: completely deoxidized
Forming Steel into Products
• Cast into ingots (lingotes de hierro fundido):
large blocks that must be re-melted and re-
shaped
• Continuous shapes
Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon
• Higher carbon: steel is harder & more brittle
• Modulus of Elasticity is the same for all three (same atomic
bonds)
 Cast iron : high (>2%) carbon = brittle
 High carbon steel : medium (0.8%-2%) carbon = brittle
 Structural steel : low (0.15%-0.27%) carbon = ductile
1539
δ Liquidus
Solidus
eutectoids
eutectic
Solubility limit
γ & carbon 2.1%
Fe3C is 6.7% carbon by weight

This corresponds to 100% Fe3C
Solubility limit
iron carbide or cementite
α & carbon 0.022%
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
1539 Three phases of solid iron
δ δ = high temperature ferrite, FCC no
practical significance to CE
γ = austenite, BCC
α = low temperature ferrite, FCC
γ = austenite, BCC has a lower atomic

packing factor than FCC. The extra space
in the lattice structure allows carbon in
solution as an interstitial element.
Hypoeutectoid alloys
Eutectoid material – pearlite

α ferrite percent carbon = 0.022
Fe3C (iron carbide or cementite) 6.7% C
Forms in thin plates – lamellae structure
1539 Solid austenite with carbon in solution
δ grains of uniform material
Proeuctoid ferrite formed,

accumulates at grain boundaries of austenite
α ferrite percent carbon = 0.022

austenite 0.77% carbon
Austenite transforms into pearlite
Grains of pearlite surrounded by

skeleton of α ferrite
0.25%
Heat Treatment
El tratamiento térmico permite modificar las propiedades del
acero.
Objetives: Refines grain structure, removes internal stresses,
removes gases, changes electrical and magnetic
properties.
• Types
a) Annealing (recocido)
b) Normalizing (normalización)
c) Hardening (endurecimiento)
d) Tempering (templado)
Annealing (recocido)
Heating, then slowly cooling to room

temperature.
 Steel gets softer & more ductile, increasing
toughness.
 Objetivo: crecimiento de nuevos granos de
cristal para aumentar la ductilidad y la
tenacidad.
 El acero obtenido será blando y dúctil.
Annealing (recocido)
Normalizing (normalización)
Similar to annealing, but hotter & air cooled
Gives a uniform, fine-grained structure
Provides high fracture toughness
 More corrective rather than strengthening or
hardening
 Objetivo: creación de nuevos granos. A
diferencia del recocido, el material se enfría con
aire.
Hardening
 Higher heat, then rapid cooling by quenching
in water/oil
 Steel is harder & more brittle & must be
followed by tempering.
 Objetivo: endurecer la estructura del acero.
Formación de martensita.
Tempering (templado)
 Reheating hardened steel to a lower
temperature and then cooling to room
temperature.
 Increases ductility and toughness after
hardening – both effects
 Objetivo: aumentar la ductibilidad y tenacidad
del acero que ha sido edurecido.
Temperatures for Heat Treating
Structural Steel Area of Interest

Steel Alloys – Aleaciones de Acero
250,000 steel alloys
~200 used in engineering
• Steel alloy is steel + alloying metal to change properties
 Hardenability - endurecibilidad
 corrosion resistance – Resistencia a la corrosión
 Machineability - mecanizabilidad
 Ductility - ductilidad
 Strength - resistencia
• Construction steels are low and medium carbon plain steels.
• Stainless steel for highly corrosive uses
 add chromium, nickel, etc.
Alloying Elements
Typical Range s in Principal Effe cts
Alloy Ste e ls (%)
Aluminum <2 Aids nitriding
Restricts grain froth
Removes oxygen in steel melting
Sulfur <0.5 Adds machinability
Reduces weldability and ductility
Chromium 0.3 to 0.4 Increases resistance to corrosion and oxidation
Increases hardenability
Increases high-temperature strength
Can combine with carbon to form hard, wear-resistant microconstituents
Nickel 0.3 to 5 Promotes an austenitic structure
Increases toughness
Copper 0.2 to 0.5 Promotes tenacious oxide film to aid atmospheric corrosion resistance
Manganese 0.3 to 2 Increases hardenability
Promotes an austenitic structure
Combines with sulfur to reduce its adverse effects
Silicon 0.2 to 2.5 Removes oxygen in steel making
Improves toughness
Molybdenum 0.1 to 0.5 Promotes grain refinement
Improves high-temperature strength
Vanadium 0.1 to 0.3 Promotes grain refinement Increases hardenability
Will combine with carbon to form wear-resistant microconstituents
Structural Steel
Cold formed
cladding
Hot rolled
structural
shapes
Structural Steel – Acero Estructural
• Hot rolled structural shapes, plates, and • Types used for

bars used in columns, beams, brackets, structural
frames, bridge girders, etc. applications
• Grades determined:  Carbon
 Mechanical properties
 High-strength low-
• Yield strength
alloy
• Tensile or ultimate strength
• Percent elongation  Corrosion resistant
high-strength low-
 Chemical composition alloy
• Percent carbon
• Other requirements – limit
undesirable chemicals, provide
desired properties
Mechanical Requirements for “Carbon” Steel
AS TM designation 1
Fy (ksi)
1
Fu (ksi) Elon-
2
gation
(%)
A36 36 58–80 23
A53 Gr. B 35 60
42 58
Gr. B 23
46 58
A500
46 62
Gr. C 21
50 62
A501 36 58 23
Gr.50 50 65–100
A529 19
Gr.55 55 70–100
Example Chemical Specifications
for Carbon Steel
AS TM designation Typical Chemical Composition
3
C Cu5 Mn P S
A36 0.26 0.2 0.8-1.2a 0.04 0.05

A53 Gr. B 0.25 0.4 0.95 0.05 0.045
Gr. B 0.3 0.18 0.045 0..045

A500
Gr. C 0.27 0.18 1.4 0.045 0.045
A501 0.3 0.18 0.045 0.045

Gr. 50
A529 0.27 0.2 1.35 0.04 0.05
Gr. 55
Other elements controlled include nitrogen,

chromium, silicon, molybdenum, and vanadium
Section Shapes
Wide flange
W A992 I beam Channel
HP A572 G50 S A36 C, MC A36
M A36
Equal leg angle

Unequal leg angle
L A36
L A36
Tee Sheet piling Rail

Grade Selection
Based on Shape
Hollow structural section

either circular or rectangular
Aceros para estructuras metálicas
• A36
• A572
Low-Carbon Steel – Tensión Test
𝑃𝑃
𝜎𝜎 =
𝐴𝐴
𝑙𝑙𝑓𝑓 − 𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑖
𝜀𝜀 =
𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑖
Low-Carbon Steel – Tensión Test
Julian Carrillo, Harold Lozano, Carlos Arteta, Mechanical properties of steel reinforcing bars for concrete structures in central
Colombia, Journal of Building Engineering, Volume 33, 2021, 101858, ISSN 2352-7102, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.101858.
(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352710220334914)
Ensayo a Tracción del Acero
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DLE-ieOVFjI
Specialty Steels
• High performance steels
• Stainless steel has minimum 10% chromium (common steels

have 0.3% – 0.4%).
Cold Formed Steel
• Grades
Multiple grades are acceptable.

Steel Stud Manufactures Association recognizes
two yield stress grades, 33 and 55 ksi.
• Cold forming results in plastic deformation causing strain-
hardening that increases the yield strength, tensile (ultimate)
strength and hardness, but reduces ductility.
• Cold forming increases tensile strength by 50-70% and
ultimate strength by 20-30%.
Stages of Cold Forming
Cold Formed Steel Shapes
• Structural design requires special considerations due to

buckling
corrosion
Fastening Products – Productos de
Sujeción
• Conventional bolts (pernos convencionales)
• Twist-off-type tension control bolt assemblies (pernos
de torsion)
• Nuts (tuercas)
• Washers (arandelas)
• Compressible-washer-type direct tension indicators
• Anchor rods (varillas de anclaje)
• Threaded rods (varillas roscadas)
• Forged steel structural hardware (elementos
estructurales de acero forjado)
Reinforcing Steel
Reinforcing Steel
• Conventional Reinforcing Steel
Plain bars, deformed bars, and plain and deformed wire
fabrics
• Bars are made of 4 types of steel: A615 (billet - palanquilla),
A616 (rail), A617 (axle - eje), and A706 (low-alloy – baja
aleación)
• Steel for Prestressed Concrete
Requires special wires, strands, cables, and bars
Must have high strength and low relaxation properties
Made of high-carbon steels and high-strength alloy steels
ASTM Reinforcing Bare Identification
ASTM Reinforcing Bare Identification
Las barras tienen una

única resistencia a la
fluencia mínima, conocida
como 60 000 psi (420
MPa), designado como
grado 60 (420).
Tipos de barras corrugadas
Designación de varillas de armadura.
NTC 2289
Acero Estructural en Colombia
Dúctil
Dúctil –
especificación
sísmica
Aceros de refuerzo para concreto
reforzado
A615
Dúctil
10-15%
A706
deformación
Especificación
Acero Colombia sísmica
ASTM A1064 Gr 70
Malla Menos dúctil. Mayor
electrosoldada resistencia.
2% deformación
Curvas Esfuerzo vs Deformación
Mallas electrosoldadas vs Acero de refuerzo
Julian Carrillo, Carlos Diaz, Carlos A. Arteta, Tensile mechanical properties of the electro-welded wire meshes available in Bogotá, Colombia,
Construction and Building Materials, Volume 195, 2019, Pages 352-362, ISSN 0950-0618, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.11.096.
(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0950061818327685)
Mechanical Testing of Steel
Tension Test (ASTM E8)
• Determine yield strength,
ultimate (tensile) strength,
elongation, and reduction of
area (Poisson's Ratio)
• Plate, sheet, round rod, wire,
and tube can be tested
Typical specimens
are round or
rectangular
Testing Set Up Extensiometer
Crosshead
Specimen
Fixed beam
Threaded end
D. M. Martínez y M. Dugarte
Sample Loaded to Failure
Cup and cone Neck area

failure
Typical Stress-Strain Behavior of Mild Steel
• σ-εis linear elastic up to proportional limit.
•Then non-linear elastic up to elastic limit = yield point =
strain increases at constant stress.
•Then plastic deformation until failure.
"Engineering" (red) and "true"
(blue) stress–strain curve typical
of structural steel.
1: Ultimate strength
2: Yield strength (yield point)
3: Rupture
4: Strain hardening region
5: Necking region
A: Apparent stress (F/A0)
B: Actual stress (F/A)
Effect of Carbon on Mechanical
Behavior
Structural Steel
0.12 to 0.30
¿Cómo varía la resistencia del acero
con el contenido de carbono?
Torsion Test
• Determine shear modulus, G,

designing members under torsion,
• rotating shafts
• helical compression springs
 Applied torque and angle of twist are measured
on a cylindrical or tubular specimen.
τ-γ is linear elastic up to the proportional limit
G=τ/γ very similar to E = σ / ε
Charpy V Notch Impact Test
• Measure toughness or fracture energy at different
temperatures
• Specimen of rectangular cross-section with a V notch
Charpy machine with a pendulum that breaks the
specimen
 By measuring the height of the swing arm after striking the
specimen, the energy required to fracture is computed
(higher head = less energy absorbed)
• Energy absorbed is high at high temp. (shear = ductile)
and low at low temp. (cleavage = brittle)
Loss of Toughness with Reduction in
Temperature
Large area Large shear

of brittle area ductile
cleavage, failure,
low energy high energy
absorption absorption
Bend Test
• Ability of steel or a weld to resist
cracking during bending
• Steel is often bent to a desired
shape, especially rebar
• Bend the specimen through a
certain angle and to a certain
inside radius
Hardness Test
Rockwell hardness tester
• Measures resistance to small dents and
scratches
• Need very high hardness for many
machine parts & tools
• Spring-loaded indenter (hardened steel
penetrating ball) is forced into the
surface of the material with a specified
load and rate.
• Depth or size of indentation is related to
hardness number.
Welding
• Joining two metal pieces by
applying heat
 partial melting fuses the pieces
together
 distortion caused by uneven
heating
• Arc Welding or “Stick Welding”
 Flux on the electrode (“stick”)
shields the molten metal from
atmosphere to prevent
oxidation.
• Gas Welding or “MIG Welding”
 “Metal in Gas” uses shielding
gas instead of flux.
Ejercicio
Una varilla de acero No.4 se somete a una prueba de
resistencia a la tracción. La varilla alcanza un punto de
fluencia para una carga de 36 kips y punto de fractura
para 48 kips.
1. Determine los esfuerzos de tracción para fluencia y
para fractura.
2. Si la longitud nominal original era de 4 in, estime la
longitud nominal cuando se somete la varilla a un
esfuerzo igual a ½ del esfuerzo de fluencia.
Suponer E=30x106 psi
Corrosión en Acero
• La mayoría de los metales en la naturaleza están
presentes como minerales, en combinación con
oxígeno, azufre, etc.
• Los metales son separados de sus compuestos
naturales por el proceso de fundición.
• Los materiales metálicos así extraídos son útiles, pero
inestables en el entorno natural.
• Con el tiempo, y dado un medio apropiado (agua), los
metales eventualmente regresan a su estado natural.
• El proceso de "volver a la naturaleza" es una
manifestación principal de la corrosión -inevitable,
pero puede ser retardado.
Steel Corrosion
• Oxidation (rust) can cause serious weakening of structures.
• Cost of corrosion is about $8 billion per year in U.S. alone.
• Steel is made by using heat to separate oxygen and iron

molecules in the ore – corrosion is a natural process.
https://www.tuf-bar.com/causes-corrosion-steel-how-avoid-them/
Required for Corrosion
1. Anode: Positive electrode where corrosion occurs
2. Cathode: Negative electrode needed for electric current
3. Conductor: Metallic pathway for electrons to flow
between electrodes
4. Electrolyte: Liquid that can support the flow of electrons
• 1, 2, and 3 are present in steel.

• 4 is moisture (in air).
• Pure water is not a good electrolyte, contaminants on the
steel or in the air provides electrolyte (salt, acid rain, etc.).
Corrosion Mechanism
Bazli, Leila & Yusuf, Mohammad & Farahani, Ali & Kiamarzi, Morvarid & Seyedhosseini, Zahra & Nezhadmansari, Mehran & Aliasghari, Maryam & Iranpoor,
Marjan. (2020). Application of composite conducting polymers for improving the corrosion behavior of various substrates: A Review. Journal of Composites
and Compounds. 2. 228-240. 10.29252/jcc.2.4.7.
Corrosion Mechanism
Chong Cao, Moe M.S. Cheung, Ben Y.B. Chan, Modelling of interaction between corrosion-induced concrete cover crack and steel corrosion rate,
Corrosion Science, Volume 69, 2013, Pages 97-109, ISSN 0010-938X, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2012.11.028.
(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010938X12005707)
Corrosion Protection Methods
•Active corrosion protection

•Passive corrosion protection
•Permanent corrosion protection
•Temporary corrosion protection
http://www.rollanet.org/~conorw/cwome/de_bridge_corrosion1.jpg
Corrosion Resistance
• Control rather than stop corrosion
• Protective coatings (paint, etc.) can be used to isolate the
steel from moisture.
1. Barrier coatings
Standard paint isolates steel from moisture &
must be repeated.
2. Inhabitive primer coatings
Pigments that migrate to the steel surface to
passivate it (transfer electrons)
3. Sacrificial primers (cathodic protection)
Metal pigments (zinc) become the anode, give
up electrons to the steel, and corrode instead
of the steel.
Cathodic Protection
• Protective current supplies electrons to the structure.
• The electrons cover the electron requirements for the
reduction of oxygen which comes into contact with
the metal surface.
• Without cathodic protection, the electrons cause
decomposition of the metal.
• The potential of the metal surface is sufficiently
reduced to prevent disassociation of positive ions
from the metal.
• Where formerly an anodic reaction took place, the
oxygen is reduced by cathodic reaction.
• The entire surface of the structure becomes a safe
cathode, i.e., the metal is "cathodically " protected.

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Acero

• Por esto confinamos el concreto con acero de

Iron Ore Pig iron Steel

Remove excess carbon and other impurities

Fe3C is 6.7% carbon by weight

γ = austenite, BCC has a lower atomic

Eutectoid material – pearlite

Proeuctoid ferrite formed,

α ferrite percent carbon = 0.022

Austenite transforms into pearlite

Grains of pearlite surrounded by

Heating, then slowly cooling to room

Structural Steel Area of Interest

• Hot rolled structural shapes, plates, and • Types used for

A36 0.26 0.2 0.8-1.2a 0.04 0.05

Gr. B 0.3 0.18 0.045 0..045

A501 0.3 0.18 0.045 0.045

Other elements controlled include nitrogen,

Equal leg angle

Tee Sheet piling Rail

Hollow structural section

• Stainless steel has minimum 10% chromium (common steels

Multiple grades are acceptable.

• Structural design requires special considerations due to

Las barras tienen una

Cup and cone Neck area

• Determine shear modulus, G,

Large area Large shear

Suponer E=30x106 psi

• Cost of corrosion is about $8 billion per year in U.S. alone.

• Steel is made by using heat to separate oxygen and iron

• 1, 2, and 3 are present in steel.

•Active corrosion protection

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