REVERSE ENGINEERING & RAPID PROTOTYPING

OF DISC BRAKE CALIPER HUB

A Major Project Stage-II Report Submitted

To
Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad

In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

IN

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Submitted by

DEVARUPPULA SAIPRASAD 19831A0318

KATTA THARUN 19831A0332
KUMURAM SANDESH 19831A0339

Under the Guidance of

Mr. P. RAVI KIRAN

(Assistant Professor)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

GURU NANAK INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(Affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University)
Ibrahimpatnam, Ranga Reddy district-501506
2019-2023
 GURU NANAK INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(Approved by A.I.C.T.E, New Delhi, Affiliated to J.N.T.U-Hyderabad)

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Major Project Stage-II entitled “REVERSE ENGINEERING AND
RAPID PROTOTYPING OF DISC BRAKE CALIPER HUB” OF AICTE IDEA LAB”
is work done by DEVARUPPULA SAIPRASAD 19831A0318, KATTA THARUN
19831A0332, KUMURAM SANDESH 19831A0338, collectively in partial fulfilment for the
award of degree of Bachelor of Technology in Mechanical Engineering, to Jawaharlal
Nehru Technological University is record of bonafide work carried out by them my guidance
and supervision.

The results embody in this project report have not been submitted to any other university or
institute for the award of any degree.

Mr. P. RAVI KIRAN Dr. B. VIJAY KUMAR

Internal Guide Head of the department
&
Controller of the Examination (GNIT)

External Examiner
 GURU NANAK INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(Approved by A.I.C.T.E, New Delhi, Affiliated to J.N.T.U-Hyderabad)

DECLARATION

We hereby declare that the Major Project Stage-II entitled “REVERSE ENGINEERING &
RAPID PROTOTYPING OF DISC BRAKE CALLIPER HUB” Towards the fulfilment of
the requirement for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Mechanical
Engineering, to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad is the result of the
work carried out under the guidance of Mr. P.RAVI KIRAN. Assistant Professor, Guru Nanak
Institute of Technology, Hyderabad.
We further declare that this project report has not been previously submitted before either in
part or full for the award of any degree or any diploma by any organization orany universities.

DEVARUPPULA SAI PRASAD 19831A0318

KATTA THARUN 19831A0332

KUMRAM SANDESH 19831A0338

 GURU NANAK INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(Approved by A.I.C.T.E, New Delhi, Affiliated to J.N.T.U-Hyderabad)

ACKNOWELDGEMENT

We wish to convey our sincere thanks to our internal guide Mr. A.VIJAY KUMAR
Department of Mechanical Engineering, for her professional advice, encouragement in starting
this project, and academic guidance during the course of this project.

We wish to convey our sincere thanks to Dr. B. VIJAYA KUMAR, Professor & Head of
Department, Department of Mechanical Engineering & Controller of examination for his
masterly supervision and valuable suggestions for the successful completion of our project.

We wish to express our candid gratitude to Principal Dr. S. SREENATHA REDDY, and the
management for providing the required facilities to complete our project successfully. We
convey our sincere thanks to the staff of the Mechanical Engineering Department and the Lab
Technicians for providing enough stuff which helped us in taking up the project successfully.
We are also grateful to our well- wishers and friends, whose co-operation and some suggestions
had helped us in completing the project. Finally, we would like to thank our parents for their
exemplary tolerance and for giving us enough support in our endeavors.

DEVARUPPULA SAI PRASAD 19831A0318

KATTA THARUN 19831A0332

KUMRAM SANDESH 19831A0338

 ABSTRACT

Reverse engineering is a process of analysing existing components to obtain enough data to

replicate design or knowledge of those parts. Data obtained during reverse engineering can be
used to lower production costs, improve component properties, or replace components. In this
paper reverse engineering was used to obtain information from wooden model of the
motorcycle brake calliper brackets to redesign and improve that component of the motorcycle.
First step of the process was to 3D scan the model. Then scan was transferred to CATIA design
software for redesign. From there all precise dimensions were defined and final improved
models could be 3D printed. Using reverse engineering process on this component allowed us
to manufacture new brake calliper brackets so that larger brake discs could be installed thus
improving braking power of the motorcycle. In this way original front forks and brake callipers
could be used thus eliminating need of upgrading those components and lowering overall cost
of the process.
 1.INTRODUCTION

1.1 Reverse engineering:

Fig 1.1 Flow chart of reverse engineering

Reverse engineering, sometimes called back engineering, is a process in which software,

machines, aircraft, architectural structures and other products are deconstructed to extract
design information from them. Often, reverse engineering involves deconstructing individual
components of larger products.

The reverse engineering process enables you to determine how a part was designed so that you
can recreate it. Companies often use this approach when purchasing a replacement part from
an original equipment manufacturer (OEM) is not an option.

The reverse engineering process is named as such because it involves working backward
through the original design process. However, you often have limited knowledge about the
engineering methods that went into creating the product. Therefore, the challenge is to gain a
working knowledge of the original design by disassembling the product piece-by-piece or
layer-by-layer.

1.2. The 3 stages of reverse engineering

• Implementation Recovery. In implementation recovery, you prepare an initial model

that forms the basis for reverse engineering.
• Design Recovery. During design recovery, you undo the mechanics of the database and
perform only straightforward actions.
 • Analysis Recovery.

Reverse engineering process examples

• 1.Information extraction 2.modelling 3.review

• A common example is to adapt a program written for use with one microprocessor to
another. Other examples include reconstructing lost source code, studying how a
program performs certain operations, improving performance and fixing bugs or
correcting errors when the source code is not available.

1.3. Steps of the Reverse Engineering Process

• Pre-screening. First, you must identify what you are going to reverse engineer.
• Research. This step is particularly important when engineers do not have the original
product on hand.
• Disassembly.
• Analyse and Evaluate.
• Reassembly.
• Creation.

1.4. Reverse engineering examples

Companies often use reverse engineering on old electronic components, such as discontinued
printed circuit boards (PCBs) and connecting cards. Frequently, the products in question will
come from manufacturers that have since gone out of business. If the manufacturer is still in
business, they might no longer offer the part. The firms often reverse engineer old electronics
for the sake of continuity.

If an old piece of computer equipment had functions that have since been lost amid the
subsequent changes in technology, reverse engineering allows manufacturers to rediscover
these formulas and bring them up to date. Reverse engineering also enables you to develop
components that bridge the new and the old, allowing users of older equipment to connect their
devices to modern computing equipment.In some cases, the only way to obtain the design of
an original product is through reverse engineering. With some older products that have not
been manufactured for 20 years or more, the original 2D drawings are no longer available.
Often, there will be no way to contact the original manufacturer, as the company may no longer
be in business.

1.5 The Reverse Engineering Process

To reverse engineer a physical product, an organization will typically acquire an example of

the product in question and take it apart to examine its internal mechanisms. This way,
engineers can unveil information about the original design and construction of the product.

When reverse engineering a mechanical product, you start by analyzing the dimensions and
attributes of the product in question, be it an aircraft, ship, vehicle, computer or piece of
industrial machinery. During this analysis, you make measurements of the widths, lengths and
heights of key components in the product, as these dimensions often relate to the product’s
performance capacity.

Today, some engineers use 3D scanning technologies to make these kinds of measurements.
With three-dimensional scanners, engineers can gain accurate readings of the product’s specs
and have this information automatically logged in their databases. 3D scanning technologies
include coordinate measuring machines (CMM), industrial computed tomography (CT)
scanners, laser scanners and structured light digitizers.

After all the pertinent information has been gathered and recorded, you can use this data to
create computer-aided design (CAD) drawings for subsequent analysis and development. CAD
drawings are digital two-dimensional and three-dimensional representations of the products,
which you can use to analyse the product’s design. These digital models help to unveil design
intent and inform the creation of a reverse-engineered component.

Reverse engineering is often necessary in the development of computer parts due to the
obsolescence of parts from prior years. For example, you might have one product with a unique
innovation from two years earlier, but the manufacturer has since gone out of business. To link
that innovation to a newer product for convenience and continuity’s sake, the engineering team
will need to examine the obsolete product for its technological makeup.

In order to reverse engineer a PCB, technicians start by examining and identifying the various
components of the board. Each board will typically have resistors, capacitors, LEDs, a
transistor, an inductor and various other features. The task here is to determine how the layout
of these features gives the PCB its unique capabilities. Before disassembly, the reverse-
engineering team will photograph the board up close from the front and back to create a record
of the board’s composition. Once the notes and images are collected, the engineers begin the
process of deconstructing the board. During disassembly, the team removes each part from the
board, one after another. The parts must be set aside for safekeeping and organized in the order
they were removed. This way, the board can be reassembled later on, if necessary. In cases
where the objective is to replicate the design in question, engineers might test their ability to
replicate the product by disassembling and reassembling an existing copy several times over.
As the team sets aside removed components, they take value measurements of key parts,
including the capacitors and resistors. This step helps the team gain a greater understanding of
the engineering that went into the original design. It also provides insight into how the board’s
components work together to enable the PCB to function correctly. With the various
components removed from the old board, the team then draws up a list of the materials and the
order in which they were placed on the PCB. The team will also scan the board’s trace pattern
so that they can recreate it later.

The reverse-engineering team may then use the pieces at hand and the information collected to
assemble a new board. First, they lay out a new board and then install the components in the
same order used for the original PCB. Once assembled, the new board is run through a series
of tests to determine its functionality. The team will digitally document the results of these tests
for future study.

1.6 The purpose of reverse engineering

Reverse engineering provides manufacturers with information about the design of a product or
component. When done successfully, reverse engineering gives you a virtual copy of the
blueprint that went into the original design.
Reverse engineering is perhaps the most accurate way to recreate the designs for items that
went out of production decades beforehand. In cases where the original blueprints are long
since lost or destroyed, reverse engineering is perhaps the only way to bring such products back
to life. If you can obtain a working model of an old product, you can typically trace the steps
of its design and use those insights to construct a new model, repair a part or improve future
products.

Below are some of the most common uses of reverse engineering.

1.6.1 Legacy Parts Replacement

One of the most common reverse engineering applications is legacy parts replacement, which
involves examining and reproducing select parts of larger machines to keep them in operation.
For example, a factory might have a large engine compartment that keeps the entire conveyor
system running through each day’s work shift. Every once in a while, one of the machine parts
will wear out and need to be replaced. If the machine is old, certain parts might no longer be in
production, either because the OEM no longer makes the part of is out of business. While the
factory could make a huge investment in a new conveyor system, the preferable option is to
retain the same equipment and replace the faulty part. With reverse engineering, you can use a
3D scanner to digitally replicate the design of the defective part. From there, a new copy of the
component can be created and installed into the machine.

Depending on the size and complexity of the component in question, the initial cost to have it
reverse engineered could exceed the price of a newer or different model. However, once you
have created a digital copy of the original design and successfully replicated the part, you can
use that information to recreate the component again and again. Reverse engineering allows
you to reproduce parts that work in your preferred mechanical setups, regardless of whether
the original manufacturers are still in business.

1.6.2 Parts Service or Repair

If a legacy part or a component the OEM no longer supports needs repair or service, it’s useful
to have an understanding of how the product works. This knowledge can help to complete the
repair accurately and efficiently. If there aren’t any design documents available, a company
may use reverse engineering to create them. You can then use this information to inform how
you repair or service the part. The data you gain from reverse engineering can help you
determine which components you need to replace to fix a given problem. It can also inform
your repair process by helping you better understand how best to access, remove and replace a
certain part.

1.6.3 Failure Analysis

Reverse engineering techniques can play a valuable role in failure analysis. If a machine fails,
you may need to take it apart or examine design files to determine why. Once you have this
information, you know how to fix or improve the product so that it functions properly again.

Examining a product using reverse engineering can reveal damaged parts of faulty designs.
Looking at digital design files created through reverse engineering can also reveal flaws and
help inform how you plan to repair a piece of equipment.

1.6.4 Parts Improvement

Reverse engineering is also used for parts improvement. You might need to alter a component
after conducting a failure analysis, or a particular might just be due for an upgrade. If no
replacement or alternative part is available on the market, you could have the part reverse
engineered to create a copy of the original design. From there, you could modify the design for
improved performance.

If a machine requires stronger joints or weld reinforcements, the faulty parts will be examined
for their measurements and redesigned with increased thickness or stronger metals. Through
reverse engineering, you can determine which dimensions must be maintained and which
aspects you can change. If you could combine two or more parts into a single, more functional
component, reverse engineering could bring that fact to light.

1.6.5 Diagnostics and Problem-Solving

Reverse engineering can also be used for diagnostics and problem-solving in a sequence of
industrial processes. In a factory setting, the flow of operations can sometimes slow due to a
faulty or underperforming function. When a manufacturing system consists of numerous
machines and components, it can be difficult to pinpoint the source of the problem. Through
reverse engineering, you can determine how everything works as one and use that knowledge
to identify where things can and do go wrong. Companies sometimes use reverse engineering
to regain design data on their own long-discontinued products. For example, a small company
that has been in businesses for more than 40 years may have manufactured numerous products
before the days of computer-aided design and digital file storage. Consequently, these older
products may be based on long-lost paper blueprints. Through reverse engineering, companies
can regain their lost designs and create archives of their product legacy.

Even if the company still has their paper blueprints, they may want to create a digital version
of them to make the plans easier to access and use. The business could use certain reverse
engineering techniques to create this digital design file. Among auto restoration specialists,
reverse engineering is sometimes employed to recreate the designs of engines and auto body
parts for older vehicles. Using reverse engineering to rebuild engines or recreate hard-to-find
parts can make cars from the 1920s through the 1950s drivable again. Thanks to reverse
engineering, you could bring a classic vehicle back to life and make it fully functional without
changing the design of the car’s systems.

Reverse engineering requires a series of steps to gather precise information on a product’s

dimensions. Once collected, you can store the data in digital archives. Often, engineers will
enhance the design with new developments and innovations. Sometimes, they will replicate the
original model exactly.

1.7 Reverse engineering

(also known as backwards engineering or back engineering) is a process or method through

which one attempts to understand through deductive reasoning how a previously made device,
process, system, or piece of software accomplishes a task with very little (if any) insight into
exactly how it does so. It is essentially the process of opening up or dissecting a system to see
how it works, in order to duplicate or enhance it. Depending on the system under consideration
and the technologies employed, the knowledge gained during reverse engineering can help with
repurposing obsolete objects, doing security analysis, or learning how something works.
Although the process is specific to the object on which it is being performed, all reverse
engineering processes consist of three basic steps: Information extraction, Modeling, and
Review. Information extraction refers to the practice of gathering all relevant information for
performing the operation. Modeling refers to the practice of combining the gathered
information into an abstract model, which can be used as a guide for designing the new object
or system. Review refers to the testing of the model to ensure the validity of the chosen
abstract.[1] Reverse engineering is applicable in the fields of computer engineering, mechanical
engineering, design, electronic engineering, software engineering, chemical engineering,
and systems biology.

1.8 Over view

There are many reasons for performing reverse engineering in various fields. Reverse
engineering has its origins in the analysis of hardware for commercial or military advantage.
However, the reverse engineering process may not always be concerned with creating a copy
or changing the artifact in some way. It may be used as part of an analysis to deduce design
features from products with little or no additional knowledge about the procedures involved in
their original production.

In some cases, the goal of the reverse engineering process can simply be
a redocumentation of legacy systems. Even when the reverse-engineered product is that of a
competitor, the goal may not be to copy it but to perform Reverse engineering may also be
used to create interoperable products and despite some narrowly-tailored United States and
European Union legislation, the legality of using specific reverse engineering techniques for
that purpose has been hotly contested in courts worldwide for more than two decades.

Software reverse engineering can help to improve the understanding of the underlying source
code for the maintenance and improvement of the software, relevant information can be
extracted to make a decision for software development and graphical representations of the
code can provide alternate views regarding the source code, which can help to detect and fix a
software bug or vulnerability. Frequently, as some software develops, its design information
and improvements are often lost over time, but that lost information can usually be recovered
with reverse engineering. The process can also help to cut down the time required to understand
the source code, thus reducing the overall cost of the software development.[ Reverse
engineering can also help to detect and to eliminate a malicious code written to the software
with better code detectors. Reversing a source code can be used to find alternate uses of the
source code, such as detecting the unauthorized replication of the source code where it was not
intended to be used, or revealing how a competitor's product was built. That process is
commonly used for "cracking" software and media to remove their copy protection, or to create
a possibly-improved copy or even a knockoff, which is usually the goal of a competitor or a
hacker

Malware developers often use reverse engineering techniques to find vulnerabilities in

an operating system to build a computer virus that can exploit the system
vulnerabilities. Reverse engineering is also being used in cryptanalysis to find vulnerabilities
in substitution cipher, symmetric-key algorithm or public-key cryptography.

1.9 Other uses to Reverse Engineering

• Interfacing. Reverse engineering can be used when a system is required to interface to

another system and how both systems would negotiate is to be established. Such
requirements typically exist for interoperability.
• Military or commercial espionage. Learning about an enemy's or competitor's latest
research by stealing or capturing a prototype and dismantling it may result in the
development of a similar product or a better countermeasure against it.
• Obsolescence. Integrated circuits are often designed on proprietary systems and built
on production lines, which become obsolete in only a few years. When systems using
those parts can no longer be maintained since the parts are no longer made, the only
way to incorporate the functionality into new technology is to reverse-engineer the
existing chip and then to redesign it using newer tools by using the understanding
gained as a guide. Another obsolescence originated problem that can be solved by
reverse engineering is the need to support (maintenance and supply for continuous
operation) existing legacy devices that are no longer supported by their original
equipment manufacturer. The problem is particularly critical in military operations.
• Product security analysis. That examines how a product works by determining the
specifications of its components and estimate costs and identifies potential patent
infringement. Also part of product security analysis is acquiring sensitive data by
disassembling and analyzing the design of a system component.[11] Another intent may
be to remove copy protection or to circumvent access restrictions.
• Competitive technical intelligence. That is to understand what one's competitor is
actually doing, rather than what it says that it is doing.
 • Saving money. Finding out what a piece of electronics can do may spare a user from
purchasing a separate product.
• Repurposing. Obsolete objects are then reused in a different-but-useful manner.
• Design. Production and design companies applied Reverse Engineering to practical
craft-based manufacturing process. The companies can work on “historical”
manufacturing collections through 3D scanning, 3D re-modeling and re-design. In 2013
Italian manufactures Baldi and Savio Firmino together with University of
Florence optimized their innovation, design, and production processes.

1.10 Common uses

As computer-aided design (CAD) has become more popular, reverse engineering has become
a viable method to create a 3D virtual model of an existing physical part for use in 3D
CAD, CAM, CAE, or other software.[13] The reverse-engineering process involves measuring
an object and then reconstructing it as a 3D model. The physical object can be measured
using 3D scanning technologies like CMMs, laser scanners, structured light digitizers,
or industrial CT scanning (computed tomography). The measured data alone, usually
represented as a point cloud, lacks topological information and design intent. The former may
be recovered by converting the point cloud to a triangular-faced mesh. Reverse engineering
aims to go beyond producing such a mesh and to recover the design intent in terms of simple
analytical surfaces where appropriate (planes, cylinders, etc.) as well as
possibly NURBS surfaces to produce a boundary-representation CAD model. Recovery of
such a model allows a design to be modified to meet new requirements, a manufacturing plan
to be generated, etc.

Hybrid modelling is a commonly used term when NURBS and parametric modeling are
implemented together. Using a combination of geometric and freeform surfaces can provide a
powerful method of 3D modelling. Areas of freeform data can be combined with exact
geometric surfaces to create a hybrid model. A typical example of this would be the reverse
engineering of a cylinder head, which includes freeform cast features, such as water jackets
and high-tolerance machined areas.[14]

Reverse engineering is also used by businesses to bring existing physical geometry into digital
product development environments, to make a digital 3D record of their own products, or to
assess competitors' products. It is used to analyse how a product works, what it does, what
components it has; estimate costs; identify potential patent infringement; etc.

Value engineering, a related activity that is also used by businesses, involves deconstructing
and analysing products. However, the objective is to find opportunities for cost-cutting.

Printed circuit boards

Reverse engineering of printed circuit boards involves recreating fabrication data for a
particular circuit board. This is done to allow benchmarking, and support for legacy systems.

1.11 Software

In 1990, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) defined (software) reverse
engineering (SRE) as "the process of analysing a subject system to identify the system's
components and their interrelationships and to create representations of the system in another
form or at a higher level of abstraction" in which the "subject system" is the end product of
software development. Reverse engineering is a process of examination only, and the software
system under consideration is not modified, which would otherwise be re-engineering or
restructuring. Reverse engineering can be performed from any stage of the product cycle, not
necessarily from the functional end product.[9]

There are two components in reverse engineering: redocumentation and design recovery.
Redocumentation is the creation of new representation of the computer code so that it is easier
to understand. Meanwhile, design recovery is the use of deduction or reasoning from general
knowledge or personal experience of the product to understand the product's functionality
fully.[9] It can also be seen as "going backwards through the development cycle."[15] In this
model, the output of the implementation phase (in source code form) is reverse-engineered
back to the analysis phase, in an inversion of the traditional waterfall model. Another term for
this technique is program comprehension.[6] The Working Conference on Reverse Engineering
(WCRE) has been held yearly to explore and expand the techniques of reverse
engineering.[10][16] Computer-aided software engineering (CASE) and automated code
generation have contributed greatly in the field of reverse engineering.[10]

Software anti-tamper technology like obfuscation is used to deter both reverse engineering and
re-engineering of proprietary software and software-powered systems. In practice, two main
types of reverse engineering emerge. In the first case, source code is already available for the
software, but higher-level aspects of the program, which are perhaps poorly documented or
documented but no longer valid, are discovered. In the second case, there is no source code
available for the software, and any efforts towards discovering one possible source code for
the software are regarded as reverse engineering. The second usage of the term is more familiar
to most people. Reverse engineering of software can make use of the clean room
design technique to avoid copyright infringement.

On a related note, black box testing in software engineering has a lot in common with reverse
engineering. The tester usually has the API but has the goals to find bugs and undocumented
features by bashing the product from outside.[17]

Other purposes of reverse engineering include security auditing, removal of copy protection
("cracking"), circumvention of access restrictions often present in consumer electronics,
customization of embedded systems (such as engine management systems), in-house repairs or
retrofits, enabling of additional features on low-cost "crippled" hardware (such as some
graphics card chip-sets), or even mere satisfaction of curiosity.

1.11.1 Binary software

Binary reverse engineering is performed if source code for a software is unavailable.[10] This
process is sometimes termed reverse code engineering, or RCE.[18] For example,
decompilation of binaries for the Java platform can be accomplished by using Jad. One famous
case of reverse engineering was the first non-IBM implementation of the PC BIOS, which
launched the historic IBM PC compatible industry that has been the overwhelmingly-
dominant computer hardware platform for many years. Reverse engineering of software is
protected in the US by the fair use exception in copyright law.[19] The Samba software, which
allows systems that do not run Microsoft Windows systems to share files with systems that run
it, is a classic example of software reverse engineering[20] since the Samba project had to
reverse-engineer unpublished information about how Windows file sharing worked so that
non-Windows computers could emulate it. The Wine project does the same thing for
the Windows API, and OpenOffice.org is one party doing that for the Microsoft Office file
formats. The ReactOS project is even more ambitious in its goals by striving to provide binary
(ABI and API) compatibility with the current Windows operating systems of the NT branch,
which allows software and drivers written for Windows to run on a clean-room reverse-
engineered free software (GPL) counterpart. WindowsSCOPE allows for reverse-engineering
the full contents of a Windows system's live memory including a binary-level, graphical reverse
engineering of all running processes.

Another classic, if not well-known, example is that in 1987 Bell Laboratories reverse-
engineered the Mac OS System 4.1, originally running on the Apple Macintosh SE, so that it
could run it on RISC machines of their own.[21]

1.11.2 Binary software techniques

Reverse engineering of software can be accomplished by various methods. The three main
groups of software reverse engineering are

1. Analysis through observation of information exchange, most prevalent in protocol

reverse engineering, which involves using bus analyzers and packet sniffers, such as
for accessing a computer bus or computer network connection and revealing the traffic
data thereon. Bus or network behavior can then be analyzed to produce a standalone
implementation that mimics that behavior. That is especially useful for reverse
engineering device drivers. Sometimes, reverse engineering on embedded systems is
greatly assisted by tools deliberately introduced by the manufacturer, such
as JTAG ports or other debugging means. In Microsoft Windows, low-level debuggers
such as SoftICE are popular.
2. Disassembly using a disassembler, meaning the raw machine language of the program
is read and understood in its own terms, only with the aid of machine-
language mnemonics. It works on any computer program but can take quite some time,
especially for those who are not used to machine code. The Interactive Disassembler is
a particularly popular tool.
3. Decompilation using a decompiler, a process that tries, with varying results, to recreate
the source code in some high-level language for a program only available in machine
code or bytecode.

1.12 Full reverse engineering proceeds in several major steps.

The first step after images have been taken with a SEM is stitching the images together, which
is necessary because each layer cannot be captured by a single shot. A SEM needs to sweep
across the area of the circuit and take several hundred images to cover the entire layer. Image
stitching takes as input several hundred pictures and outputs a single properly-overlapped
picture of the complete layer.
Next, the stitched layers need to be aligned because the sample, after etching, cannot be put
into the exact same position relative to the SEM each time. Therefore, the stitched versions
will not overlap in the correct fashion, as on the real circuit. Usually, three corresponding points
are selected, and a transformation applied on the basis of that.To extract the circuit structure,
the aligned, stitched images need to be segmented, which highlights the important circuitry and
separates it from the uninteresting background and insulating materials.

Finally, the wires can be traced from one layer to the next, and the netlist of the circuit, which
contains all of the circuit's information, can be reconstructed.

1.12.1 Military applications

Reverse engineering is often used by people to copy other nations' technologies, devices, or
information that have been obtained by regular troops in the fields or
by intelligence operations. It was often used during the Second World War and the Cold War.
Here are well-known examples from the Second World War and later:

• Jerry can: British and American forces in WW2 noticed that the Germans had
gasoline cans with an excellent design. They reverse-engineered copies of those
cans, which cans were popularly known as "Jerry cans."
• Panzerschreck: The Germans captured an American bazooka during the Second
World War and reverse engineered it to create the larger Panzerschreck.
• Tupolev Tu-4: In 1944, three American B-29 bombers on missions over Japan were
forced to land in the Soviet Union. The Soviets, who did not have a similar strategic
bomber, decided to copy the B-29. Within three years, they had developed the Tu-
4, a nearly-perfect copy.

1.13 Disc brake

1.13.1 Principle of disc brake callipers

Brake rotors of disc brakes rotate with the wheels, and brake pads, which are fitted to the
brake callipers, clamp on these rotors to stop or decelerate the wheels. The brake pads
pushing against the rotors generate friction, which transforms kinetic energy into a thermal
energy.
This thermal energy generates heat, but since the main components are exposed to the
atmosphere, this heat can be diffused efficiently. This heat-dissipating property reduces brake
fade, which is the phenomenon where braking performance is influenced by the heat. Another
advantage of disc brakes is its resistance to water fade, which occurs when the water on the
brakes significantly reduces braking force. When the vehicle is in motion, the rotor spins at
high speeds and this rotational motion discharges the water from the rotors themselves,
resulting in stable braking force.

Disc brakes are generally used in passenger cars, but due to their stable performance at higher
speeds and resistance to brake fade, they are gradually spreading into the commercial vehicle
segment, where drum brakes were traditionally chosen for their longer service life. There is
increasing demand from customers for longer service life and higher quality, and Akebono is
committed to meeting them through further development of the disc brake’s reliability. There
are two types of disc brakes. The "opposed piston type disc brake" has pistons on both sides of
the disc rotor, while the "floating type disc brake" has a piston on only one side. Floating caliper
type disc brakes are also called sliding pin type disc brakes.

1.13.2 Disc brake construction

The brake rotor (disc) which rotates with the wheel, is clamped by brake pads (friction material)
fitted to the calliper from both sides with pressure from the piston(s) (pressure mechanism) and
decelerates the disc rotation, thereby slowing down and stopping the vehicle.

Fig 1.2. Disc brake construction

1.13.3 How disc brakes work
When the driver steps on the brake pedal, the power is amplified by the brake booster (servo
system) and changed into a hydraulic pressure (oil-pressure) by the master cylinder. The
pressure reaches the brakes on the wheels via tubing filled with brake oil (brake fluid). The
delivered pressure pushes the pistons on the brakes of the four wheels. The pistons in turn press
the brake pads, which are friction material, against the brake rotors which rotate with the
wheels. The pads clamp on the rotors from both sides and decelerate the wheels, thereby
slowing down and stopping the vehicle.

Fig 1.3 Main components of disc brakes

Fig.1.4 Main components of floating type disc brakes

There are two types of disc brakes. One is called the "opposed piston type disc brake" which
has pistons on both sides of the disc rotor, and the other is the "floating type disc brake" which
has a piston on only one side. The floating type disc brakes are also called the sliding pin type
disc brakes.

Fig 1.5 Disc brake caliper hub

 2.LITERATURE SURVEY

Hydraulic transmission brakes. RUBURY, J. M., Park Hall, Bradwell, Braintree,

Hydraulic mechanism comprises a mechanically operated piston in a cylinder in
communication with a liquid tank a second piston in a cylinder, and communicating with the
first piston, a definite pressure non-return device in a duct between the spaces on each side of
the second piston and a hydraulic device operating the brakes. The piston is adapted to be
moved by the pedal to cover an inlet communicating with the liquid tank and moves the
piston by means of a spring to force fluid to the brakes through pipes . At the moment when
the brake shoes engage the drum the piston is arranged to engage a stop and any further
movement of the pedal moves the piston alone forcing liquid past the spring-pressed valve j
which recloses when liquid ceases to. flow. Wear of the' brake shoes is thus compensated. the
pistons are contained in separate cylinders ,and the spring for returning the piston rests against
the bottom of the cylinder and the return of the piston is limited by an adjustable stop . A fluid
exhaust relief valve is provided in a passage communicating between the reverse side of each
piston. The cylinder and piston can be arranged as a separate unit and is also shown as part of
a cylinder containing two pistons operating brake shoes in a drum. Equalizing mechanism for
operating brake shoes comprises bell-crank levers mounted on the brake anchor plate and
having one arm pivotally connected to the brake shoes and the other engaging a spring plunger
. The usual retracting spring is provided. An operating mechanism for a brake shoe comprises
a piston r fixedly mounted at the end of the pipe line k and on which slides the cylinders which
has inclined planes coating with rollers on the brake shoes. The cylinder is guided by guides
mounted on the anchor plate.

Joseph Warwick Kinchin, Lowsonford, This invention relates to improvements in disc

brakes for road and other vehicles of the type in which opposed friction pads are adapted to be
urged into engagement with opposite faces of a rotating disc at one or more points, the
remainder of the disc being left open for cooling. The pads are mounted in the open inner ends
of opposed axially aligned hydraulic cylinders in each of which works a piston engaging and
actuating the pad, liquid under pressure being supplied simultaneously from a master cylinder
to the liquid spaces in the brake cylinders between the pistons and the closed outer ends of the
cylinders so that the pads are urged with equal force into engagement with the disc. Tests have
shown that when a vehicle fitted with a brake of this type is changing direction, one of the pads
with its associated piston tends to move axially in its cylinder away from the disc and to force
liquid from the cylinder back into the recuperation chamber of the master cylinder. The same
effect can be produced by other factors such as lack of truth of the brake disc and wear in the
wheel bearings or associated parts. Thus when the brake is next applied sufficient liquid must
be displaced from the master cylinder to advance the pad into engagement with the disc before
the brake becomes effective and there is a substantial increase in the pedal travel.

According to this invention this difficulty is overcome by permitting free passage of liquid
between the opposed brake cylinders but restricting the rate of flow of liquid between the
master cylinder and the brake cylinders. This control of the rate of flow may be effected in
various ways. In the simplest practical form of this invention the liquid spaces of the two brake
cylinders are connected by a pipe or passage of substantial cross-sectional area and the pipe
conveying liquid from the master cylinder is connected to that pipe or passage through a
restricted orifice or other convenient means for restricting the rate of flow. The orifice is of
sufficient dimensions not to delay the application of the brake when the pedal is depressed but
when one of the pads and its associated piston tends to move axially in its cylinder liquid is
transferred from one brake cylinder to the other and the travel of the master cylinder piston in
the application of the brake is not appreciably affected. Another advantage is that substantially
equal pressures are maintained in the two brake cylinders during braking so that the two pads
take an equal share in the braking effort and there is no tendency for the brake disc to be
distorted.In another practical form of this invention there is provided in the pipe line conveying
liquid from the master cylinder to a pipe or passage connecting the brake cylinders a back
pressure valve so arranged that liquid is allowed to pass from the master cylinder to. the brake
cylinder at a predetermined pressure but is only allowed 2 to return from the brake cylinders to
the master cylinders at a considerably higher pressure.

In a preferred practical arrangement the back-pressure valve incorporates a piston having a

limited axial movement between stops in a cylinder of which the rear end is connected to the
master cylinder and the front end is connected to a pipe or passage connecting the brake
cylinders. Liquid supplied under pressure from the master cylinder advances the piston which
displaces liquid from the front end of the valve cylinders into the brake cylinders to apply the
brakes. If the piston reaches the limit of its travel before the brake is fully applied additional
liquid from the master cylinder can flow through a one-way valve in the piston. When the brake
is released the liquid returning from the brake cylinder returns the piston in the valve cylinder
and -in the off position of the brake liquid can only pass from the brake cylinders to the master
cylinder through another valve loaded to a value which is not reached in normal operation of
the brake.

Maurice Odile Dubois and Bernard Maurice Dubois, In installations for the remote control,
by means of a fluid which is incompressible or slightly compressible, such as oil for example,
of any controlled device or mechanism (braking device) a delicate problem is set by the return
to the inoperative position of said controlled mechanism when the pressure which has acted on
it stops since it is important that between the inoperative and the operative positions there
should be a predetermined margin, i,e. a given play, or a certain travel of the members which
will here in after be called "return travel." It is advantageous for numerous reasons, some of
which are of capital importance and involve safety requirements, that this return travel shall be
known and preferably be constant. In the operative position, the controlled- member or
members generally abut (brake shoes against brake drums, clutch discs against conjugated
discs, tool against workpiece, etc.) and such members are subjected to a certain wear.
Consequently the return travel cannot be fixed in space, since one of its origins is movable
owing to wear (or for any other reason). It is therefore important to be able to obtain, in such
remote control devices, a constant but floating return travel, i.e., with out a fixed origin, of the
controlled device, if it is desired to obtain the requisite conditions for reliability of operation
which are so important in the case of brakes in particular.

the Douglas motorcycle company introduced a form of disc brake on the front wheel of their
overhead-valve sports models. Patented by the British Motorcycle & Cycle-Car Research
Association, Douglas described the device as a "novel wedge brake" working on a "bevelled
hub flange", the brake was operated by a Bowden cable. Front and rear brakes of this type were
fitted to the machine on which Tom Sheard rode to victory in the 1923 Senior TT.
Successful application began on railroad streamliner passenger trains and in airplanes and
tanks before and during World War II. In the US, the Budd Company introduced disc brakes
on the General Pershing Zephyr for the Burlington Railroad in 1938. By the early 1950s, disc
brakes were being regularly applied to new passenger rolling stock.[7] In Britain, the Daimler
Company used disc brakes on its Daimler Armoured Car of 1939, the disc brakes, made by
the Girling company, were necessary because in that four-wheel drive (4x4) vehicle
the epicyclic final drive was in the wheel hubs and therefore left no room for conventional hub-
mounted drum brakes.

Matsubara (1974) of Mitsubishi proposed a topographical process with a photo-

hardening photopolymer resin to form thin layers stacked to make a casting mold.
PHOTOSCULPTURE was a 19th-century technique to create exact three-dimensional replicas
of objects. Most famously Francois Willeme (1860) placed 24 cameras in a circular array and
simultaneously photographed an object. The silhouette of each photograph was then used to
carve a replica. Morioka (1935, 1944) developed a hybrid photo sculpture and topographic
process using structured light to photographically create contour lines of an object. The lines
could then be developed into sheets and cut and stacked, or projected onto stock material for
carving. The Munz (1956) Process reproduced a three-dimensional image of an object by
selectively exposing, layer by layer, a photo emulsion on a lowering piston. After fixing, a solid
transparent cylinder contains an image of the object.

Johannes F Gottwald, a continuous ink jet metal material device to form a removable metal
fabrication on a reusable surface for immediate use or salvaged for printing again by remelting.
This appears to be the first patent describing 3D printing with rapid prototyping and controlled
on-demand manufacturing of patterns. It states "As used herein the term printing is not intended
in a limited sense but includes writing or other symbols, character or pattern formation with an
ink. The term ink as used in is intended to include not only dye or pigment-containing materials,
but any flowable substance or composition suited for application to the surface for forming
symbols, characters, or patterns of intelligence by marking. The preferred ink is of a hot melt
type. The range of commercially available ink compositions which could meet the requirements
of the invention are not known at the present time. However, satisfactory printing according to
the invention has been achieved with the conductive metal alloy as ink.""But in terms of
material requirements for such large and continuous displays, if consumed at theretofore known
rates, but increased in proportion to increase in size, the high cost would severely limit any
widespread enjoyment of a process or apparatus satisfying the foregoing objects." "It is
therefore an additional object of the invention to minimize use to materials in a process of the
indicated class."
"It is a further object of the invention that materials employed in such a process be salvaged
for reuse."" According to another aspect of the invention, a combination for writing and the
like comprises a carrier for displaying an intelligence pattern and an arrangement for removing
the pattern from the carrier."

Eldad Eilam is a computer security expert and author of the book "Reversing: Secrets of
Reverse Engineering." He has extensive experience in the fields of reverse engineering,
computer security, and software development. In his book "Reversing: Secrets of Reverse
Engineering," Eilam provides a comprehensive guide to the field of reverse engineering,
covering topics such as disassembly techniques, analysing software, and reverse engineering
tools. The book is widely regarded as a must-read for anyone interested in reverse engineering,
and has been praised for its clear explanations and practical examples. He is also a frequent
speaker at conferences and events around the world, where he shares his expertise on reverse
engineering and computer security. He is a strong advocate for the importance of building
secure software systems and continues to contribute to the field through his research and
writing.
 3.METHODOLOGY

3.1 Steps in methodology

The methodology of reverse engineering typically involves the following steps:

1. Planning: Identify the product or system that needs to be reverse engineered and define
the goals and objectives of the project.
2. Information gathering: Collect as much information as possible about the product or
system, such as technical specifications, documentation, schematics, and other related
materials.
3. Disassembly: Physically disassemble the product or system to gain a better
understanding of its internal components, mechanisms, and processes.
4. Analysis: Use various techniques such as visual inspection, testing, and measurements
to analyze the product or system and determine its functionality, behavior, and
interactions.
5. Reconstruction: Use the information obtained from the analysis to create a model or
prototype of the product or system, which can be used for further testing and
development.
6. Documentation: Document the entire process of reverse engineering, including the
results, findings, and conclusions.

3.2 Problem statement

The problem statement of reverse engineering is to gain a deep understanding of a product or

system in the face of complex and often incomplete information, while also taking into
account the ethical and legal considerations involved in this process.

3.3 Objective

the objective of reverse engineering is to gain a deep understanding of how a product or system
was designed and how it works, which can be useful for a variety of purposes related to product
development, troubleshooting, and optimization.

To understand how a product or system works and how it was designed, often with the goal of
improving or modifying it. Reverse engineering involves taking apart a product or system and
examining its components, functions, and interactions in order to create a detailed
understanding of its design and functionality.
3.4 Time line

literature survey
14%

Scanning
5%
Report
43%

Printing
14%

Procedure
24%

Fig 3.1 Timeline of project.

 4.EXPERIMENTATION

Experimentation is a research method in which one or more variables are consciously

manipulated and the outcome or effect of that manipulation on other variables is observed.
Experimental designs often make use of controls that provide a measure of variability within a
system and a check for sources of error.
For this we done in two ways i.e.
i. Scanning an object.
ii. Printing the prototype.
For scanning
Calibry 3D scanner.
For printing
Monotech systems ltd.
In this project we will be able to make a prototype by scanning the object.

In this chapter, we scanned the disc brake caliper hub. Next, we need to run the Calibry Nest
software to determine the dimensions of the object in machine language (STL) as per results
obtains.
 5.INTRODUCTION TO CALIBRY 3D SCANNER

5.1 scanners used: calibry scanner 3d

Fig 3.1 Calibry scanner

Calibry is a professional handheld 3D scanner developed by the renowned Thor3D, a Russian

company based in Moscow specialising in the production of professional 3D scanners. It has a
dynamic and highly qualified team of engineers and mathematicians in charge of developing
the complex reconstruction algorithms responsible for the high quality of the models obtained
with its equipment. Some of its algorithms and developments are so innovative that many of
them are protected by several international patents.
Calibry is based on structured light 3D scanning technology, one of the most widely used at
present due to its excellent resolution/cost ratio, as well as its high precision. Using a
proprietary Thor3D camera with calibrated lenses, it captures the deformations of patterns
projected on the surface of the part, reconstructing the geometry using complex algorithms.
5.2 Specifications

Calibry can scan objects ranging in length from 30cm to 10m. This, combined with the ability
to capture point clouds with a point resolution of as little as 0.6 mm, a texture resolution of 2.3
MP, and a maximum accuracy of 0.1 mm, makes it capable of capturing even the smallest
details of large objects.

Fig 5.2 process of scanning.

Fig 5.3 Scanning of Brake disc calliper hub

It also has a custom-developed camera capable of capturing up to 30 images per second, which
together with its multi-core processor allows it to acquire up to 3 million points per second.
This makes it possible to obtain high-density point clouds quickly and accurately.

5.3 Complete and advanced features

calibre has a 4-inch touch screen that allows all parameters to be configured and files to be
managed. This streamlines the workflow as there is no need to access the computer at any time
during the scanning process.

Fig 5.4 scanning of brake disc caliper hub

To ensure maximum accuracy and alignment of the point clouds, three different tracking modes
can be used: geometry, texture or marker tracking.
Texture tracking is recommended for objects with little geometry but ample contrasting
textures, especially antiques or museum artefacts, too fragile and precious for the use of
markers. The geometry tracking mode can be used for scanning body parts or objects, and
the marker tracking mode for capturing anything with a smooth, shiny or transparent surface,
such as a car.
 Fig 5.5 The texture, geometry and marker tracking modes (left to right) of the Calibry 3D
scanner. Source: Thor3D.

Calibry also incorporates a second texture camera that not only allows texture tracking during
the scanning process, but also captures textures and colours for later incorporation into the
model.
 6.INTRODUCTION TO CALIBRY NEST SOFTWARE

Calibry Nest is a desktop software, which comes with a 3D scanner in an unlimited number of
licenses and allows the user to post-process the raw data captured by Thor3D scanners.

6.1 Advanced algorithms

To obtain quality point clouds and meshes, in addition to advanced hardware, it is necessary to
implement quality reconstruction and processing algorithms. Thor3D has developed and
implemented in Calibry some of the most advanced algorithms on the market, both for point
cloud capture and mesh processing.

Fig 6.1 Reconstruction of a defect in the point cloud by interpolation. Source: Thor3D.

These algorithms allow complex elements such as sharp edges, shiny or black surfaces, or hair
and fur to be captured with high quality. In addition, efficient interpolation algorithms are
available to repair defects or holes in the mesh, making it possible to recover areas that could
not be scanned.

6.2 Software

A software to match Calibry incorporates the Calibry Nest software solution, a combination of
two software packages that work together, one embedded in the 3D scanner itself and the other
in the computer, to automate the workflow and cover all the necessary steps to obtain a quality
final mesh.
The embedded software allows all functions required during the 3D scanning process to be
performed from the scanner's own touch screen. These functions include managing files,
setting sensitivities, selecting the 3D scanning mode and starting and stopping the capture.
The software installed on the computer, in addition to having the same tools as the one
embedded in Calibry, has an advanced module for point cloud processing with tools for
alignment, interpolation, simplification and mesh processing and repair.

Fig 6.2 Processing (inside).

Fig 6.3 Processing (outside).

 Fig 6.3 Calibry Nest software. Source: Thor3D.

The calibry nest software is regularly updated and does not require a licence. this means that
the scanner can be used at facilities such as research centers or schools, with the software
installed on multiple computers for one scanner only.
calibry is the most affordable professional scanner with advanced features on the market for 3d
scanning of medium to large objects. its friendly and powerful software included with the
product allows for straightforward and quick scanning in various sectors such
as engineering (reverse engineering, quality control), medicine (prosthetics), automotive,
biometrics (identification), education, art and design, heritage conservation or computer
graphics and animation. its built-in screen, light weight and 3 tracking modes make it a
versatile and comfortable to use tool.

6.3 Specifications

• Simplify the mode

• Align several scans into one
• Use distance map for accurate scans’ alignment
• Lighten or darken texture
• Get rid of noise and cut out unwanted bits of geometry
• Create a watertight mesh
• Split the project into two or rename the project
• Using sophisticated algorithms fill holes neatly even on complicated geometry
• Smooth geometry over the whole model or in one particular spot
• Adjust sharpness of finalized model
• Automatically remove markers from the scan
• Invert scans
• Define planes and export 3D model’s outline in 3D with “define section"
• Export into one of four industry-standard formats (obj, stl, ply, wrml)
 7.INTRODUCTION TO 3D PRINTING SYSTEMS

Fig 7.1 Logo of Monotech systems

7.1 Introduction to Monotech systems

Established in 1999,in Tamilnadu. It had been a leading manufacturer and one-stop solution
provider for the printing and packaging industry globally. With a mission to consistently
deliver extraordinary products, superior value to our customers, and to enable them in serve
their customers better, we’ve been delivering innovations that enable the printers to expand
their horizon, and differentiate themselves.
Monotech Systems is a leading manufacturer and solutions provider for printing and packaging
industry. its portfolio of brand consists of made in india equipment for signage, labels &
packaging segments. These products are designed to deliver the performance and add value to
the printing business of their clients.

Fig 7.2 Logo of 3D printer.

7.2 Metamorph 3D print services

They are our ideal partner in the march towards Industry 4.0. Metamorph 3D print service
caters to industries and companies that require high-quality 3D printing, modelling,
prototyping services and casting in India. They are currently serve a multitude of industries
such as Architecture, Construction, Manufacturing, Packaging, Automotive, GIS, Healthcare
and Figurines for 3D printing, prototyping and casting. The guidance from their parent
company - Monotech Systems Ltd, helps us craft our vision, goals and values to being truly
committed to ace the game of printing and publishing, catering to promotional & marketing
requirements of the industry, leveraging sophisticated technology and supply chain efficiency
while delivering versatility, creativity and expertise.
Also it acquires
 • Superior service quality.
• Extensive industry expertise.
• Proven expertise in 3D Printing Services.
• Value for Money.

7.3 Technical specifications

 7.RESULT

Reverse engineering can be valuable for understanding how products and systems are designed
and manufactured, and for identifying ways to improve them or resolve disputes related to
intellectual property.
The resulted prototype is shown below obtained by the process of Reverse engineering.
 8.CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

8.1 Conclusion

Reverse engineering is the process of analyzing a product or system to understand how it works
and how it was designed. It involves taking apart the product or system and examining its
components, functions, and interactions. it is a valuable tool for product development and
innovation. It can help to identify areas for improvement, optimize existing designs, and ensure
compatibility between different systems or products. However, it is important to note that
reverse engineering can also raise ethical concerns, particularly if it involves copying or
replicating an existing product without permission from the original designer.it can help to gain
insight into how a product or system was designed, which can be useful for a range of purposes.
For example, it can help to identify areas for improvement or optimization, or it can be used to
create a new product that is based on an existing design and also it can be used to ensure
compatibility between different systems or products. By understanding how a particular system
works, it may be possible to create a new system that is compatible with it, or to modify an
existing system to work with it.

8.2 Future scope

The future of reverse engineering is closely tied to the continuing development of new
technologies and the increasing complexity of modern products and systems. As products and
systems become more complex, the need for reverse engineering is likely to increase, as it
becomes more difficult to understand how they work and how they were designed.it is likely
to shape the future of reverse engineering is the increasing use of 3D printing and other additive
manufacturing technologies. These technologies make it easier to create replicas of existing
products or components, which can be useful for reverse engineering purposes.Overall, the
future of reverse engineering is likely to be shaped by a combination of new technologies and
the increasing complexity of modern products and systems. As the need for reverse engineering
grows, it will become increasingly important for designers and engineers to have the skills and
tools needed to effectively analyze and modify existing designs.
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